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A cross the G re e n Sea
Connected Histories of the Middle East and the Global South
Afshin Marashi and Houri Berberian, Series Editors
 Across the Green Sea
Histories from the Western Indian Ocean, 1440–1640

Sa n jay
S u b r a h m a n ya m

University of Texas Press

Austin
 Copyright © 2024 by Sanjay Subrahmanyam
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First edition, 2024

Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work

should be sent to:
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L I B R A RY C O N G R E S S C ATA LO G I N G - I N -P U B L I C AT I O N D ATA
OF
Names: Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, author.
Title: Across the Green Sea : histories from the western Indian Ocean, 1440-
1640 / Sanjay Subrahmanyam.
Description: First edition. | Austin : University of Texas Press, 2024. | Series:
Connected histories of the Middle East and the Global South | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers:
LCCN 2023033196 (print)
LCCN 2023033197 (ebook)
ISBN 978-1-4773-2877-4 (cloth)
ISBN 978-1-4773-2878-1 (pdf )
ISBN 978-14773-2879-8 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Indian Ocean Region—History—15th century. | Indian
Ocean Region—History—16th century. | Indian Ocean Region—History—
17th century. | Indian Ocean—Navigation—History—15th century. | Indian
Ocean—Navigation—History—16th century. | Indian Ocean—Navigation—
History—17th century.
Classification: LCC DS336 .S83 2024 (print) | LCC DS336 (ebook) | DDC
909/.0982405—dc23/eng/20230809
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doi:10.7560/328774
 For Saddy
Who left us much too soon

Between my finger and my thumb

The squat pen rests.
I’ll dig with it.
Seamus Heaney
 Contents

List of Map s ix

List of I llu str ation s xi

P reface xiii

A Note on Tr ansliter ati on xvii

A Note on Curr en cy an d Ton nag e xix

Int ro d uc tion : Conceptual Issues in Connected Histories 1

C h apter 1. An Epoch of Transitions, 1440–1520 25

C h apt er 2. The View from the Hijaz, 1500–1550 95

Chapter 3. The Afro-Indian Axis 133

Chapter 4. The View from Surat 161

A C onclu s ion : Toward Polyphonic Histories 203

Notes 217

I n dex 263
 Maps

Map 1. Hurmuz and the Persian Gulf 6

Map 2. The western Indian Ocean 27
Map 3. Coastal East Africa 70
Map 4. Daman and South Gujarat 150
Map 5. The city of Surat 176

ix
 Illustrations

Figure 1.1. Illustration from a Gujarat Sikandar Nama, ca. 1500. 58

Figure 1.2. Arabic letter from the Swahili coast. 74
Figure 2.1. Port of Jiddah as drawn by Gaspar Correia, Lendas da Índia. 106
Figure 2.2. Port of Suakin drawn by Dom João de Castro. 124
Figure 3.1. Sidi Bashir Mosque at Ahmedabad. 148
Figure 3.2 Inscription of Malik ‘Ambar, Antur Fort. 155
Figure 3.3. Portrait of Ikhlas Khan Habshi with a petition. 157
Figure 4.1. C. H. Braad’s plan of Surat. 175
Figure 4.2. Surat in an eighteenth-century Indian cloth map. 181
Figure 4.3. Krishna devotion in Boullaye’s text. 196

xi
 Preface

M aritime history has been a central focus of my work from

the very beginning of my publishing career as a historian in
the mid-1980s. This was the same period when I had my first
proper exposure to the maritime dimension of India, which until that
point had largely been restricted to periodic summer visits as a child to
Chennai (Madras) and strolls at sunset on Marina Beach by Gandhi’s
statue, accompanied at times with a strong smell of drying fish. While
doing the archival research for my doctoral dissertation I returned sev-
eral times to Mumbai (Bombay), staying on the splendid campus of
the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research thanks to dear friend Kapil
Paranjape, and to Goa, staying in Panaji’s Altinho district. The significant
difference between the life of a maritime urban center and one in the
interior, which I had grasped earlier as a mere bookish idea, became far
clearer to me as an existential proposition. Since that time, I have come
back periodically to the Indian west coast, especially for some memora-
ble visits to Kerala in the company of historians rooted in that region, as
well as to diverse sites on the Bay of Bengal, on the east coast, ranging
from Puri to Tarangambadi. It has also been my privilege to have seen
the western Indian Ocean from a very different viewpoint while visiting
the island of Réunion for lectures and seminars in September 2008.
When Houri Berberian and Afshin Marashi invited me to submit a
book for their new series “Connected Histories of the Middle East and
the Global South,” from the University of Texas Press, there was an obvi-
ous temptation to turn to the western Indian Ocean as a subject. I had
been exploring different aspects of the maritime region in the past two
decades in a variety of ways in my research, whether it was Gujarat,
Goa, Kerala, East Africa, the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf. Whenever I

xiii
turned to these subjects, my thoughts were drawn to a group of French
scholars who had played an important role in my early career in the
late 1980s and 1990s. The youngest of them, Denys Lombard, had not
really worked on the western Indian Ocean but was instead a scholar
of maritime Southeast Asia. In that capacity, he helped found an impor-
tant journal, Archipel, and wrote significant monographic works on Aceh
and Java, besides editing some crucial texts such as the travel account of
Augustin de Beaulieu. A second figure was Geneviève Bouchon, who
wrote on both Kerala and coastal Sri Lanka at the beginning of the six-
teenth century and went on to publish several significant documents
from the early years of the Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean.
But the most formidable personality in the group was Jean Aubin, who
began his career as a historian of medieval Central Asia and Iran but was
then progressively drawn into studying the Indian Ocean of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries. Aubin was never attracted to the monograph as
a form, and he much preferred the essay; he also edited several intriguing
texts in both Persian and Portuguese. I knew him well in the last decade
of his life before his untimely death in January 1998 (a mere two weeks
after that of Lombard), and I treasure our conversations and the advice
and comments he gave me on my drafts, usually written in his minute
and meticulous hand. In the last years, aware of his unreliable health, he
sometimes spoke of drawing his scattered works together and eventu-
ally published the first volume of what became a trilogy, Le Latin et l’as-
trolabe, of which the last two volumes were published posthumously. It
was my privilege, albeit an increasingly sad one, to be the discussant for
the release of each of these volumes in Paris at the Calouste Gulbenkian
Foundation. Over the years, Aubin’s influence on Indian Ocean studies
has grown in some circles through the Portuguese historian Luís Filipe
Thomaz, Aubin’s close associate, and Thomaz’s students in Lisbon. On
the other hand, one has the impression that with the passage of time
Aubin’s work has been progressively neglected in the world of Anglo-
phone scholarship, something Aubin feared might in fact be the case.
A good part of this book was written in Covid times, during which
the companionship of Caroline Ford was indispensable for me. These
years have been a rough ride, with both our neighborly and our profes-
sional milieu having deteriorated, a tendency notably exacerbated by the
growing hold of unfortunate forms of identity politics and social media
in our times. It will probably be diplomatic to pass in silence over the
attitude of my home department leadership and the university admin-
istration in this context. On the other hand, I have had reason to appre-
ciate those colleagues and friends who have held on to their sanity and

xiv / Preface
sense of humor, even when they have been my interlocutors at a distance.
In no particular order other than an alphabetical one, my thanks go to
Ned Alpers, Francisco Apellániz, Jyoti Gulati Balachandran, Evrim Bin-
baş, Guy Burak, Subah Dayal, Malika Dekkiche, Indravati Félicité, Jorge
Flores, Naveen Kanalu, Arash Khazeni, Mike Laffan, the late Pier Larson,
Giuseppe Marcocci, Roxani Margariti, Claude Markovits, Søren Mentz,
Hiromu Nagashima, Mike O’Sullivan, Keelan Overton, Kaya Şahin, and
Tunç Şen. A special word of recognition for the late Cornell Fleischer and
Cemal Kafadar, friends and colleagues of very long standing, who were
my coauthors in relation to the #Selimgate affair in Ottoman and global
history in 2020, when so many of our fellow historians simply failed to
rise to the occasion. To these names I will add three elder statesmen: Saul
Friedländer, Carlo Ginzburg, and Velcheru Narayana Rao, whose intel-
lectual company has ever been a delight. As usual, Muzaffar Alam collab-
orated generously with me on several projects, the results of which have
been regularly employed in this work, and I thank him profoundly for his
help and intellectual companionship. I am also grateful to Bill Nelson,
who prepared the maps with his customary efficiency.
It remains difficult to come to terms with the loss of my close friend
and long-term intellectual conversation partner Sunil Kumar, who left
us in January 2021. He loved the craft of history as he loved walking
through and savoring the sights of his difficult city (and to a lesser extent
mine) of Delhi in the company of friends and students. I still feel his
warm hand on my shoulder and believe he would have enjoyed this
book, which reflects so many discussions, both serious and frivolous, we
had over the years.

Preface / xv
 A Note on Transliteration

T he linguistic complexity of the western Indian Ocean as a region

poses challenges to the historian in terms of schemes of trans-
literation to be used. Diacritical marks have generally been dis-
pensed within this book. For Persian and Arabic, a slightly modified form
of the Steingass system is used here: Nur-ud-Din rather than Nur al-Din,
Abu’l Fazl rather than Abu al-Fadl, and so on. Apostrophes and single
opening quotation marks are used for hamzas and ayns, respectively.
The normal modern conventions are in use for the occasional citations
from Ottoman Turkish. For Indian languages, standard transliteration is
followed, without diacritics for consonants, and long (and short) vowels
are also not marked.

xvii
 A Note on Currency and Tonnage

A number of different currencies and measures of weight and

shipping tonnage are referred to in this book. The currencies
vary somewhat in their values over time. The equivalences pre-
sented below are therefore only by way of indication.

1 real de a ocho = 40 Ottoman akçe (ca. 1550)

1 cruzado = 420 reis (1554)
1 pardau = 300 reis (1554)
1 xerafim = 300 reis
1 Muzaffari tanka = 0.6 Mughal rupees
1 Mughal rupee = 2 xerafins (ca. 1650)
1 Mughal rupee = 2.4 mahmudis (1620)
1 real de a ocho = 2 Mughal rupees (ca. 1615)
1 Mughal rupee = 1.2 Dutch florins (24 stuivers) (ca. 1620)
1 quintal = 51.4 kilograms
1 bahar (Kochi) = 166 kilograms (1554)
1 bahar (Kannur) = 206 kilograms (1554)
1 khandi (Goa) = 220 kilograms (1554)
1 khandi (Chaul) = 235 kilograms (1554)
1 tonel (Portuguese) = 877 liters
1 tonneau (French) = 1,440 liters

xix
A cross the G re e n Sea
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