Content

• History of Computers
• Hardware and software
• Memory Hierarchy
• CPU Architecture
• Primary Storage (ROM and RAM )
• Secondary Storage (HDD and SSD
• Basic of Operating system
• Introduction to File System
• OS Architectures( Windows and Linux)
 Definition of Computer

A computer is an electronic device that can accept data

(input), process it according to given instructions
(processing), store it, and produce information (output).

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 History of Computers

• Charles Babbage - father of computer

– Difference Engine: Could compute mathematical tables.

– Analytical Engine: Designed as a programmable machine.

• Frist Generation (1940–1956)

• Second Generation (1956–1963)
• Third Generation (1964–1971)
• Fourth Generation (1971–Present)
• Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)
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 First Generation (1940–1956): Vacuum tubes

• These computers were massive, slow, and expensive.

• Vacuum tubes were used for circuitry; magnetic drums
for memory.
• Filled entire rooms, generated excessive heat, and
consumed a great deal of electricity.
• Relied on machine language and used punch cards for
input.
• Examples: ENIAC and UNIVAC
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 Second Generation (1956–1963): Transistors

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.

• Smaller, faster, more energy-efficient, and more reliable
than first-generation machines.
• Magnetic tapes/disks for storage
• Shifted from machine language to assembly and early
high-level languages like FORTRAN and COBOL.
• Examples: IBM 1401
• Still costly and Needed special cooling systems needed .
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 Third Generation (1964–1971): ICs
• Transistors miniaturized and placed on silicon chips (ICs).
• Smaller, more affordable, more reliable, and generated less
heat.
• Users interacted with keyboards and monitors through an
operating system.
• High-level languages like BASIC were introduced.
• Allowed multi-programming (running several tasks).
• Still relatively costly for individuals.
• Needed cooling systems. 6

• Examples: IBM System/360

Fourth Generation (1971–Present): Microprocessors

• Entire CPU integrated into a single chip (microprocessor).

• Very small in size, personal computers introduced.
• Modern programming languages like C, C++, and Python
flourished.
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) made computers much
easier to use.
• RAM , ROM, and HDD used.
• Increased storage capacity.
• Examples: IBM PC 7
 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)-AI

• Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and parallel

processing, using ULSI.
• The goal is to create systems capable of learning,
reasoning, and responding to natural language input.
• Very fast and portable.
• Connectivity (Internet, Cloud)
• Examples: Smartphones, AI systems, cloud computing.

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 HARDWARE
• Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements
that constitutes a computer system.
• Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or
components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse,
keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD),
etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched.

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 SOFTWARE
• Software is basically a set of instructions or commands
that tell a computer to do a specific task that serves its
users.

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 Input/Output Devices
• An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is
any hardware that allows a human operator or other
systems to interface with a computer.

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 INPUT DEVICES
Keyboard
• The keyboard is the most frequent and widely used input
device for entering data into a computer.
• Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or
101/102 keys, but currently keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and the Internet.
• Numeric Keys, Typing Keys, Control Keys, Special Keys,
Function Keys

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 INPUT DEVICES
Mouse
•The most common pointing device is the mouse. The
mouse is used to move a little cursor across the screen while
clicking and dragging.
•The left mouse button can be used to select or move items,
while the right mouse button when clicked displays extra
menus.

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 INPUT DEVICES
Joystick
• A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the
cursor on a computer screen.

• A spherical ball is attached to both the bottom and top

ends of the stick. In a socket, the lower spherical ball
slides. You can move the joystick in all four directions.

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 INPUT DEVICES
Light Pen
• A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a
pen. It can be used to select a menu item or to draw on the
monitor screen. A photocell and an optical system are
enclosed in a tiny tube.

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 INPUT DEVICES
Scanner
• A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a
photocopier. It’s employed when there’s information on
paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard
disc for subsequent manipulation.

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 OUTPUT DEVICES
Monitor
• Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs),
are a computer’s primary output device.

• It creates images by arranging small dots, known as

pixels, in a rectangular pattern. The amount of pixels
determines the image’s sharpness.
Printer
• Printers are output devices that allow you to print
information on paper. 18
 Memory Hierarchy
• Memory hierarchy represents the structure of computer memory
organized based on speed, cost, and size.

• Faster memories are small and expensive, placed close to CPU.

• Slower memories are larger and cheaper, placed farther away.

• Goal: balance performance and cost.

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 Memory Hierarchy
Level 0: CPU Registers
• Location: Inside CPU.
• Speed: Fastest memory (nanoseconds).
• Size: Very small.
• Function:
• Holds operands for immediate execution.
• Stores results of operations.

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 Memory Hierarchy
Level 1: Cache Memory
• Location: Between CPU and Main Memory (often inside
CPU chip).
• Speed: Faster than RAM, slower than registers.
• Size: Small (KBs to few MBs).
• Function:
• Stores frequently accessed data/instructions.
• Reduces time to access data from RAM.
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 Memory Hierarchy
Level 2: Main Memory (RAM)
•Location: Outside CPU, connected via system bus.
•Speed: Slower than cache, faster than disk.
•Size: GBs (commonly 4–64 GB in modern PCs).
•Function:
• Stores active programs and data.
• Volatile → data lost when power is off.

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 Memory Hierarchy
Level 3: Secondary Storage
•Examples: Hard Disk (HDD), Solid State Drive (SSD).
•Speed: Slowest in hierarchy.
•Size: Huge (TBs).
•Function:
• Stores OS, applications, files permanently.
• Non-volatile → data retained even after power off.

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CPU Architecture

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 CPU Architecture
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
•Performs arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply,
divide).

•Performs logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR,

comparisons).

CU (Control Unit)

• Directs the flow of data and instructions.

• Generates control signals for memory, ALU, and I/O.

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 Computer Memory
• Memory is the storage area of a computer where data,
instructions, and results are stored, either temporarily or
permanently, for use by the CPU.

• Units of Memory
• Bit - Smallest unit of computer memory
• Byte - 8 bit = 1 byte
• Kilobyte - 1024 byte = 1 kb
• Megabyte - 1024 kb = 1 mb
• Gigabyte - 1024 mb = 1 gb
• Terabyte - 1024 gb = 1 tb 26
Types of Computer Memory

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 Primary Memory
• This is the main memory of the computer. CPU can
directly read or write on this memory. It is fixed on the
motherboard of the computer.

• Primary memory is further divided in two types:

• RAM(Random Access Memory)

• ROM(Read Only Memory)

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 Primary Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory)
•Temporary memory used by CPU to store data/programs
while in use.
•The information stored in this memory is lost as the power
supply to the computer is turned off. That’s why it is also
called Volatile Memory.
Types:

•SRAM (Static RAM): Faster, costlier, used for Cache.

•DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Slower, cheaper, used as main

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memory.
 Primary Memory
ROM (Read Only Memory)
•Non-volatile memory (retains data even when power is off).
•Contains permanent instructions needed for booting/startup
(BIOS/firmware).
•Data is read-only, cannot be overwritten by the computer.
•Mainly there are three types of ROM
– PROM
– EPROM
– EEPROM
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 Primary Memory
PROM (Programmable ROM)
• Blank ROM that can be programmed once by the user.

• Once data is written, it cannot be erased or changed.

• Useful for storing permanent data (e.g., embedded systems).

• Limitation: One-time programmable → mistakes cannot be

corrected.

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 Primary Memory
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

• Can be erased and reprogrammed.

• Erasing is done using ultraviolet (UV) light.

• After erasing, new data can be written with a programmer.

• Reusable, but erasing/reprogramming is slow.

• Used in development and testing environments.

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 Primary Memory
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)
• Can be erased and reprogrammed electrically.

• Allows byte-level erasing/writing, faster than EPROM.

• Non-volatile → retains data without power.

• Can be rewritten thousands of times.

• Used in modern devices (microcontrollers, flash memory).

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 Secondary Memory
• This memory is permanent in nature.

• It is used to store the different programs and the

information permanently.

• It is non volatile in nature so that we can not loose the

data when power supply is off.

• Examples: HDD , SSD, CD, etc.

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Hard Drive Hardware

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A Multi-Platter Disk

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 Addressing and Geometry
• Externally, hard drives expose a large number of sectors
(blocks)
– Individual sector writes are atomic
• Drive geometry
– Sectors arranged into tracks
– A cylinder is a particular track on multiple platters
– Tracks arranged in concentric circles on platters
– A disk may have multiple, double-sided platters
• Drive motor spins the platters at a constant rate
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– Measured in revolutions per minute (RPM)

 Geometry Example
Sector Three tracks

12
11 13
23 24 25
10 14
32
9 22 31 33 26 15
Rotation

8 21 30 34 27 0 Read head

7 20 29 35 16 1
28 Seeks across the
6 19
18
17 2 various tracks
5 3
4

Outer tracks hold

One platter
more data 38
 Types of Delay With Disks
Long delay Three types of delay
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12
13
1. Rotational Delay
10 23 24 25 14 – Time to rotate the desired
9 22 31
32
33 26 15
sector to the read head
– Related to RPM
8 21 30 34 27 0
2. Seek delay
7 20 29 35 16 1
28 – Time to move the read head
19 17 2
6
18 to a different track
5 3
4
3. Transfer time
TrackShort
skew:delay
offset sectors so – Time to read or write bytes
that sequential reads across
tracks incorporate seek delay 39
 SSD
• Hard drives have been around since 1956

– The cheapest way to store large amounts of data

– Sizes are still increasing rapidly

• However, hard drives are typically the slowest

component in most computers

• Hard drives are not suitable for mobile devices

– Fragile mechanical components can break

– The disk motor is extremely power hungry

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 Solid State Drives

• NAND flash memory-based drives

– High voltage is able to change the configuration of
a floating-gate transistor
– State of the transistor interpreted as binary data

Data is striped
Flash memory across all chips
chip

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 Advantages of SSDs
• More resilient against physical damage
– No sensitive read head or moving parts
– Immune to changes in temperature
• Greatly reduced power consumption
– No mechanical, moving parts
• Much faster than hard drives
– >500 MB/s vs ~200 MB/s for hard drives
– No penalty for random access
• Each flash cell can be addressed directly
• No need to rotate or seek
– Extremely high throughput
• Although each flash chip is slow, they are RAIDed
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 Challenges with Flash
• Flash memory is written in pages, but erased in
blocks
– Pages: 4 – 16 KB, Blocks: 128 – 256 KB
– Thus, flash memory can become fragmented
• Flash memory can only be written a fixed number of
times
– Typically 3000 – 5000 cycles for MLC
– SSDs use wear leveling to evenly distribute writes
across all flash cells

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 G moved to new block
Write Amplification
by the garbage collector
Block X Block Y
Stale pages
Cleaned A
K D G C’ F’
G C’’ F’’ J
cannot be
block can
overwritten BL E A’ D’ A’’ D’’ H A’’’
now be
or erased
rewritten C F B’ E’ B’’ E’’ I B’’’
individually

• Once all pages have been written, valid pages must

be consolidated to free up space

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 Feature HDD SSD

Storage
spinning magnetic disks NAND flash memory
Technology

Slower boot times and file Much faster boot times and file
Speed
access. access.

Durability prone to damage. More durable

Noise noise due to spinning disks. Operates silently.

Power
Consumes more power. Uses less power
Consumption
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 Feature HDD SSD

More affordable per GB, More expensive per GB but

Cost
cost-effective offers better performance.

Ideal for budget-friendly, Best for high-speed computing,

Best Use Case
high-capacity storage. fast system performance.

Less reliable due to moving More reliable (no moving

Reliability
parts (e.g., head crash) parts, less risk of failure)

Wears out over time due to Lasts longer but has limited write
Lifespan
mechanical movement. cycles.

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 Software
• There are two general types of software.
• System software
• Application software

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 System software

• System software is responsible for controlling,

integrating, and managing the individual hardware
components of a computer.

• Generally, system software consists of an operating

system and some fundamental utilities such as disk
formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors,
and networking and device control software.
 Application software
• Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other
than just running the computer system.

• Application software may consist of a single program, such as an

image viewer; a small collection of programs (often called a
software package).

• A larger collection (often called a software suite) of related but

independent programs and packages that have a common user
interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office.
 Operating System
• An Operating System is a program that acts as an
intermediary/interface between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware.
• OS goals:
– Control/execute user/application programs.
– Make the computer system convenient to use.
– Ease the solving of user problems.
– Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
 Functional Components of an OS
The most important components of an operating
system are:
• Process manager
• Memory manager
• Resource manager
• File manager
• Device manager

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 Services Provided by the OS

• Process Control, execution, scheduling, etc.

• Communication between processes
• File Manipulation
• Device Manipulation
• Memory Management

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