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 deep learning
Although the ability to retain, process and project prior experience onto future
situations is indispensable, the human mind also possesses the ability to over-
ride experience and adapt to changing circumstances. Cognitive scientist Stellan
Ohlsson analyzes three types of deep, non-monotonic cognitive change:€creative
insight, adaptation of cognitive skills by learning from errors and conversion from
one belief to another, incompatible belief. For each topic, Ohlsson summarizes
past research, re-formulates the relevant research questions and proposes infor-
mation-processing mechanisms that answer those questions. The three theories
are based on the principles of redistribution of activation, specialization of prac-
tical knowledge and resubsumption of declarative information. Ohlsson develops
the implications of those principles by scaling their consequences with respect
to time, complexity and social interaction. The book ends with a unified theory
of non-monotonic cognitive change that captures the abstract properties that the
three types of change share.

Stellan Ohlsson is Professor of Psychology and Adjunct Professor of Computer

Science at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). He received his Ph.D. in psy-
chology from the University of Stockholm in 1980. He held positions as Research
Associate in the Robotics Institute at Carnegie-Mellon University and as Senior
Scientist in the Learning Research and Development Center at the University of
Pittsburgh before joining UIC in 1996. His work has been supported by the Office
of Naval Research, the National Science Foundation and other organizations.
Dr. Ohlsson has published extensively on computational models of cognition, cre-
ative insight, skill acquisition and the design of instructional software, as well as
other topics in higher cognition.
 Deep Learning
how the mind overrides experience

Stellan Ohlsson
University of Illinois at Chicago
 cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City

Cambridge University Press

32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title:€www.cambridge.org/9780521835688

© Cambridge University Press 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2011

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data

Ohlsson, Stellan.
Deep learning : how the mind overrides experience / Stellan Ohlsson.
p.â•… cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-521-83568-8
1.╇ Learning, Psychology of.╅ 2.╇ Cognitive learning theory.╅ 3.╇ Mind and
body.╅ 4.╇ Experience.╅ I.╇ Title.
bf318.045â•… 2011
153.1′5–dc22â•…â•…â•… 2010030593

isbn 978-0-521-83568-8 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in
this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface page vii

part oneâ•… introduction

1 The Need to Override Experience 3

2 The Nature of the Enterprise 24

part twoâ•… creativity

3 The Production of Novelty 53

4 Creative Insight:€The Redistribution Theory 87
5 Creative Insight Writ Large 130

part threeâ•… adaptation

6 The Growth of Competence 169

7 Error Correction:€The Specialization Theory 205
8 Error Correction in Context 255

part fourâ•… conversion

9 The Formation of Belief 291

10 Belief Revision:€The Resubsumption Theory 329

v
vi Contents

part fiveâ•… conclusion

11 Elements of a Unified Theory 363

12 The Recursion Curse 389

Notes 393
References 455
Name Index 515
Subject Index 519
 Preface

The theme of this book is that human beings possess cognitive processes that
enable them to override the imperatives of past experience and to act and
think in novel ways, and that these processes differ from the types of cognitive
processes usually envisioned in psychological theories of learning. The capa-
bility for what I call deep learning€– or, more precisely, non-monotonic cognitive
change€– constitutes a distinct aspect of mind that follows its own laws and
hence requires its own theory. The book develops this theme by summarizing
and extending prior research by me and others with respect to three specific
types of non-monotonic change:€the creation of novelty; the adaptation of cog-
nitive skills to changing circumstance; and the conversion from one belief to
another, incompatible belief. The book offers novel theories of the mental pro-
cesses operating in each of these three types of cognitive change, as well as a
unified theory that captures the abstract principles that they share.
My interest in creativity, adaptation and conversion preceded my aware-
ness that these topics are variations on a theme. As a graduate student at the
University of Stockholm in the late 1970s, I tried to relate the Gestalt view of
insight to the information-processing theory of problem solving proposed by
A. Newell and H. A. Simon. My first attempt at such a synthesis was published
in 1984, and over the years it morphed into the theory of insight in Chapter 4.
I thank my Ph.D. advisor, Yvonne Waern, for her constant encouragement and
strong support for this as well as other oddball activities, and for managing
a weekly cognitive seminar where her students could argue about cognition.
I fondly remember discussions with Yvonne herself and, among others, Ove
Almkvist, Göran Hagert and Susanne Askvall. Swedish psychologists inter-
ested in cognition formed a small community at that time and I learned from
my interactions with, among others, Carl Martin Allwood, Berndt Brehmer,
Anders Ericsson, Henry Montgomery, Lars-Göran Nilsson, Lennart Nilsson,
Rolf Sandell and Ola Svensson.

vii
viii Preface

Modern work on skill acquisition began with a 1979 article by Y. Anzai and
H. A. Simon at Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU). They reported a computer
simulation model of a single subject learning a new problem-solving strategy.
As a graduate student, I had the opportunity to visit CMU in the fall of 1978,
at the very moment when this line of work began. Anders Ericsson, a fellow
graduate student from Stockholm, was already at CMU as a post-�doctoral Fel�
low, and I thank him for his generosity in letting me stay at his house for sev-
eral months. I appreciate the willingness of CMU faculty members John€ R.
Anderson, David Klahr, Allen Newell, Lynn Reder, Robert Siegler, Herbert A.
Simon and their students and associates€ – including Patrick Langley, David
Neves, John Laird and Paul Rosenbloom€– to engage intellectually with a stu-
dent visitor. Pat in particular took me under his wing. We spent many hours
debating computational models of skill acquisition, and our collaboration
continues to this day. The multiple-mechanism theory of adaptation presented
in Chapter 6 is a descendant of those discussions.
My work acquired an educational aspect during my years as Senior
Scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center (LRDC) at the
University of Pittsburgh. I continued work on insight in collaboration with
Jonathan Schooler, which resulted in a widely cited paper on the relation
between insight and language. During those years my work on skill acquisition
led to the theory of learning from error that is the centerpiece of Chapter€7. I
also branched out into research on intelligent tutoring systems. Pat Langley
and I had previously investigated the application of machine learning tech-
niques to the problem of online diagnosis of student errors, but my under-
standing of tutoring systems was much improved at LRDC by discussions and
collaborations with Jeffrey Bonar, Bruce Buchanan, Alan Lesgold, Johanna
Moore and Kurt VanLehn. My collaboration with Bruce and Johanna on
the automatic generation of explanations for medical patients strengthened
my long-�standing interest in the philosophy of explanation. The reader will
encounter this topic in Chapter 2.
The focus on explanation led in turn to an interest in the nature of declar-
ative knowledge generally. My understanding of this topic owes much to inter-
actions with Michelene (“Micki”) Chi, James Greeno, Lauren Resnick, James
Voss and others. The years at LRDC touched other aspects of my professional
development as well. From Glynda Hull I learned that the prose of scholarly
texts does not have to be dull and boring, and I hope the reader can see the
effects of this lesson in the present book. From Gaia Leinhardt I learned to
respect the skills of classroom teachers. Robert Glaser and Lauren Resnick
taught me the elements of grantsmanship. There was a steady stream of visitors
 Preface ix

passing through LRDC. Andreas Ernst, a student from Germany, now pro-
fessor of environmental systems analysis at the University of Kassel, spent a
year with me teaching cognitive skills to the HS simulation model that stars
in Chapters 7 and 8. My interactions with Erno Lehtinen provided an oppor-
tunity to think through the function of abstraction in declarative knowledge.
Similarly, I benefited from my conversations with David Perkins, then and in
later visits with his group at Harvard University. During the LRDC years, I was
privileged to have Nancy Bee, Ernest Rees and James J. Jewett working with me
in their various capacities. I thank John Anderson, Micki Chi, Susan Chipman
and Lauren Resnick for their assistance at a crucial moment in my career.
When I moved to the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) in 1996 I
continued all three lines of research. Guenther Knoblich, then a graduate stu-
dent at the Max Planck Institute in Munich, Germany, spent the better part
of a year with me in Chicago. We pushed the theory of insight beyond what I
had been able to do in previous publications, and we conducted experiments
to support it. The theory in Chapter 4 is a revised version of the cognitive
mechanisms we identified. Our experimental work benefited from our col-
laboration with my UIC colleague Gary Raney, who contributed his expertise
in eye-tracking methodology. I thank Guenther for arranging an opportunity
to continue this work during a six-week visit to the Max Planck Institute in the
spring of 1998, and Institute Director Professor Wolfgang Prinz for his support
and hospitality.
My work on the design of intelligent tutoring systems for cognitive skills
has advanced in two important ways at UIC. The first advance occurred
when I was contacted in 1996 by Antonija (“Tanja”) Mitrovic, a computer
scientist who was in the process of escaping strife in her former homeland
and re-�settling herself and her family in New Zealand. Tanja wanted to use
the theory of constraint-based learning from error that the reader finds in
Chapter€ 7 to guide the design of intelligent tutoring systems. Tanja is now
a leading researcher in that field, and I thank her for the thrill of seeing the
ideas we talked about become real in the series of intelligent tutoring sys-
tems that she and her co-workers and students have produced at Canterbury
University in New Zealand. The second important advance was the arrival at
UIC of Barbara Di Eugenio, a computational linguist with expertise in tutor-
ing whom I already knew from LRDC. We have studied tutorial dialogues in
order to base the design of tutoring systems on a solid empirical basis. The all-
too-brief statement about the application of the constraint-based approach
to tutoring in Chapter 7 summarizes a few of the insights gained through my
collaborations with Tanja and Barbara and their students.
x Preface

At UIC, I have had multiple opportunities to develop my interest in the

nature of declarative knowledge. Andrew Johnson, Jason Leigh and Thomas
Moher are three UIC computer scientists who specialize in virtual reality and
related technologies. Together we built and field tested a learning environment
for teaching children that the Earth is spherical rather than flat. The instruc-
tional intervention was not as powerful as we had hoped, but the design and
data collection stimulated our thinking about the nature of declarative knowl-
edge and belief. My interest in the philosophy of explanation has also benefited
from discussions with Nicholas Huggett, Jon Jarrett and Colin Klein, col-
leagues in the philosophy department at UIC. Micki Chi invited me in 2004 to
co-author a review paper that summarized the cognitive mechanisms behind
the acquisition of complex declarative knowledge. That effort stimulated me to
develop a new theory of belief revision. I thank Gale Sinatra for encouraging
me to put that theory in writing, and for making room for it in the pages of
the Educational Psychologist. The reader will find the current version of that
theory in Chapter 10.
Like many other cognitive scientists, I often find it difficult to explain to
people in other professions what I do for a living. One defense against such
social embarrassment is to talk about the implications of cognitive science for
everyday life. The question arises as to what those implications are. How do
the consequences of cognitive processes scale up to long periods of time and
across levels of complexity? Do the details of individual cognition matter for
the groups, teams and organization in which human beings normally oper-
ate? These questions have stimulated my interest in computer simulation of
the connection between individual and social cognition. Two UIC colleagues
stand out as sources of inspiration in this regard. Siddartha Bhattacharyya and
I have collaborated on a computer model of social creativity using a technique
called agent-based modeling. My understanding of this enterprise has been
greatly advanced by interactions with my colleague James Larson, a social psy-
chologist whose experiments are as elegant as his simulation models of group
decision making and problem solving. What I have learned from these col-
leagues has informed my treatment of the relations between the individual and
the collective in Chapters 5 and 8.
Throughout my years at UIC, I have had the privilege of working with a
large group of graduate students:€Bettina Chow, Andrew Corrigan-Halpern,
David Cosejo, Thomas Griffin, Joshua Hemmerich, Trina Kershaw, Timothy
Nokes, Justin Oesterreich, Mark Orr, Shamus Regan and Robert Youmans. The
reader will see glimpses of their work here and there throughout the book. I
thank each and every one of them for our many stimulating discussions.
 Preface xi

Pursuing the three topics of insight, skill acquisition and belief revision in
parallel over multiple years inevitably led to the question of how these three
types of cognitive change are related. In the 1990s, I became fascinated by the
complex systems revolution that swept through both the natural and the social
sciences, and it dawned on me that this new view of reality directly impacts my
own work:€If both nature and society are chaotic, complex and turbulent, then
how must the mind be designed to enable people to function in that kind of
world? The question led to a different synthesis of my three interests from any
that I had envisioned previously.
A 2004 sabbatical year at the Computer Science Department at
Canterbury University in New Zealand provided the opportunity to attempt
a synthesis. I thank the Erskine Foundation for the fellowship that made this
visit possible. I thank my friend and colleague Tanja Mitovic, department
head Timothy Bell and the staff of the Erskine Foundation for bearing the
burden of the paperwork and the other practical arrangements associated
with my visit. As befitting the laptop lifestyle of the contemporary era, this
book was written in coffee shops rather than in offices. The first draft was
hammered out in a charming café in the Cashmere Hills, just southwest of
the Canterbury plain, called, appropriately enough, The Cup, while the inev-
itable rewriting was done in Starbucks and Barnes & Noble coffee shops in
the Gold Coast neighborhood of Chicago. I thank the staff at these places for
their friendliness, their patience with a customer who never leaves, and their
diligence in keeping those cappuccinos coming. In the course of my writing,
colleagues at UIC and elsewhere who have helped by responding to various
questions and requests for comments and materials include John Anderson,
Tibor Bosse, Daniel Cervone, William Clancey, Stephanie Doane, Renee
Elio, Susan Goldman, David Hilbert, Ben Jee, Jim Larson, Michael Levine,
Matthew Lund, James MacGregor, Clark Lee Merriam of the Cousteau
Society, Thomas Ormerod, David Perkins, Michael Ranney, Steven Smith,
Terri Thorkildsen, Jan Treur, Endel Tulving, Jos Uffink, David Wirtshafter
and Beverly Woolf.
The specific investigations that underpin the theoretical formulations in
this book were made possible primarily by grants from the Office of Naval
Research (ONR). Very special thanks to Susan Chipman, who as program offi-
cer dealt with 20 years’ worth of grant proposals with analytical acumen, broad
knowledge of the field, much good advice and some mercy. In addition, I have
been the grateful recipient of grants from the National Science Foundation
(NSF) and the Office for Educational Research and Improvement (OERI).
Seed grants from UIC helped get some of these investigations under way.
xii Preface

Throughout the six years of writing this book, the staff at Cambridge
University Press has been patient, to say the least, with my repeatedly post-
poned deadlines. I thank the editors, the copy editor and the members of the
production department for their work in bringing the manuscript through the
production process. I have Deborah Roach to thank for the jacket photo.
Although an author of this kind of book has many people to thank, writ-
ing is a solitary endeavor for which all the rewards arrive well after the work
is done. As the work stretches over multiple years, moments arrive when it is
difficult to sustain belief in the enterprise. I thank my wife, Elaine C. Ohlsson,
for her upbeat encouragement and her unwavering belief that the book would
one day be done, and that it would be worth the sacrifice of the many hours we
could have spent together if I had not been glued to my keyboard.
I have benefited from my interactions with all the individuals mentioned
here and with many others. I am solely responsible for the use I have made of
what I have learned, and any errors and mistakes, conceptual or technical, are
entirely my own.

This book can be read in different modes. It can be read as a review of research
in the three areas of creativity, skill acquisition and belief revision. The reader
in this mode should be forewarned that Chapters 3, 6 and 9 are not neutral
summaries. They are designed to lead the reader to the conclusion that exist-
ing theories are insufficient to answer the relevant questions, and thereby pre-
pare the ground for my own theoretical proposals. That said, I have tried to
mention every good idea that I have encountered in 35 years of reading the
cognitive research literature, and I believe the book could serve as the text for
a graduate seminar on cognitive change. Readers in this mode are encour-
aged to pay attention to the notes; I put most of the history and background
material there. Regarding issues in human cognition, I cite original research
articles. Regarding matters outside my specialty, I allow myself to cite second-
ary sources. I believe that a newcomer to the study of cognitive change has no
need to repeat my extensive idea mining of the cognitive literature, but can
take the present book as his* starting point and move forward, but perhaps
that is an author’s conceit.
A second reading mode is to focus on the technical contributions, that
is, the three specific theories proposed in Chapters 4, 7 and 10, and to evalu-
ate each on its own terms as a contribution to the relevant research area. This

* For brevity and elegance of expression, I use “he,” “his” throughout as synonyms
for “he or she,” “his or her.” This is a stylistic choice and not a statement about
gender.
 Preface xiii

mode will be natural for cognitive psychologists. Readers in this mode will
find that I emphasize the theoretical ideas themselves and use the broader
canvas of a book to discuss them in more detail than can be fitted into the
standard research article. My goal throughout has been conceptual clarity and
deep explanation, not coverage of laboratory findings.
In a third mode, the reader would focus on the goal of understanding
non-monotonic change as a category of cognitive change that poses unique
theoretical puzzles and therefore requires its own principles and explanatory
schemas. In this reading mode, the synthesis of the three theories into a uni-
fied theory in Chapter 11 is the most important contribution of the book.
The core contributions are necessarily technical in nature, but I have tried
to write in such a way that an educated layperson can read this book as an
extended reflection on the turbulence of the human condition. My ambition
has been to write the kind of book I enjoy reading:€A serious contribution to
science that spells out the broader implications of the research for everyday life.
Readers in this mode might want to skim the central sections of Chapters€4, 7
and 10, but I hope they enjoy the rest of the book.
For very busy people, there is yet another way to approach this book:€Read
the first sentence of Chapter 1 and the last sentence of Chapter 12, and post-
pone the stuff in between until after retirement.

The Gold Coast, Chicago

May 2010
deep learning
 Pa rt one

Introduction
1

The Need to Override Experience

Upon those who step into the same stream ever different waters flow.
Heraclitus1

Nothing so like as eggs, yet no one, on account of this appearing similarity, expects
the same taste and relish in all of them.
David Hume2

Life is change. Natural forces continuously knead our material environment as

if it were so much dough in the cosmic bakery, and few features of our social
environment remain constant for even one generation. How do human beings
live in ubiquitous change? How do we cope with, and adapt to changes in our
environment? How do we initiate change and create novelty? Due to late 20th-
century advances in the natural sciences, these questions are more difficult to
answer than they once seemed.
Few changes are so beguiling to children, poets and whomever else has the
good sense to stop and look as a change of season. In four-season climes, the visual
transformation of the landscape as the dominant color moves from green to red
and on to white is stunning. The spectacle of an early autumn snowstorm must
have overwhelmed the first band of hunter-gatherers to push north into a temper-
ate climate zone and convinced them that their world was coming to an end.
Yet, children, poets and hunter-gatherers are wrong; striking as it is, sea-
sonal change is no change. Winter displaces summer, true enough; but after
winter, summer returns, and all is as it was. The change is cyclic, hence stable;
hence not a change. The world remains constant; it is merely going through
motions. According to this view, change is an illusion because the fabric of
reality is a weave of eternal laws of nature.
It follows that creatures who can remember, reason, imagine and
plan can€ respond to the superficial changes by accumulating experiences,

3
4 Introduction

extracting the underlying regularities, projecting them forward in time

and acting �accordingly. To survive, the hunter-gatherers only needed to see
through the transient snowstorm to the repeating sequence of seasons, pre-
dict the return of summer and stockpile food. This picture of the interlock
between world and mind has dominated Western intellectual traditions since
the beginning of written scholarship.
As it turns out, this picture is a mirage. We live in a world in which change
is no illusion. Adaptation to this world requires cognitive capabilities over and
beyond those implied by the traditional view.

A CLOCK SO TURBULENT
Since the scientific revolution of the 17th century, the natural sciences have
scored astonishing successes by viewing nature as an unchanging machine, a
kaleidoscope that generates shifting appearances.3 Searching behind the com-
plex appearances of the night sky, astronomers found a simple geometric sys-
tem of spheres traveling around the sun in elliptical orbits that are fixed by
eternal laws and universal constants.4 The changes in the night sky from dusk
to dawn, from day to day and from month to month are clearly visible and yet
no changes at all, merely the way the stable planetary system looks from the
limited perspective of an earthbound observer.
On the surface of the Earth, pendulums, projectiles and pulleys turned out
to be understandable as instances of a single category of mechanical motion.5
All such motion is shaped by the constant force of gravity. Over time, physi-
cists came to realize that an observer has a choice of reference frame and that
an object that appears to be in motion within one frame appears to be at rest in
another. Hence, motion€– a change of place€– is not a genuine change, but the
way an object appears from certain points of view. Reality is captured in the
mathematical equations that specify the translation from one frame of refer-
ence to another, and those equations are invariant.
Astronomy and physics are not the only success stories in the search for
unchanging regularities. Looking behind the multitude of material substances,
each with its own color, melting point, smell, taste, texture, weight and so on,
chemists also found a simple system consisting of a short list of building blocks,
the atomic elements, and a handful of mechanisms€– the co-valent bond, Van der
Waals forces€– for combining them into larger structures, molecules, that deter-
mine the observable properties of material substances.6 A chemical reaction might
transform its reactants into very different substances and yet there is no funda-
mental change, only a rearrangement of the eternal building blocks.
 The Need to Override Experience 5

12

9 3

Figure 1.1.╇ For clockwork systems, past behavior can be extrapolated into the
future.

In these and other scientific breakthroughs, Nature appears as a clock, a

machine that endlessly repeats the same movements. Figure 1.1 illustrates the
analogy. The movements drive superficial events like the successive displace-
ments of a clock’s hands or the successive phases of the moon, but the under-
lying machinery does not change. Quoting science pioneers Robert Boyle,
René Descartes and Johannes Kepler, historian Steven Shapin writes:€“Of all
the mechanical constructions whose characteristics might serve as a model for
the natural world, it was the clock more than any other that appealed to many
early modern natural philosophers.”7
Scientists found that they could describe clockwork nature with linear dif-
ferential equations, a mathematical tool for deriving the future state of a sys-
tem, given two pieces of information:€the current state of the system and the
equations that describe how each property of the system is related to its other
properties. Time plays an important role in such equations, but it is symmetri-
cal between past and future. The physicist’s equations can be used to calculate
the position of the moon a hundred years ago as easily as to predict its position
a hundred years hence. Because nothing truly changes in a clockwork world,
past and future are mirror images.
The success of this approach to nature compelled scientists to regard natu-
ral systems that can be understood from within the clockwork mind-set as
prototypical models of nature. Systems with a transparent link between the
changing appearances and the underlying mechanism became scientific show-
cases, dooming generations of schoolchildren to the study of pendulums, pro-
jectiles and batteries hooked up to lightbulbs. The clockwork model was so
successful that little importance was attached to the fact that not every natural
system conforms. A system that did not behave like a clock was assumed to
represent either a temporary state of ignorance about how to analyze it or an
unimportant or peripheral part of nature.
In the last two decades of the 20th century, scientists surprised everyone,
including themselves, by formulating a fundamentally different view of material
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