Elective Geography Notes

Geography in everyday life

Done By: Nutcracker

Contacts:
-​ Discord: nutcracker_cool

Extra friendly reminder:

●​ Bring calculator, pencil, ruler, eraser and pen (drawings of diagrams may be
needed)
Topic 1: Thinking geographically

1.1 Relationship between people and the nature in their

neighbourhoods

-​ Learn about relationship between people and nature in their neighbourhoods.

Content concepts:

-​ Community : A group of people in a particular place who has a sense of belonging

both to the place and to the group.
-​ Nature area: Also known as the natural environment, it refers to the nonhuman world,
which are areas that are untouched or barely affected by humans.
-​ Recreation: Any voluntary activity undertaken for purposes of enjoyment , pleasure,
and personal satisfaction.

What is the relationship between people and nature?

1.​ local communities and nearby nature areas are dependent upon each other.

a.​ people depend on nature for many things:

-​ Nature provides essentials like air and water for human to survive.
-​ Living organisms like bees help pollinate crops for a continuous supply
of food.
-​ Nature provides spaces for recreation and leisure activities which
allows people to bond with their family and friends, thus helping to
maintain human’s physical and mental well-being.

b.​ some nature areas are also dependent on the local communities to
thrive.
-​ People in the neighbourhood may tend to tne health of nearby nature
areas, ensuring the plants and animals living there thrive
-​ Individuals in local communities can encourage one another to enjoy
nearby nature areas in a sustainable manner without causing
irreversible damage.
How do people and nature bring about benefits to each other?
1.​ Nature areas benefit people by lowering temperatures, removing pollutants,
and providing space for recreation.
a.​ lowering air temperature
i.​ The presence of vegetation:
-​ Provides shape and reduces the amount of direct sunlight that
reaches the surface
-​ Cools the surrounding air through evapotranspiration as the
water that plants absorb through their roots is released into
the air as water vapor. this process uses heat from the
surrounding, fast cooling it.
b.​ removal of pollutants
i.​ During photosynthesis vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide and other
air pollutants and releases oxygen.
ii.​ Small particles are intercepted by leaves which are washed to the
ground when it rains.
iii.​ what land plants can trap suspended materials and absorb excess
nutrients in the water thus improving water quality.
c.​ Provision of recreational space
i.​ Natural areas offer numerous opportunities for outdoor activities.
ii.​ Direct and frequent interactions with nature can bring about health
and well-being benefits to people, which reduces severity and
occurrence off house conditions.

What are the disadvantages people and nature bring to each other?

1.​ People bring disadvantages to nature by causing soil erosion, damaging

vegetation, worsening pollution and disturbing wildlife.
a.​ Causing soil erosion and damaging vegetation.
i.​ When people hike along non-designated trials in nature areas
b.​ Worsening pollution and disturbing wildlife
i.​ littering
 2.​ Nature may bring disadvantages to people as wildlife from nearby nature areas
may harm people and environmental protection may limit development.
a.​ Human-wildlife conflicts may increase due to an increase in human-wildlife
encounters:

Reasons for increase in human-wildlife encounters in Singapore

Urban expansion People’s growing interest Greening efforts by the

in outdoor recreation state

-​ Singapore continues -​ With growing interest -​ Singaoire aims to

to urbanise and in outdoor bring nature back
develop, leading to recreational into the city and
nature habitats activities, people are promote human -
shrinking. Wildlife now spending more wildlife encounters
may venture out of time in nature areas,
the nature areas in which increases the
search of food or frequency of human
shelter, potentially - wildlife encounters
increasing the
frequency of human
- wildlife encounters.

1.2 A sense of place in the neighbourhoods

What is a sense of place?

-​ A sense of place is developed when people associated meanings and memories
with locations.
-​ It reflects the relationship people have with the places around them.
-​ A sense of place helps to build our identity, enabling us to understand ourselves and
others better.

How do people acquire a sense of place in their neighbourhood?

1.​ Repeated encounters with objects and people
a.​ This helps us to recall the character and features of places that we come
across and create meanings and memories of them.
2.​ Significant or memorable events at local landmarks and gathering places.
a.​ We may acquire a sense of place from significant or memorable events that
occur at local landmarks and gathering places.
b.​ Landmarks are highly visible and easy for most people to remember
c.​ They may serve symbolic or historical purposes

How is sense of place represented?

-​ Sense of place may be represented through different forms and types of media by
individuals and organisations which reflects people’s ideas, memories and
significance of the location. (e.g. texts, audios, graphs, posts)
How may representations of sense of place enhance ot contradict an individual’s
sense of place?

-​ Different emotions expressed in media might enhance ot contradict our sense of

place.
-​ Our sense of place shapes our identity, hence, we respond well to representations
that agree with how we feel about places on our neighbourhood.
-​ Such representations add new layers of meanings tp these places by revealing
interesting information about them, thus enhancing our sense of place.

1.3 Relationship between locations in a neighbourhood

What are regions?

-​ Areas with similar physical and/or human characteristics
-​ Regions may vary in size
-​ Regions may be classified according to:
-​ Environmental characteristics : Nature or build-up areas
-​ Human characteristics: e.g. Commercial or residential areas
-​ Geographical location: e.g. East or West
What are spatial patterns?
-​ Spatial patterns reflect non-random arrangements that are recognisable as shapes,
clusters, geometry, or repeated orcurrence at regular intervals

What are spatial associations?

-​ Spatial associations refer to the tendency of a pair of services, events and objects to
be located near each other.
-​ E.g. Lifts and stairways are often located next to each other.
-​ Understanding spatial associations in our neighbourhood enhances our everyday
living.

1.4 Organisation of neighbourhoods in Singapore

What are spacial scales?

-​ Spacial scales refer to the extend of area which a phenomenon or process takes
place.
-​ Scales can be different hierarchies (层次结构) including global, regional, and local

What are the spatial scales in Singapore?

-​ In singapore, there are more than 20 towns that are spread across the island.
-​ In each town, there is a town centre with a concentration of activities
-​ Each town centre may serve as the commercial and social hub for residents living in
its neighbourhoods
What spatial hierarchies can we observe in Singapore?

-​ In Singapore, there are nested areas of different sizes, beginning with a single
residential unit

Residental unit ⇒ Precinct ⇒ Neighbourhood ⇒ Town

Precinct:
-​ Between 400 to 200 residential units form a precinct
-​ Facilities are often within close proximity, serving residents’ everyday needs

Neighbourhood and town:

-​ A neighbourhood serves between 4000 and 6000 residential units
-​ Each neighbourhood comprises a few precincts
-​ A few neighbourhoods for a town
-​ The town’s neighbourhoods can found surrounding the town centre, which enables
all residents to travel to and from the town centre conveniently.

How is town planning done in Singapore?

Town planning in SIngapore:
1.​ Serves residents and provides for nature at distinct levels of the precinct,
neighbourhood and town.
2.​ Creates connections and synergies across precincts, neighbourhoods and towns.

Singapore’s town planning creates connections and synergies across precincts,

neighbourhoods and towns.
-​ Connections and synergies are created to help achieve sustainability
-​ Long-term plans at the national level seek to achieve this by optimisinf land
resources to cater to the diverse needs of current and future generations.
Topic 2: Sustainable Development

2.1 Sustainable urban neighbourhoods

What is development?
-​ Development refers to the economic, social and political process which resukts in an
improvement of standard of living for a population.
What is sustainable development?
-​ Sustainable development refers to development that:
-​ Meets the needs of the present population by achieving high standards of
living for all.
-​ Ensures the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
-​ The 3 key aims of sustainable development are economy, environment and
society.

How can urban neighbourhoods achieve economic and social sustainability?

1.​ Economic Sustainability

a.​ Achieved by ensuring that a neighbourhood has high enough population
density, which helps to support local business, and keep transport and
infrastructure costs low.
2.​ Social Sustainability
a.​ Achieved by ensuring residents feel included and have a sense of shared
identity.
b.​ THis can be fostered by having shared community spaces to promote regular
social interactions
How can enighbourhoods be sustained environmentally?
-​ There are various ways environmental sustainability can be achieved in an urban
neighbourhood, such as:
1.​ Ample protection for nature
2.​ Facilities that support waste minimisation and recycling
3.​ Energy and water-efficient design approaches for buildings and landscapes.
2.2 Ecosystem services in urban neighbourhood

Why are urban neighbouhoods regarded as ecosystems?

-​ An ecosystem is a geographical area where living communities and non-living
environments interact with each other to form a bubble of life
-​ Ecosystem vary in size
-​ Every aspect in ecosystems depends on one another, directly or indirectly

What are ecosystem services?

-​ Ecosystem services refer to benefits brought about by nature to people.
-​ These services are produced by the living communities and non-living environment of
ecosystem
-​ These services are critical to our survival and their benefits are optimised when we
have a healthy and thriving natural environmental.
-​ These ecosystem services consist of:
-​ Provisioning services
-​ Regulation services
-​ Cultural services
-​ Supporting services

What are provisioning ecosystem services?

-​ Provisioning ecosystem services refer to the tangible resources that people can get
from ecosystem such as food, water and wood
-​ Food is one of the most important provisioning services provided by nature to people
and it can be obtained through means such as agricultural activities and fisheries
-​ E.g. : Food is grown in Urban community gardens focused on planting edibles on
rooftops at Tampinies’ HDB blocks

What are regulating ecosystem services?

●​ Regulating ecosystem services refer to the benefits obtained from the regulation of
various ecosystem process
○​ Includes services such as climate regulation, disease outbreak regulation and
flood regulation
○​ These ecosystem processes work together to ensure that the ecosystems are
functional, clean, sustainable and resilient to changes.
●​ In an urban neighbourhood, these microclimate regulation, flood mitigation as well as
air and water quality control

What are cultural ecosystem services?

●​ Cultural ecosystem services refer to the intangible benefits people obtain from
ecosystem, including aesthetic experiences, educational opportunities and
recreational activities.

What are supporting ecosystem services?

●​ Supporting ecosystem services refer to services that are necessary for the
functioning of all other ecosystem services, including soil formation, pollination and
photosynthesis.
2.3 Common hazards in urban neighbourhoods
What are hazards?
●​ A hazard refers to a process, phenomenon, or human activities that may cause loss
of life, other health impacts, property damage, as well as social and economic
consequences
●​ Can be classified as natural or man-made
●​ Some examples of man-made hazards include traffic hazards.

What are fire hazards and their impacts?

●​ In urban neighbourhoods, fire hazards may occur in both residential and
non-residential areas.
●​ Common causes include unattended cooking and faulty electrical appliances and
wiring which can ignite nearby flammable materials resulting in a fire.
●​ Impacts of fire hazards includes:
○​ Health impacts
■​ High level of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide may be released
during a fire, and may cause carbon monoxide poisoning. This may
cause headaches, dizziness, weakness and confusion, and even
leading to loss of consciousness and death. THey can make it more
difficult for people to secapre a fire.
■​ Other irritants from a fire, such as acid gases, can permanently
damage a person’s respiratory system.
■​ Smoke inhalation can cause breathing difficulties and suffocation
which may lead to death.
○​ Property damage
■​ Fires can destroy commercial or residential properties which leads to
economic losses as goods, furnitures and important documents may
be destroyed.
■​ Further costs may also be incurred after the fire is over as money is
required to repair and rebuild the properties that were damaged in the
fire.
What are air pollution hazards and their impacts?
●​ Air pollution occurs dure to the presence of contaminant or pollutant substances in
the air that do not disperse properly and hence interferes with human health, welfare
or produce other harmful environmental effects.
Health impacts:
-​ Some of the negative health impacts of air pollution include repiratory
infections, heart diseases and lung cancer.

What are traffic hazards and their impacts?

●​ Common causes include:
○​ Speeding
○​ Red-light running
○​ Drink-driving
●​ These accidents are often caused by irresponsible motorists who pir other road users
and themselves at risk.
Health impacts:
●​ People may suffer serious injuries when involved in a traffic accident, which may lead
to disabilities or loss of life.

2.4 Building sustainable urban neighbourhoods

What is environmental stewardship?
●​ Environmental stewardship refers to the actions taken by individuals or groups, to
protect, care for or responsibly use the environment to pursue environmental and/or
social outcomes
●​ It can be practised by individuals, organisations and/or governments.
What is disaster risk?
●​ Disaster risks refer to the likelihood of damage to properties, injuries, and loss of
lives from a disaster in a given period of time
What is disaster rish management?
●​ Disaster risk management refers to plans and actions that are implemented to
prevent new risks from happening, reduce existinf risks and manage disaster risks.
●​ This strengthens community resilience.
What are community resilience?
●​ Community resilience refers to the ability of a community to resist, adapt and to
recover from impacts of disasters in a timely and efficient manner.
Topic 3: Geographical Methods

3.1 Designing fieldwork

What is a fieldwork?
●​ Fieldwork is a systematic approach to investigate geographical phenomena and their
related issues.
●​ There are 5 stages in the fieldwork process:
○​ Crafting research question or hypothesis
○​ Collection of data
○​ Analysis of data
○​ Presentation of findings
○​ Conclusion and evaluation
How may a research question or hypothesis be crafted?
●​ Fieldwork often begin with crafting a research question or a hypothesis
●​ This involves:
○​ First, identify a topic or thesis from credible sources such as textbooks, news
articles and websites.
○​ Next, crafting a research question or hypothesis.
What types of data may be collected and how may data collection be sequences?
●​ To answer the research question or test the hypothesis, data must be collected,
Before collecting the data, there is a need to decide on the following:
○​ Types of data to collect
○​ Sequence of data collection
Type of data to collect:
●​ To answer the research question or test the hypothesis, both primary and secondary
data can be collected and used as evidence.
○​ Primary data:
■​ Data that are collected first-hand
●​ Photographs and sketches taken by fieldwork researches.
●​ Responses from close-ended questionnaire surveys
administered by fieldwork researches.
○​ Secondary data:
■​ Data that are collected by someone else
●​ Books, newspaper articles, journals and maps produced by
other authors.
●​ Data can also be classified into:
○​ Quantitative data
■​ Data that can be qualified and measured.
●​ Responses from close-ended questionnaire surveys.
○​ Qualitative data
■​ Data that are not easily measurable and are subjective in natre.
●​ Responses to open - ended questions in semi-structured
interviews.
Sequencing the data collection
●​ If both quantitative and qualitative data are required, it is important to decide the
sequence of data collected.
What are some limitations that needed to be considered whe designing fieldwork?
●​ When designing a fieldwork, there is a need to determine the scope of the
investigation. The scope can be adjusted based on research aims, study area,
sample size and timeframe.

What are the risks of fieldwork?

●​ It is important to consider the potential risks in fieldwork to avoid harming oneself,
other people and nature.

Risks/Hazards Mitigation Measures

●​ Falls, cuts, minor injuries -​ Students are to wear proper

footwear and clothing
-​ Students are to take note of
potential hazards (e.g. uneven
surfaces, steep steps, jagged rocks)

●​ Traffic accidents, collitions with -​ Students are to take note of local

cyclists traffic hazards amd road crossing
procedures.
-​ Students are to avoid collecting data
on the road or in the path of cyclists.
3.2 Collecting primary data
What is sampling?
●​ Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of population being studied, usually to
make generalisations about the population.
●​ Sampling is necessary because it is often not possible or practical (e.g. too time
consuming) to obtain information from the entire population.
●​ Statistically, a sample size of 30 would be required to conduct a reasonable analysis
of the data.

Sampling

Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Simple Random Stratified Random Convenience Quota Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling

From the
textbook ⇒
Simple random sampling
●​ Every member of the population is given a number
●​ A random number generator is used to generate random numbers (e.g. 2, 5, 7) to
select the samples
Stratified random sampling
●​ Selects a sample that has a proportionate makeup to the population based on age
and sex (or other categories such as ethnicities)
●​ Probability sampling such as random sampling is used to select the sample
●​ If random sampling is not used, it becomes quota sampling.
Quota sampling
●​ Select a sample that has a proportionate makeup to the population based on age and
sex (or other categories such as ethnicities).
●​ Non- probability sampling such as convenience sampling is used to select the
sample, instead of random sampling.

Convenience Sampling
●​ Samples are selected because they are convenient sources of data, such as friends
and people walking down a street.

What are questionnaire surveys?

●​ Questionaire surveys investigate the opinion of people or organisations using a
series of questions.
●​ They are used to collect qualitative data
●​ You can collect data with questionnaire surveys using:
○​ Predefined responses in the questionnaire survey
○​ Rating scales in the questionaire survey
○​ Frequency scales
■​ Present a range of responses based on the number of occurrences
○​ Ranking scales
■​ Used to get participants to compare items with one another
■​ should have less than 10 items to produce reliable data
What are mental maps?
●​ Mental maps can be used to collect data on:
○​ How people experience and think visually and spatially about their
environment.
○​ The dynamic relationships people have with their environment.
3.3 Processing and analysing data
How many quantitative data from close-ended questionnaire surveys be processed
and analysed?
●​ Quantitative data from close-ended questionnaire surveys may be processed and
analysed frequently using:
○​ Measures of frequency
■​ To measure, we can use counts and percentages
○​ Measures of central tendency
■​ Measures of central tendency include:
●​ Mean
●​ Median
●​ Mode
○​ Under different conditions, it may be more appropriate to use one of the
measures than others.

How may qualitative data from mental maps be processed and analysed?
●​ Qualitatice data from mental maps can be processed and analysed by:
○​ Centering and borders
○​ Scale of map elements
○​ Labelling
○​ Colours, legends and symbols
○​ Perspective and orientation
○​ Other features (e.g. paths, nodes, or intersections)
How may relationships and patterns be examined?
1.​ Patterns and relationships from scatter plots and best-fit lines.
2.​ Recognisable geometric shapes, clusters and repetitions from data sets (e.g. maps).
3.4 Presenting findings
How do we present findings using maps?
●​ Maps are visual representations of real-world spatial information using symbols

How do we present findings using graphs?

●​ Graphs are useful in interpreting the data analysis, as well as in presenting the data
findings.
●​ You can use:
○​ Bar graphs
○​ Pie charts
○​ Line graphs
●​ To decide which graphical presentation to use, it is important to consider:
○​ The kind of quantitative data
○​ How could the graphical presentation meaningfully communicate findings.
How do we present findings using photographs and text?
1.​ Presenting findings using photographs
a.​ Photographs including satellite and aerial images can be used to present
fieldwork findings with spatial information.
2.​ Present findings using text
a.​ Text based data are qualitative data and often presents researchers with
unique challenges of interpretation and representation.
b.​ Text-based data could include:
i.​ Letters
ii.​ Oral histories
iii.​ Transcripts of interview
iv.​ Other rich sources of secondary information
Colour-coded quotations
●​ Quoting parts of sentences in a paragraph or essay to help researches lose sight of
what they are reading when analysing large bodies of texts. (e.g. highlighting with
different colours)
Word Cloud
●​ Sometimes it is difficult to recognise the most important points in the text-based data
●​ Therefore, researches use word clouds to present the more important points
●​ The bigger and bolder the words appears, the more often it is mentioned within a
given text. This signals its greater importance.
●​ Example of online word cloud websites: https://mentimeter.com

Notes on Geography In Everyday Life Cluster made by Nutcracker, based on referrence

from the GIELC Textbook. Good luck to all of your examinations and I hope that these notes
will help.