Émile Durkheim’s Concept of the Sacred and the Profane

Émile Durkheim, a foundational figure in sociology, explored how

religion serves as a critical force in shaping social cohesion and
organizing societies. In his work The Elementary Forms of Religious
Life (1912), Durkheim distinguished between two key categories
central to understanding religious experience: the sacred and the
profane. These concepts not only pertain to religious phenomena but
also reflect broader social structures and values.
Durkheim’s theory of the sacred and the profane is crucial for
understanding how societies differentiate between what is
considered sacred (holy, revered, and protected) and profane
(ordinary, secular, and mundane) and how these distinctions
maintain social order and collective solidarity.
Key Concepts:
1. The Sacred:
 The sacred refers to things, objects, or practices that are set
apart, revered, and protected by society. These are considered
extraordinary, special, or divine and are surrounded by rules,
rituals, and prohibitions.
 Sacredness is not inherently intrinsic to an object but is socially
constructed and assigned by society. Through religious beliefs
and rituals, certain things are deemed worthy of reverence.
 The sacred serves as a focal point for collective feelings and
experiences of unity and connection. Durkheim argued that the
sacred helps to bind members of a community together by
 creating shared symbols and rituals that evoke powerful
collective emotions.
 Examples:
o Religious Symbols: The Christian cross, the Islamic
crescent, the Hindu Om symbol.
o Sacred Objects: Relics, holy books (e.g., Bible, Quran,
Torah), altars, and shrines.
o Sacred Places: Temples, mosques, churches, pilgrimage
sites like Mecca (for Muslims), the Ganges River (for
Hindus).
o Sacred Time: Religious holidays such as Christmas,
Ramadan, Diwali, and Passover, which create special
moments for collective worship and reflection.
2. The Profane:
 The profane encompasses everything that is ordinary,
mundane, and not religiously consecrated. It refers to the
everyday aspects of life that are not imbued with sacred
significance.
 While the profane is not necessarily bad or sinful, it is not
considered worthy of the same level of reverence, protection,
or importance as the sacred.
 The profane is associated with routine, functional activities that
do not have a sacred or spiritual dimension.
 Examples:
o Daily Life: Work, eating, and secular social interactions
are all part of the profane world.
 o Secular Institutions: Government buildings, schools, and
businesses are profane spaces as opposed to religious
spaces.
o Ordinary Time: Non-religious time, such as weekdays or
secular holidays.
3. The Dichotomy Between Sacred and Profane:
 Durkheim argued that this distinction between the sacred and
the profane is essential for social order and collective identity. It
helps to define boundaries within a society and provides a
moral framework for individuals to navigate their roles and
responsibilities.
 By creating distinctions between what is sacred and profane,
societies establish rules for behavior and norms for interaction,
thus fostering social cohesion and regulating interactions within
the community.
 Collective Conscience: The sacred represents the collective
conscience of a society. By participating in sacred rituals,
individuals strengthen their ties to the larger society and
contribute to its unity.
 Social Control: The sacred and profane distinction helps
regulate behavior. Actions that violate the sacred are often
viewed as taboos or sacrileges, leading to social sanctions,
while profane activities typically do not attract such strong
prohibitions.
4. The Role of Rituals:
 Rituals play a key role in maintaining the distinction between
the sacred and the profane. Religious rituals, like prayer,
worship, and sacrifices, are practices through which individuals
or groups interact with the sacred. These rituals create and
reinforce the collective conscience of the society.
  Rituals and Community Solidarity: Durkheim believed that
rituals are not just religious practices but also social acts that
bring people together. When individuals participate in these
communal rituals, they experience a sense of collective
effervescence—a heightened state of emotional energy and
solidarity. This collective experience reinforces social bonds and
contributes to a sense of belonging.
 Separation of Sacred and Profane: Rituals often involve a clear
distinction between what is sacred and what is profane. For
example, during a religious ceremony, the objects used
(candles, incense, altars) are considered sacred and treated
with reverence, while the everyday world outside the ritual
space remains profane.
Durkheim’s Argument on the Social Function of the Sacred and
Profane:
1. Social Cohesion:
o Durkheim saw religion—and the division between sacred
and profane—as a mechanism for maintaining social
cohesion. The shared participation in sacred rituals
creates a collective consciousness that binds individuals
together, forming the basis of social solidarity.
o In small, traditional societies, religion was often closely
tied to the community and could regulate nearly all
aspects of life. In larger, more complex societies, the role
of religion shifted, but Durkheim believed that the
distinction between the sacred and the profane still
played a key role in maintaining social order.
2. Morality and Social Regulation:
o Durkheim argued that the sacred is a reflection of societal
values. When individuals participate in sacred rituals, they
 affirm the moral codes and social norms that regulate
their behavior. Violating sacred rules (e.g., desecrating
holy objects, profaning religious rituals) is seen as a
violation of social order, and this can result in social
sanctions.
o The separation between sacred and profane also helps
regulate individual behavior, as sacred practices often
come with moral imperatives, and the profane remains
the realm of everyday, often less regulated activities.
3. The Sacred as a Reflection of Society:
o Durkheim famously argued that society itself is
worshiped through religious symbols and rituals. In his
view, the gods or deities that people worship are often
symbolic representations of society's collective values.
The sacred, therefore, serves to sanctify the social order
and the values that sustain it.
o In this sense, religion functions to reinforce the moral
authority of society’s collective norms and to legitimize
the existing social structure. For example, in many
traditional societies, religious beliefs about divine will
were often linked to the political authority of rulers or the
social hierarchy.
Examples Across Cultures:
1. Christianity:
o Sacred: The Bible, the church, the Holy Communion, and
Jesus Christ as the Son of God. Rituals like Mass, Baptism,
and Communion are performed in sacred spaces
(churches).
o Profane: Everyday life activities such as working, eating,
and engaging in non-religious social activities.
 2. Islam:
o Sacred: The Quran, the mosque, the Hajj pilgrimage to
Mecca, and daily prayers (Salat) are considered sacred.
Rituals such as fasting during Ramadan and zakat
(charitable giving) are also sacred practices.
o Profane: Secular actions such as eating, working, and
socializing outside of religious contexts.
3. Hinduism:
o Sacred: The Ganges River, temples, sacred books like the
Vedas and Bhagavad Gita, and religious figures like Krishna
and Shiva.
o Profane: Everyday activities such as work, eating, and
family life.
4. Judaism:
o Sacred: The Torah, synagogues, and the Sabbath
(Shabbat). Rituals such as circumcision, bar/bat mitzvahs,
and kosher dietary laws.
o Profane: Ordinary, non-religious activities such as
working, eating non-kosher food, and socializing.
5. Indigenous Religions:
o Sacred: Sacred rituals, objects, and places such as totem
poles, sacred mountains, and ancestral shrines.
o Profane: Daily survival activities, hunting, fishing, and
agricultural work.
Critiques and Extensions of Durkheim's Theory:
1. Functionalism Critique: Durkheim’s emphasis on the social
functions of religion has been criticized for downplaying the
 individual experience of the sacred and focusing too much on
societal needs for cohesion.
2. Secularization: With the rise of secularism and modernity, the
boundary between the sacred and the profane has become less
rigid in many societies. This has raised questions about the
relevance of Durkheim’s model in contemporary, pluralistic
societies.
3. Postmodern Critiques: Some argue that Durkheim’s model is
too Eurocentric and fails to account for the complexities of non-
Western religious traditions, where the sacred-profane
dichotomy may not always apply in the same way.
Conclusion:
Durkheim’s concept of the sacred and the profane remains a
foundational idea in the sociology of religion. The distinction
highlights how religion functions to organize society, reinforce
values, and maintain social cohesion. By examining what is
considered sacred versus profane, we can gain insight into the moral
codes, rituals, and symbols that bind individuals together in a
collective community. Although modern societies have evolved, the
enduring importance of sacred and profane categories in shaping
social life and collective identity remains significant.