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Mechanisms and Machine Science 39

Philippe Wenger
Christine Chevallereau
Doina Pisla
Hannes Bleuler
Aleksandar Rodić Editors

New Trends in
Medical and
Service Robots
Human Centered Analysis, Control and
Design
Mechanisms and Machine Science

Volume 39

Series editor
Marco Ceccarelli
LARM: Laboratory of Robotics and Mechatronics
DICeM; University of Cassino and South Latium
Via Di Biasio 43, 03043 Cassino (Fr), Italy
[email protected]
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8779
Philippe Wenger ⋅ Christine Chevallereau
Doina Pisla ⋅ Hannes Bleuler
Aleksandar Rodić
Editors

New Trends in Medical

and Service Robots
Human Centered Analysis, Control
and Design

123
Editors
Philippe Wenger Hannes Bleuler
Ecole Centrale de Nantes 1 IMT—LSRO1
Institut de Recherche en Communications et EPFL
Cybernétique de Nantes Lausanne
Nantes Cedex 03 Switzerland
France
Aleksandar Rodić
Christine Chevallereau Robotics Laboratory
Ecole Centrale de Nantes 1 Mihajlo Pupin Institute
Institut de Recherche en Communications et Belgrade
Cybernétique de Nantes Serbia
Nantes Cedex 03
France

Doina Pisla
Research Center for Industrial Robots
Simulation and Testing
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca
Romania

ISSN 2211-0984 ISSN 2211-0992 (electronic)

Mechanisms and Machine Science
ISBN 978-3-319-30673-5 ISBN 978-3-319-30674-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30674-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016934190

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Preface

Research in medical and service robotics has been continuously growing over the
past decade as a logical response to the increasing needs of our evolving society.
Research in medical and service robotics covers a large field of domains such as
clinical robotics (surgery and diagnosis), robotics for rehabilitation and assistance
(exoskeleton and prostheses), service robotics (humanoid and wheeled robots,
autonomous surveying and rescue robots), and cognitive robotics, among others.
These fields of research require a multidisciplinary approach ranging from mech-
anism theory and biomechanics to life and social sciences. One of the most
important common features in medical and service robotics is probably the strong,
intimate link with human. In many cases, human is even placed at the center of
important issues involved in the analysis, design, and control of medical and service
robots. This is particularly true in elderly and assistive robotics, where the inter-
actions with human must be treated with respect to both physical and cognitive
aspects. The place of human has been pointed out during the fourth workshop on
Medical and Service Robotics, MeSRob’2015, held at IRCCyN in Nantes, France.
In addition to classical scientific presentations, several keynotes have been given to
illustrate the increasing need of robotics for elderly people.
This book collects 22 papers that were all presented during MeSRob’2015 and
selected on the basis of a peer-review process. They cover classical issues in
medical and service robotics but also more rarely discussed questions such as legal
aspects. We are grateful to the sponsors of this workshop (IFToMM, CEA-LIST,
BA-Systèmes, CNRS, Région-Pays-de-la-Loire), the authors and reviewers, and the
scientific and organizing committees.

v
vi Preface

MeSRob is now a well-established workshop. The fifth edition will take place in
Graz, Austria. We are confident that MesSRob will become more and more
attractive.

Philippe Wenger
Christine Chevallereau
Doina Pisla
Hannes Bleuler
Aleksandar Rodić
Contents

Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave-Based

Teleoperator for Robotic-Assisted Surgery: First Case Study . . . . . . . . 1
Jing Guo, Chao Liu and Philippe Poignet

Singularity Analysis of a Novel Minimally-Invasive-Surgery

Hybrid Robot Using Geometric Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Tanio K. Tanev

ISO 13482:2014 and Its Confusing Categories.

Building a Bridge Between Law and Robotics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Eduard Fosch Villaronga

Variable Stiffness Mechanism in Robotized Interventional

Radiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
L. Esteveny, L. Barbé and B. Bayle

Application of Nonlinear Dynamics to Human Knee Movement

on Plane and Inclined Treadmill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
D. Tarnita, M. Georgescu and D.N. Tarnita

Training of Robot to Assigned Geometric and Force Trajectories . . . . 75

A. Leskov, V. Golovin, M. Arkhipov and L. Kocherevskaya

Kinematic Analysis of an Innovative Medical Parallel Robot

Using Study Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Calin Vaida, Doina Pisla, Josef Schadlbauer, Manfred Husty
and Nicolae Plitea

Visuo-vestibular Contributions to Vertical Self-motion Perception

in Healthy Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
I. Giannopulu, P. Leboucher, G. Rautureau, I. Israël and R. Jouvent

vii
viii Contents

Series Elastic Actuation for Assistive Orthotic Devices:

Case Study of Pneumatic Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A. Ortlieb, J. Olivier, M. Bouri and H. Bleuler

Sensory-Motor Anticipation and Local Information Fusion

for Reliable Humanoid Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
H.F. Chame and C. Chevallereau

On the Design of the Exoskeleton Arm with Decoupled Dynamics . . . . 143

V. Arakelian, Y. Aoustin and C. Chevallereau

Assisting Control of Forces in Laparoscopy Using Tactile

and Visual Sensory Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Thomas Howard and Jérôme Szewczyk

A Dual-User Teleoperation System with Adaptive Authority

Adjustment for Haptic Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fei Liu, Arnaud Lelevé, Damien Eberard and Tanneguy Redarce

Strategy to Lock the Knee of Exoskeleton Stance Leg:

Study in the Framework of Ballistic Walking Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Y. Aoustin and A.M. Formalskii

Development of a Robotic Driven Handheld Laparoscopic Instrument

for Non-invasive Intraoperative Detection of Small Endoluminal
Digestive Tumors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
B. Mocan, V.V. Bintintan, S. Brad, C. Ciuce, M. Mocan and M. Murar

Modeling and Dynamic Identification of Medical Devices: Theory,

Issues and Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
A. Jubien and M. Gautier

A Legged Robotic System for Remote Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

F. Tedeschi and G. Carbone

Development of Human-Centered Social Robot

with Embedded Personality for Elderly Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Aleksandar Rodić, Milica Vujović, Ilija Stevanović
and Miloš Jovanović

Morphological Optimization of Prosthesis’ Finger

for Precision Grasping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
J.L. Ramírez, A. Rubiano, N. Jouandeau, L. Gallimard and O. Polit
Contents ix

Correction Method for Spine Flexion Tracking with Markers . . . . . . . 265

S. Butnariu and C. Antonya

Anthropomorphic Underactuated Hand with 15 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

E. Matheson, Y. Aoustin, E. Le Carpentier, A. Leon and J. Perrin

Effects of the Rolling Mechanism of the Stance Foot

on the Generalized Inverted Pendulum Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Sylvain Devie and Sophie Sakka

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Effect of Non-passive Operator
on Enhanced Wave-Based Teleoperator
for Robotic-Assisted Surgery: First Case
Study

Jing Guo, Chao Liu and Philippe Poignet

Abstract Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has been advanced by new medical/
surgical robotic technologies, aiming to achieve less invasiveness, smaller or even no
scar procedures. Miniaturized surgical robot presents promising alternative to better
benefit MIS, but considerable constraints including cables for power and communi-
cation may degrade its performance. Wireless communication posses great poten-
tial to be utilized, however time delay is inevitably introduced which challenges the
design of teleoperation system from both stability and transparency point of view.
Wave variable based teleoperation provides stable force reflecting teleoperation with
arbitrary time delay, but with both compromised position and force tracking perfor-
mances. Recently we proposed a wave variable compensated structure to improve
the position and tracking performance together with energy reservoir based regula-
tors for stability purpose (Guo et al. In: Proceeding European Control Conference
(ECC), Linz, pp. 1980–1985 (2015), [23]), but with assumption of passive operator
and environment. In this paper, several experiments are conduced to evaluate the
passivity of operator using the enhanced wave variable compensated structure, and
to study the influence of non-passive behavior conducted by operator to the perfor-
mance of teleoperation and overall system stability. This first case study shows that
non-passive behaviors of operator (such as rigid grasp and trajectory tracking tasks)
can inject extra energy into system and may cause stability issues for whole system.

Keywords Bilateral teleoperation ⋅ Time delay ⋅ Robotic-assisted surgery ⋅

Telesurgery ⋅ Non-passive operator

J. Guo (✉) ⋅ C. Liu ⋅ P. Poignet

LIRMM, University of Montpellier - CNRS, Montpellier, France
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Liu
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Poignet
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

P. Wenger et al. (eds.), New Trends in Medical and Service Robots,
Mechanisms and Machine Science 39, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30674-2_1
2 J. Guo et al.

1 Introduction

Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has promoted the surgical procedures in past
decades over traditional open surgery by significantly improving patients benefits
such as less invasiveness, smaller scars and less recovery time, as explained in lit-
eratures [1–3]. Recent research effort is moving towards further reduce the surgical
procedure invasiveness and decrease the number and size of visible incisions, as
which is also presented in [4]. Targeted to achieve single incision or scar-less proce-
dures, laparo-endoscopic single site surgery (LESS) and natural orifice transluminal
endoscopic surgery (NOTES) have attracted growing interests [5–7]. It is mentioned
that NOTES shows promising approach over LESS due to it potentially eliminates
abdominal incisions during diagnosis and treatment of abdominal pathologies [8].
But it is also observed that several main drawbacks existing such as anatomical con-
straints and method of guiding flexible tools to reach abdomen [1].
In view of the limitation of current NOTES platform, Tortora [9] proposed a
modular magnetic NOTES platform for NOTES procedures, which contains a trans-
abdominal magnetic frame for robotic modular anchoring, dedicated miniaturized
surgical tools and a magnetically-actuated retraction system. The surgical platform
can be established inside human body by delivering several miniaturized robotic
tools, and then operate dedicated clinical tasks without leaving scars on body surface.
However, it is noticed that cables for power supply and communication may degrade
the performance of the aforementioned platform in following aspects: cables may
decrease the degree-of-freedom of robotic devices; cables make limited workspace
more crowded and may even intertwine together during procedures.
In order to reduce the risks caused by cables for modular magnetic NOTES plat-
form, it is considered to use wireless communication to replace communication
cables. In [10] some preliminary work has been presented that Zigbee was identified
as one of potential alternative solutions, and some time delay evaluation experiments
were also conducted which shown that the time delay caused by Zigbee commu-
nication was almost constant to 135 ms (round trip time delay with 32 bytes data
transmission) in our set-ups.
Currently, master-slave teleoperation configuration is widely used for robotic-
assisted surgery, by which the surgeon can easily manipulate the robot for dedicated
clinical operations in remote site. But most developed teleoperated surgical robotic
systems do not poss the force feedback to operator which brings possible difficul-
ties to surgeon compared with traditional open surgery [11]. And time delay existing
during communication increases the challenges from both perspectives of stability
and performance of force reflecting bilateral teleoperation system [12].
Wave variable based teleoperation structure was proposed to provide useful frame-
work for stabilizing bilateral teleoperation system with arbitrary communication
delay [13]. However, this conservative condition based method can only provide
compromised position and force tracking performance. Various structures and meth-
ods [14–19] based on wave variable teleoperation have been proposed to improve
position and/or force tracking performance with consideration of passivity condition.
Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave-Based Teleoperator . . . 3

But it is noticed that all the wave variable based teleoperation structures proposed
so far in literatures only consider to passivate the delayed communication channels,
with assumption of passive operator and environment.
Very recently, we proposed a new wave-based teleoperator with wave variable
compensated structure [23]. Experiments of [24] show that enhanced position and
force tracking can be stably achieved over traditional wave variable structure, with
the help of energy reservoir based regulators to adjust the compensating terms. In
these works, both operator and environment were assumed to be passive.
For human operator, non-passivity may occur in various cases, such as in posture-
maintenance (i.e. rigid grasp) tasks or trajectory following tasks [20–22]. In general,
the non-passive operator may be a source of energy injection in teleoperation system
and in some cases it may violate the system passivity condition or even cause stability
issues for teleoperation system.
In this paper, we investigated the effect of non-passive behavior of the operator
on enhanced wave variable compensated structure. As the operator may not always
perform passively, which means that energy may be injected into system thus makes
teleoperation system unstable. We carried out several experiments and the results
indicate that human operator could be non-passive and degraded tracking perfor-
mance or even unstable system can be observed as the consequence.
The rest of this paper is organized as follow. Section 2 provides the fundamental
knowledge of wave variable based teleoperation structure. The wave variable com-
pensated structure proposed in [23] is briefly presented in Sect. 3. In Sect. 4, the
experiment studies are presented with result analysis. Some conclusion and perspec-
tive are provided in Sect. 5.

2 Traditional Wave Variable Structure

A force reflecting bilateral teleoperation structure can be treated as a chain of 2-port

system in which the master, slave and communication channel can be modeled as
two port system, and the operator and environment are considered as a single port
[23]. Then the passivity of a 2-port system can be defined as: Eq. (1):
T T
Pout dt ≤ Pin dt + Estore (0) (1)
∫0 ∫0

where Estore (0) denotes the initial energy stored.

Based on passivity condition, the traditional wave variable teleoperation structure
was proposed in [13] as illustrated in Fig. 1. The information exchanged between
delayed communication are modified as wave variables, instead of velocity and force,
the forward and backward wave variables um , vs are constructed as:
4 J. Guo et al.


ẋm √ um us 2 ẋs
2b Time delay
−
− b
1
b
b

fm √ vm vs 2 fs
2b Time delay
− − b
Wave transformation Wave transformation
Fig. 1 Traditional wave variable teleoperation structure

1
um (t) = √ (fm (t) + bẋ m (t)) (2)
2b
1
vs (t) = √ (−f s (t) + bẋ s (t)) (3)
2b

With the assumption that the communication delay is constant as T, then the wave
variables us , vm are similarly derived as:

1
us (t) = √ (fs (t) + bẋ s (t)) = um (t − T) (4)
2b
1
vm (t) = √ (−f m (t) + bẋ m (t)) = vs (t − T) (5)
2b

From Eqs. (2–5), force and velocity on both master and slave side can be derived
respectively as:

b
fm (t) = √ (um (t) − vm (t)) (6)
2b
1
ẋ m (t) = √ (um (t) + vm (t)) (7)
2b
b
fs (t) = √ (us (t) − vs (t)) (8)
2b
1
ẋ s (t) = √ (us (t) + vs (t)) (9)
2b
Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave-Based Teleoperator . . . 5

The passivity of delayed communication channel can be guaranteed using wave

variable structure as below:
t
1
E(t) = (f (t)ẋ (t) − fs (t)ẋ s (t))dt
2 ∫0 m m
t
1
= (uT u − vTm vm − uTs us + vTs vs )dt
2 ∫0 m m
t t
1 1
= uT u dt + vT v dt ≥ 0 (10)
2 ∫t−T m m 2 ∫t−T s s

which means that time delay induced energy is always stored in the communication
channel.
But, it is noticed that this method is far conservative to achieve a good position
and force tracking performance since:

fm (t) = fs (t − T) + b(xṁ (t) − ẋs (t − T)) (11)

1
ẋ s (t) = ẋ m (t − T) + (fm (t − T) − fs (t)) (12)
b
And the last two terms in Eqs. (11–12) represent disturbing bias which degrade the
tracking performance. Wave impedance b can somehow be used to tune the tracking
performance, but still it is hard to achieve both good position and force tracking
performance at the same time by solely tuning b.

3 Wave Variable Compensated Structure and Energy

Reservoir Based Regulator

3.1 Wave Variable Compensated Structure

In previous work [23], we proposed a modified wave variable based teleoperation

structure to achieve enhanced position and force tracking performance. As in Fig. 2,
two compensated terms 𝛥u and 𝛥u are utilized to compensate wave variables (details
can be found in [23]).
The proposed structure can achieve enhanced force and position tracking perfor-
mance as:

fm (t) = fs (t − T) ẋ s (t) = ẋ m (t − T) (13)

with the compensated wave variable terms 𝛥u and 𝛥v as following:

 6


ẋm √ um us 2 ẋs
2b Time delay
− b −
u1 u2 −
1
b
v2 v1 b
− 
fm √ vm vs 2 fs
2b Time delay
− − b
Wave transformation Wave transformation
Fig. 2 Wave variable compensated structure
J. Guo et al.
Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave-Based Teleoperator . . . 7

𝛥u = vm (t − T) − vs (t) (14)
𝛥v = um (t) − us (t − T) (15)

But it is noticed that the compensated terms may somehow inject extra energy,
which can destroy the passivity condition of system, thus further cause instability
issue of whole teleoperation system.

3.2 Energy Reservoir Based Regulator

In order to stabilize the proposed wave variable compensated approach, an energy

reservoir based regulator method is employed to provide stable tracking perfor-
mance. In [23], we defined two energy reservoirs both on master and slave side to
track the net energy introduced before and after compensation, and used a regulator
to limit injected wave variable compensation. However, this method was still based
on conservative passivity condition, which may degrade the compensation perfor-
mance, thus conflict with desired tracking performance.
In [24], another energy reservoir definition was proposed, with consideration of
master and slave system together. In which, the energy reservoirs are defined as
below to track the net energy dissipated by slave and master system:
t
Es (t) = (u2m (t − T)) − v2s (t)dt (16)
∫0
t
Em (t) = (v2s (t − T) − u2m (t))dt (17)
∫0

Then adjust the compensated wave variables as following:

[ ]
𝛥u = 𝛼 1 − e−𝛽Es (t) (vm (t − T) − vs (t)) (18)
[ ]
𝛥v = 𝛼 1 − e−𝛽Em (t) (um (t) − us (t − T)) (19)

where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are positive parameters to determine the speed of regulation and the
size of energy reservoirs respectively. During teleoperation, the energy reservoirs
should be non-empty (Es (t) ≥ 0 and Em (t) ≥ 0), and the compensating terms (𝛥u
and 𝛥v) can be choked off when master or slave system become non-passive, which
guarantees the system to be always passive.

3.3 Non-passive Operator

The aforementioned energy reservoir based regulators assume that the master and
slave system are passive, and use the energy dissipated by master and slave system
8 J. Guo et al.

to adjust compensated terms. However, non-passive behaviors of operator are not

considered. Recent research effort [20–22] indicated that during some teleoperation
tasks (i.e. rigid grasp, trajectory tracking), some operators performed in non-passive
way, which means that extra energy was introduced into teleoperation system and
may cause unexpected non-passive or even unstable performance.
From Eqs. (16–17), it is clear that the energy reservoirs are tracking the net energy
dissipated by slave and master side. If the operator is performing non-passive tasks,
the energy will decrease during tasks, sometimes may reach 0. It means that the
compensated wave variable cannot be choked off, instead excess compensation may
happen which causes system unstable.

4 Experimental Studies on Effect of Non-passive Operator

In order to analyze the effect of non-passive behavior of operation on enhanced wave-

based teleoperator, experiments were conducted with two Omega 7 robotic devices
(one as master and one as slave), a Nano 17 force sensor (ATI, Industrial Automation)
was attached to slave robot by a 3D printed adapter to evaluate the contact force.
Time delay is set as 200 ms using UDP communication. A phantom (which is made
by extra soft PVC (80 % soft PVC + 20 % softener) and medium density PVC (70 %
soft + 30 % hard PVC)) is used for contact experiment to mimic the human tissue
environment. Figure 3 shows the experiment setup.

Force sensor

Phantom

Master Slave
Fig. 3 Experiment setup with two Omega 7 devices
Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave-Based Teleoperator . . . 9

Fig. 4 Energy reserved in

reservoirs on master and
slave side with initial energy
reservoir as 500 (in contact)

4.1 Energy Reserved in Reservoir with Non-passive Operator

The first experiment records the energy reserved in reservoir by master and slave
sides as calculated in Eqs. (16–17). Due to safety consideration, initial energy
reservoir values of master and slave side are set to 500. A 29-year-old male operator
manipulates the master robot to move following sine wave trajectory,and accord-
ingly the slave is moved from free space to contact phantom. The energy reserved in
reservoir by both master and slave sides are shown in Fig. 4, where it is clear to see
that the slave side, even when contacting phantom, behaves passively and dissipates
energy all the time. But for the master side, it can be seen that the dissipated power
is negative and therefore the overall energy keeps decreasing, which means that the
behavior of operator is non-passive and injects extra energy into system.

4.2 Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave

Variable Compensated Structure

In previous sections, it is highlighted that the main objective of enhanced wave vari-
able compensated structure is to achieve enhanced position and force tracking perfor-
mances for delayed bilateral teleoperation system as illustrated in Eq. (13). In order to
demonstrate the effect of non-passive operator on proposed structure, another exper-
iment was conducted with lower initial energy reservoir value of 50.
In Fig. 5, energy reserved in reservoirs by both master and slave sides are recorded.
Firstly it is noticed that master side is not passive most of the time, as energy reserved
in reservoir by the master side (in green line) is mostly below the initial value (50),
and even decreases to close 0 at 26 s. Also it is worth mentioning that even when
the experiment is running in free motion, the noise of force sensor causes the energy
reserved in reservoir on slave side decrease slightly, but not so significant.
10 J. Guo et al.

Fig. 5 Energy reserved in

reservoirs on master and
slave side with initial energy
reservoir as 50 (free motion)

Fig. 6 Force tracking

performance with initial
energy reservoir as 50 (free
motion)

Fig. 7 Position tracking

performance with initial
energy reservoir as 50 (free
motion)
Effect of Non-passive Operator on Enhanced Wave-Based Teleoperator . . . 11

Figures 6 and 7 show the effect of non-passive operator on force and position
tracking performance during free motion teleoperation task. It is seen in Fig. 6 that
the feedback force is chattering and quite different from the measured force from
slave side which is non mean noise signal caused by force sensor. What needs to be
emphasized is at 26 s, the feedback force jumps to +6N and quickly drops to −8N,
which is because the master side energy drops to around 0. Certainly, when operator
feels the obvious change of force he/she stops non-passive operation till the system
becomes stable.
For position tracking performance, Fig. 7 shows that the slave tracks well as the
master moves. This is because in free motion the energy dissipated by slave side
decreases only slightly due to the noise of force sensor but not significant enough to
influence the performance of position tracking.
In order to compare the performance of previous experiment with initial energy
reservoir of 50, another experiment was conducted with higher initial energy reser-
voir of 500 with the same experimental configuration. In Fig. 8, it is shown that the
slave side keeps passive during experiment; although some fluctuation of energy

Fig. 8 Energy reserved in

reservoirs on master and
slave side with initial energy
reservoir as 500 (free
motion)

Fig. 9 Force tracking

performance with initial
energy reservoir as 500 (free
motion)
12 J. Guo et al.

Fig. 10 Position tracking

performance with initial
energy reservoir as 500 (free
motion)

reserved in master side can be noticed, mostly the master side can be considered
asymptotic passive.
Figures 9 and 10 provide the force tracking and position tracking performance
during free motion with initial energy reservoir of 500. And it is noticed that
stable and enhanced tracking performance are achieved thanks to new configuration
of energy reservoir. Therefore, through these two experiments it is shown that bigger
initial value of the energy reservoir helps to handle non-passive operator motion and
consequently the tracking performances. For sure, the initial value cannot be arbi-
trary large either, which may make the utilization of energy reservoir to be useless.

5 Conclusion and Perspective

In our recent works, an enhanced wave variable compensated teleoperation structure

[23, 24] was proposed, in order to guarantee stable tracking performance, energy
reservoir based regulators were used to adjust the injected energy by wave variable
compensation. This structure can achieve enhanced position and force tracking under
aforementioned configuration for normal surgical procedures, but not sufficient for
some challenging situations in which non-passive operator and/or environment need
to be taken into account. To study the effect of non-passive operation on the per-
formance and stability of the enhanced wave variable compensated structure, some
experiments were carried out which indicated that the behavior of operator was not
always passive and may inject extra energy into whole teleoperation system, thus
degrade or destroy the stability of system. One possible solution is to increase the
initial value of the energy reservoir to help handle occasional non-passive behaviors,
but it won’t work if non-passivity continues over long period.
This work shows that non-passive operator may exist in real teleoperation tasks
and can potentially cause stability issues. This issue should be taken into consid-
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