PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT 2025-26

STUDENT PROFILE

NAME : MANGLAM
CLASS : XII – TATTAVA [SCIENCE STREAM]
ROLL NO : 13
SUBJECT : PHYSICS
SUB CODE : 042
SCHOOL : GURUKUL HIGH SCHOOL

Teacher’s Signature Student’s Signature

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the investigatory project entitled

“__________________________________” is a bona fide work of
“_________________________” (Roll No: _______________), a student of
Class XII – Tattava [Science Stream], Gurukul High School, Bengaluru.

This project has been carried out under my supervision in partial fulfilment of
the requirements of the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) for the
Physics Practical Examination of Class XII (Code: 042) for the Academic
Year 2025–26.

Signature of External Examiner Signature of Teacher In charge:

Name: _______________________ Name: ______________________

Examiner Number: _______________

Signature of Principal

Name: _______________________

School Seal:

Date:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to everyone

who has played a significant role in the successful completion of my physics
project. It is with deep appreciation that I acknowledge the guidance and support
provided by my respected Physics Teacher, Mrs. Smitha Santhosh Nair. Her
expertise and unwavering support were instrumental in helping me complete this
project within the specified time frame.

I am equally grateful to my institution Gurukul High School, J.P. Nagar,

Bangalore and my school principal Dr. Gowri Prabha Prasad for providing the
necessary resources and creating an environment conducive to project
development.

I am also the other staff members of my school for their constant guidance,
vigilance and support. The combined contributions of all these individuals have
made this project a reality, and I am truly thankful for their support.

I’d like to extend my sincere gratitude to my parents and family members for their
constant support throughout this project. Their encouragement and understanding
of the subject matter were invaluable. I’d also like to thank my friends for their
constant encouragement and collaborative efforts, which significantly
contributed to making this project a success.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SL PAGE
DESCRIPTION
NO NO

01 OBJECTIVES/ AIM OF THE PROJECT 6

02 INTRODUCTION/ THEORY 7

03 MATERIALS REQUIRED 8

04 PROCEDURE 9

05 OBSERVATION/ RESULT 10

06 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 11

07 LIMITATION 12

08 PRECAUTION 13

09 CONCLUSION 14

10 Characteristics 15

11 DIAGRAMS / GRAPHS 20

12 BIBLIOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES 22

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1. OBJECTIVES / AIM OF THE PROJECT:

To study the behaviour of AC circuits containing resistors (R), inductors

(L), and capacitors (C).

To determine impedance, reactance, resonance frequency, and power factor

in RL, RC, and RLC circuits.

To examine the relationship between current, voltage, and phase angle in

AC circuits.

To verify the condition of resonance in series RLC circuits.

To analyze and compare experimental and theoretical results.

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2. INTRODUCTION/ THEORY

Alternating current (AC) changes its direction and magnitude periodically with
time. In AC circuits, the presence of inductors and capacitors introduces
reactance that affects the phase relationship between voltage and current.

Impedance in AC Circuits:

Resistor (R): Current and voltage are in phase.

Inductor (L): Voltage leads current by 90°
Capacitor (C): Current leads voltage by 90°

For a series RLC circuit, total impedance is: Z=R2+(XL−XC)2

Z=√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)2

At resonance, XL=XC so impedance Z=RZ = RZ=R and current is maximum.

Resonant frequency is:
1
f0=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Basic AC Equation
V = VO sin (𝜔𝑡)

I = IO sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

where

 Vo = peak voltage
 Io = peak current
 ω= 2πf = angular frequency
 ϕ = phase difference between voltage and current

Pure Resistive Circuit (R): Pure Inductive Circuit (L):

𝐷𝐼
V = IR V=L
𝐷𝑇

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3. MATERIALS REQUIRED

AC Function Generator

Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor

Connecting wires & Breadboard

Voltmeter and Ammeter (AC)

CRO or DSO

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4. PROCEDURE

Connect the RL, RC, and RLC circuits as per the circuit diagram.

Apply a sinusoidal voltage from the function generator.

Measure current and voltages for different frequencies.

Note readings of current, voltage, and frequency.

Plot Current vs Frequency graph and find the resonance point.

Calculate impedance, phase angle, and power factor.

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5. OBSERVATION/ RESULT

At low frequencies, the circuit behaves capacitive, and the current is small.

At high frequencies, the circuit behaves inductive, and the current again
decreases.

The current is maximum at a particular frequency called the resonance

frequency (f₀).

The impedance (Z) of the circuit is minimum at resonance and equals the
resistance (R).

The phase difference (ϕ) between voltage and current becomes zero at
resonance.

The power factor (cos ϕ) is unity (1) at resonance, indicating maximum

power transfer.

The current vs frequency graph shows a sharp peak at resonance, verifying

the resonance condition.

Hence, the experiment successfully demonstrates the frequency-dependent

behaviour of AC circuits.

OBSERVATION TABEL

Type of Voltage Current Phase Nature of

Remark
Circuit (V) (A) Angle (°) Relation
Power
Resistive (R) 10 0.05 0° In phase
consumed
Power
Inductive (L) 10 0.03 90° (lag) Current lags
reactive
Power
Capacitive (C) 10 0.04 90° (lead) Current leads
reactive
LCR Maximum
10 0.06 0° In phase
(Resonance) current

Result:
At resonance, impedance is minimum and current is maximum. The frequency
1
at which resonance occurs is given by: F =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

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6. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

he experiment shows that impedance (Z) depends on frequency due to the

presence of L and C.

The current increases with frequency in capacitive circuits and decreases in

inductive circuits.

In an RLC series circuit, both effects combine to produce a resonance curve.

At resonance, XL=XC, and the impedance is minimum (Z=R).

The current is maximum at resonance, confirming theoretical predictions.

The phase angle (ϕ) changes from leading (capacitive) to lagging (inductive)
through zero at resonance.

The power factor is maximum (unity) at resonance, showing efficient

energy transfer.

The experiment successfully demonstrates the frequency-dependent nature

of AC circuits.

Results are consistent with standard AC circuit theory and practical

electrical applications.

Graph:

 Plot current (I) vs frequency (f) for LCR circuit.

 The graph shows a sharp peak at resonance frequency.

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7. LIMITATION

Small errors occur due to inaccuracies in measuring current and voltage.

The connecting wires and instruments add resistance and inductance,

affecting results slightly.

Power supply fluctuations may alter the resonance point during readings.

Parasitic capacitance and inductance in the circuit may shift resonance

frequency slightly.

The experiment was limited to low-frequency AC range due to lab

equipment constraints.

Observations depend on the precision of the function generator and

measuring meters.

Slight heating of the coil may change its resistance during long experiments.

Theoretical and experimental results may not exactly match due to

environmental factors.

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8. PRECAUTION

All circuit connections should be tight and correct before switching on the
power.

The apparatus should be checked for zero errors before taking readings.

Keep the supply voltage constant during the experiment.

Do not exceed the rated current of the inductor and capacitor.

Use properly calibrated voltmeter and ammeter for accurate results.

Take multiple readings and calculate the mean values to minimize error.

Ensure there are no loose connections in the breadboard or wires.

Disconnect the power supply after completing the experiment.

Handle electronic components carefully to prevent damage.

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9 . CONCLUSION

The experiment verifies the theoretical behavior of AC circuits containing

R, L, and C components.

The resonance phenomenon was clearly observed in the RLC series circuit.

At resonance, impedance was minimum and current reached a maximum

value.

The experimental resonance frequency closely matched the theoretical

value.

The power factor became unity, confirming efficient power transfer.

The phase relationship between voltage and current changed as expected.

The project demonstrates practical applications of AC circuit theory in

radios, filters, and tuning devices.

The investigation successfully proves that resonance plays a key role in AC

circuit behavior.

Overall, the project provides a clear understanding of impedance, reactance,

and resonance in alternating current systems.

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10. Characteristics Various AC Circuits

1. Pure Resistive Circuit (R)

 Voltage and current are in phase.

 The impedance (Z) equals resistance RRR.

Z=R

 Power factor (cos φ) = 1, meaning all the supplied power is consumed as

heat.
 Graph: A straight line relationship between voltage and current.

2. Pure Inductive Circuit (L)

 The current lags the voltage by 90°.

 The opposition to AC is due to inductive reactance (Xₗ):

XL= ω L = 2πf L

 As frequency increases, current decreases.

 Power factor (cos φ) = 0, meaning no real power is consumed — power
is reactive.
 Graph: Current decreases with increasing frequency.

3. Pure Capacitive Circuit (C)

 The current leads the voltage by 90°.

 The opposition to AC is due to capacitive reactance (Xc):
1 1
XC = =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝑐

 As frequency increases, current increases.

 Power factor (cos φ) = 0, meaning purely reactive power.
 Graph: Current increases as frequency increases.

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4. Series LCR Circuit

 The total impedance is:

Z=√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)2

 The current is:

𝑉
I=
𝑍

 At resonance, XL = XC → Z = R.

1
𝐹𝑅 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

oCurrent is maximum.
o Voltage and current are in phase.
o Power factor = 1.
 Graph: “Resonance curve” — a sharp peak of current at the resonance
frequency.

5. Applications of AC Circuits

You can add this as a separate section after “Characteristics” or before the
Conclusion.

Applications:

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 Used in power transmission and domestic electricity because AC can be

easily transformed to high or low voltages.
 Inductive and capacitive circuits are used in tuning radios, filters, and
communication systems.
 Resonant LCR circuits are used in oscillators, amplifiers, and frequency
selectors.
 Capacitive circuits are used in power factor correction in industries.
 Inductive coils are used in transformers, motors, and inductors.

6. Graphical Representation

Add some labeled graphs (drawn or printed):

 Voltage vs Current for R, L, C circuits (showing phase difference).

 Current vs Frequency for LCR circuit (resonance curve).
 Vector/Phasor diagram of voltage and current for each type of circuit.

7. Advantages of Using AC

 AC voltage can be transmitted over long distances with less loss.

 AC can be easily stepped up or down using transformers.
 Easier to generate using alternators.
 Safer and more efficient for household and industrial uses.

8. Real-Life Examples
Circuit
Example in Real Life Explanation
Type

Converts electrical energy into

Resistive Electric heater, bulb
heat/light

Works due to magnetic field

Inductive Ceiling fan, transformer
induction

Electric fan capacitor, motor Provides phase shift or energy

Capacitive
starter storage

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Circuit
Example in Real Life Explanation
Type

LCR Radio tuner, filter circuits Selects desired signal frequency

9. Power in AC Circuits

Add a short section to show understanding of power factor.

P=V I cos ϕ

 When ϕ=0: power is maximum (purely resistive circuit).

 When ϕ=90: power is zero (purely inductive or capacitive circuit).
 Power factor cos ϕ indicates circuit efficiency.

10. Formula Summary Table

Phase Power
Circuit Current (I) Impedance (Z)
Relation Factor
𝑉
Resistive (R) 𝐼= Z=R In phase 1
𝑅

𝑉 Current
Inductive (L) 𝐼= Z=𝜔L=𝜔𝑙 0
𝜔𝐿 lags

Capacitive 1 Current
I=VωCI Z = XC = 0
(C) 𝑤𝑐 leads

1 Depends on
LCR I= As given Varies
√𝑅 2 (𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶 )2 XL and XC

7. Experimental Error Discussion

If you want to sound professional:

 Small voltage fluctuations can cause error.

 Frequency stability affects current readings.
 Stray capacitance/inductance in wires may distort results.
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8. Environmental and Safety Note

While working with AC circuits, ensure all connections are properly insulated.
Avoid direct contact with live wires. Use low-voltage sources wherever possible
to minimize electrical hazards.

9. Extension / Further Study (Optional Section)

 Study of RLC parallel circuit instead of series.

 Effect 11of changing L or C on resonance frequency.
 Study of power factor correction using capacitors.

10. types of ac current

. Purely Resistive AC Circuit

. Purely Inductive AC Circuit

. Purely Capacitive AC Circuit

. Series RC Circuit

. Series RL Circuit

. Series LCR Circuit

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11. DIAGRAM / GRAPHS

Alternating current (green

curve). The horizontal axis measures time (it also represents zero
voltage/current); the vertical, current or voltage
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Solenoid-

A schematic representation of long distance electric power transmission. From

left to right: G=generator, U=step-up transformer, V=voltage at beginning of
transmission line, Pt=power entering transmission line, I=current in wires,
R=total resistance in wires, Pw=power lost in transmission line, Pe=power
reaching the end of the transmission line, D=step-down transformer,
C=consumers.

Three-phase high-voltage electric power

transmission lines use alternating currents to
distribute power over long distances
between electric generation plants and consumers.
The lines in the picture are located in eastern Utah.

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12. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following sources were referred to during the preparation of the

investigatory project “Analysis of Various AC Circuits and Their
Characteristics.”

1. NCERT Physics Textbook – Class XII, Part I & II, National Council
of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
2. Concepts of Physics – H.C. Verma, Volume II, Bharati Bhawan
Publishers.
3. Pradeep’s Fundamental Physics – Class XII, Pradeep Publications.
4. Comprehensive Practical Physics – Laxmi Publications.
5. CBSE Physics Practical Manual – Class XII, Central Board of
Secondary Education.
6. Online Reference:
o https://en.wikipedia.org
o https://www.learncbse.in
o https://ncert.nic.in

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