Electronic Codebook Book (ECB)

message is broken into independent blocks which are encrypted each block is a value which is substituted, like a codebook, hence name each block is encoded independently of the other blocks
Ci = DESK1 (Pi)

uses: secure transmission of single values

Electronic Codebook Book (ECB)

Advantages and Limitations of ECB

repetitions in message may show in ciphertext
if aligned with message block particularly with data such graphics or with messages that change very little, which become a code-book analysis problem

weakness due to encrypted message blocks being independent main use is sending a few blocks of data

Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)

message is broken into blocks but these are linked together in the encryption operation each previous cipher blocks is chained with current plaintext block, hence name use Initial Vector (IV) to start process
Ci = DESK1(Pi XOR Ci-1) C-1 = IV

uses: bulk data encryption, authentication

Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)

Advantages and Limitations of CBC

each ciphertext block depends on all message blocks thus a change in the message affects all ciphertext blocks after the change as well as the original block need Initial Value (IV) known to sender & receiver
however if IV is sent in the clear, an attacker can change bits of the first block, and change IV to compensate hence either IV must be a fixed value (as in EFTPOS) or it must be sent encrypted in ECB mode before rest of message

at end of message, handle possible last short block

by padding either with known non-data value (eg nulls) or pad last block with count of pad size
eg. [ b1 b2 b3 0 0 0 0 5] <- 3 data bytes, then 5 bytes pad+count

Cipher FeedBack (CFB)

message is treated as a stream of bits added to the output of the block cipher result is feed back for next stage (hence name) standard allows any number of bit (1,8 or 64 or whatever) to be feed back
denoted CFB-1, CFB-8, CFB-64 etc

is most efficient to use all 64 bits (CFB-64)

Ci = Pi XOR DESK1(Ci-1) C-1 = IV

uses: stream data encryption, authentication

Advantages and Limitations of CFB

appropriate when data arrives in bits/bytes most common stream mode limitation is need to stall while do block encryption after every n-bits note that the block cipher is used in encryption mode at both ends errors propogate for several blocks after the error

Output FeedBack (OFB)

message is treated as a stream of bits output of cipher is added to message output is then feed back (hence name) feedback is independent of message can be computed in advance
Ci = Pi XOR Oi Oi = DESK1(Oi-1) O-1 = IV

uses: stream encryption over noisy channels

Output FeedBack (OFB)

Advantages and Limitations of OFB

used when error feedback a problem or where need to encryptions before message is available superficially similar to CFB but feedback is from the output of cipher and is independent of message a variation of a Vernam cipher
hence must never reuse the same sequence (key+IV)

sender and receiver must remain in sync, and some recovery method is needed to ensure this occurs originally specified with m-bit feedback in the standards subsequent research has shown that only OFB-64 should ever be used

Counter (CTR)
a new mode, though proposed early on similar to OFB but encrypts counter value rather than any feedback value must have a different key & counter value for every plaintext block (never reused)
Ci = Pi XOR Oi Oi = DESK1(i)

uses: high-speed network encryptions

Counter (CTR)

Advantages and Limitations of CTR

efficiency
can do parallel encryptions in advance of need good for bursty high speed links

random access to encrypted data blocks provable security (good as other modes) but must ensure never reuse key/counter values, otherwise could break (cf OFB)

Summary
block cipher design principles DES Differential & Linear Cryptanalysis Modes of Operation
ECB, CBC, CFB, OFB, CTR

Finite Fields
Important in cryptography
AES, Elliptic Curve, IDEA, Public Key

Groups, rings, fields from abstract algebra

Group
a set of elements or numbers with some operation whose result is also in the set (closure) obeys:
associative law: (a.b).c = a.(b.c) has identity e: e.a = a.e = a has inverses a-1: a.a-1 = e

if commutative

a.b = b.a

then forms an abelian group

Cyclic Group
define exponentiation as repeated application of operator
example: a-3 = a.a.a

and let identity be: e=a0 a group is cyclic if every element is a power of some fixed element
ie b = ak for some a and every b in group

a is said to be a generator of the group

Ring
a set of numbers with two operations (addition and multiplication) which are: an abelian group with addition operation multiplication:
has closure is associative distributive over addition: a(b+c) = ab + ac

if multiplication operation is commutative, it forms a commutative ring if multiplication operation has inverses and no zero divisors, it forms an integral domain

Field
a set of numbers with two operations:
abelian group for addition abelian group for multiplication (ignoring 0) ring

Modular Arithmetic
define modulo operator a mod n to be remainder when a is divided by n use the term congruence for: a b mod n
when divided by n, a & b have same remainder eg. 100 = 34 mod 11

b is called the residue of a mod n

since with integers can always write: a = qn + b

usually have 0 <= b <= n-1

-12 mod 7 -5 mod 7 2 mod 7 9 mod 7

Modulo 7 Example
... -21 -20 -19 -18 -17 -16 -15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 ...

Divisors
say a non-zero number b divides a if for some m have a=mb (a,b,m all integers) that is b divides into a with no remainder denote this b|a and say that b is a divisor of a eg. all of 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 divide 24

Modular Arithmetic Operations

is 'clock arithmetic' uses a finite number of values, and loops back from either end modular arithmetic is when do addition & multiplication and modulo reduce answer can do reduction at any point, ie
a+b mod n = [a mod n + b mod n] mod n

Modular Arithmetic
can do modular arithmetic with any group of integers: Zn = {0, 1, , n-1} form a commutative ring for addition with a multiplicative identity note some peculiarities
if (a+b)(a+c) mod n then bc mod n but (ab)(ac) mod n then bc mod n only if a is relatively prime to n

Modulo 8 Example

Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

a common problem in number theory GCD (a,b) of a and b is the largest number that divides evenly into both a and b
eg GCD(60,24) = 12

often want no common factors (except 1) and hence numbers are relatively prime
eg GCD(8,15) = 1 hence 8 & 15 are relatively prime

Euclid's GCD Algorithm

an efficient way to find the GCD(a,b) uses theorem that:
GCD(a,b) = GCD(b, a mod b)

Euclid's Algorithm to compute GCD(a,b):

A=a, B=b while B>0
R = A mod B A = B, B = R

return A

Example GCD(1970,1066)
1970 = 1 x 1066 + 904 1066 = 1 x 904 + 162 904 = 5 x 162 + 94 162 = 1 x 94 + 68 94 = 1 x 68 + 26 68 = 2 x 26 + 16 26 = 1 x 16 + 10 16 = 1 x 10 + 6 10 = 1 x 6 + 4 6 = 1 x 4 + 2 4 = 2 x 2 + 0 gcd(1066, 904) gcd(904, 162) gcd(162, 94) gcd(94, 68) gcd(68, 26) gcd(26, 16) gcd(16, 10) gcd(10, 6) gcd(6, 4) gcd(4, 2) gcd(2, 0)

Galois Fields
finite fields play a key role in cryptography can show number of elements in a finite field must be a power of a prime pn known as Galois fields denoted GF(pn) in particular often use the fields:
GF(p) GF(2n)

Galois Fields GF(p)

GF(p) is the set of integers {0,1, , p-1} with arithmetic operations modulo prime p these form a finite field
since have multiplicative inverses

hence arithmetic is well-behaved and can do addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division without leaving the field GF(p)

Example GF(7)

Finding Inverses
can extend Euclids algorithm:
EXTENDED EUCLID(m, b) 1. (A1, A2, A3)=(1, 0, m); (B1, B2, B3)=(0, 1, b) 2. if B3 = 0 return A3 = gcd(m, b); no inverse 3. if B3 = 1 return B3 = gcd(m, b); B2 = b1 mod m 4. Q = A3 div B3 5. (T1, T2, T3)=(A1 Q B1, A2 Q B2, A3 Q B3) 6. (A1, A2, A3)=(B1, B2, B3) 7. (B1, B2, B3)=(T1, T2, T3) 8. goto 2

Inverse of 550 in GF(1759)

Polynomial Arithmetic
can compute using polynomials

several alternatives available

ordinary polynomial arithmetic poly arithmetic with coords mod p poly arithmetic with coords mod p and polynomials mod M(x)

Ordinary Polynomial Arithmetic

add or subtract corresponding coefficients multiply all terms by each other eg
let f(x) = x3 + x2 + 2 and g(x) = x2 x + 1 f(x) + g(x) = x3 + 2x2 x + 3 f(x) g(x) = x3 + x + 1 f(x) x g(x) = x5 + 3x2 2x + 2

Polynomial Arithmetic with Modulo Coefficients

when computing value of each coefficient do calculation modulo some value could be modulo any prime but we are most interested in mod 2
ie all coefficients are 0 or 1 eg. let f(x) = x3 + x2 and g(x) = x2 + x + 1 f(x) + g(x) = x3 + x + 1 f(x) x g(x) = x5 + x2

Modular Polynomial Arithmetic

can write any polynomial in the form:
f(x) = q(x) g(x) + r(x) can interpret r(x) as being a remainder r(x) = f(x) mod g(x)

if have no remainder say g(x) divides f(x) if g(x) has no divisors other than itself & 1 say it is irreducible (or prime) polynomial arithmetic modulo an irreducible polynomial forms a field

Polynomial GCD
can find greatest common divisor for polys
c(x) = GCD(a(x), b(x)) if c(x) is the poly of greatest degree which divides both a(x), b(x) can adapt Euclids Algorithm to find it: EUCLID[a(x), b(x)] 1. A(x) = a(x); B(x) = b(x) 2. 2. if B(x) = 0 return A(x) = gcd[a(x), b(x)] 3. R(x) = A(x) mod B(x) 4. A(x) B(x) 5. B(x) R(x) 6. goto 2

Modular Polynomial Arithmetic

can compute in field GF(2n)
polynomials with coefficients modulo 2 whose degree is less than n hence must reduce modulo an irreducible poly of degree n (for multiplication only)

form a finite field can always find an inverse

can extend Euclids Inverse algorithm to find

Example GF(23)

Computational Considerations
since coefficients are 0 or 1, can represent any such polynomial as a bit string addition becomes XOR of these bit strings multiplication is shift & XOR
cf long-hand multiplication

modulo reduction done by repeatedly substituting highest power with remainder of irreducible poly (also shift & XOR)