A.

Introduction
Groundwater is the underground water that occurs in the saturated zone of variable thickness
and depth, below the earth’s surface. Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface
in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of lithological formations. A unit of rock or an
unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The
depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with
water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the
surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or
wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by
constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of
groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology. The endless circulation of
water as it moves in its various phases through the atmosphere, to the Earth, over and through
the land, to the ocean, and back to the atmosphere is known as the hydrologic cycle. This cycle
is powered by the Sun; through phase changes of water (i.e. evaporation and condensation)
involving storage and release of latent heat, it affects the global circulation of both atmosphere
and oceans, process for the fluxes of water, energy, and the chemical elements. This cycle is the
foundation of hydrological science and occurs over a wide range of space and time scales.

Fig- 1. Schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle (from Freeze, 1974)

B.Groundwater

1
Typically, groundwater is thought of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but
technically it can also include soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very
low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is
hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is
likely that much of the Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other
fluids in some instances. Water enters the hydrologic system as precipitation, in the form of
rainfall or snowmelt. It leaves the system as streamflow or runoff, and as evapotranspiration, a
combination of evaporation from open bodies of water, evaporation from soil surfaces, and
transpiration from the soil by plants. Precipitation is delivered to streams on the land surface as
overland flow to tributary channels, and in the subsurface as interflow or lateral subsurface flow
and baseflow following infiltration into the soil. A portion of the infiltrated water enters the
groundwater or aquifer system by passing through the vadose or unsaturated zone, and it exits to
the atmosphere, surface water, or to plants. As Figure 1 shows, the flowlines deliver
groundwater from the highlands towards the valleys, or from the recharge areas to the discharge
areas.

C.Aquifer

2
An aquifer is a layer of relatively porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater.
When water can flow directly between the surface and the saturated zone of an aquifer, the
aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since
gravity causes water to flow downward. The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined
aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where generally all
pore spaces are saturated with water is the phreatic zone. Substrate with relatively low porosity
that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard. An aquiclude is a
substrate with porosity that is so low it is virtually impermeable to groundwater.A confined
aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate such
as an aquiclude or aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge
zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells that flow
freely without the need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the
above, unconfined, aquifer.The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of
the substrate and topography in which they occur. Generally, the more productive aquifers occur
in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks
yield relatively smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to
poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley-filling sediments in major
river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the most
productive sources of groundwater.The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating
effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a
relatively steady temperature. In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained
by this effect at about 50°F/10°C, groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature
inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can
be pumped through radiators in a home and then returned to the ground in another well. During
cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of
heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air. The relatively constant
temperature of groundwater can also be used for heat pumps. 0.61% of the entire world's water,
including oceans and permanent ice. Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from
precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches the water table. It is estimated that
the volume of groundwater comprises 30.1% of all freshwater resource on earth compared to
0.3% in surface freshwater; the icecaps and glaciers are the only larger sources of fresh water on
earth at 68.7%. Groundwater can be a long-term 'reservoir' of the natural water cycle (with
residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like the
atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years).

3
 Fig-2. Natural Cycle of Deep Groundwater Recharge

The figure shows how deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can
take a very long time to complete its natural cycle. As also the figure shows, in a recharge area
there is a component to the direction of groundwater flow that is downward. Groundwater
recharge is the entry to the saturated zone of water made available at the water table surface.
Conversely, in a discharge area there is a component to the direction of groundwater flow that is
upward (Figure 1). Groundwater discharge is the removal of water from the saturated zone
across the water table surface. The patterns of groundwater flow from the recharge to the
discharge areas form groundwater flow systems, which constitute the framework for
understanding recharge processes. The route which ground water takes to a discharge point is
known as a flow path. A set of flow paths with common recharge and discharge areas is termed a
groundwater flow system. The three-dimensional closed system that contains the entire flow
paths followed by all water recharging the groundwater system has been termed a groundwater
basin. Groundwater possesses energy mainly by virtue of its elevation (elevation or gravitational
head) and its pressure (pressure head).

4
 D. Importance of Ground Water
Groundwater, which is in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one of the Nation's most
important natural resources.
Groundwater is the source of
about 33 percent of the water
that county and city water
departments supply to
households and businesses
(public supply). It provides
drinking water for more than 90
percent of the rural population
who do not get their water
delivered to them from a
county/city water department or
private water company. Even
some major cities, such as San
Antonio, Texas, rely solely on
groundwater for all their needs.
About 42 percent of the water used for irrigation comes from groundwater. Withdrawals of
groundwater are expected to rise as the population increases and available sites for surface
reservoirs become more
limited. The megacity of
Kolkata, the capital of the state
of West Bengal, India, is
approximately 187 km 2 in
area and home to a population
of 4.5 million. The city is
situated on the eastern bank of
the River Hugli, about 130 km
north of the Bay of Bengal
(Fig. (a), inset), and is the
main business, commercial
and financial hub of the
eastern and northeastern states
of India. The greater
metropolitan area of Kolkata is
home to over 13 million residents. Part of this area, Salt Lake City (Fig. (b)), was built in the
1960s to accommodate Kolkata’s burgeoning population. The township was reclaimed from

5
wetlands, the remainder of which are now used to treat Kolkata’s wastewater. This East Kolkata
Wetland (EKW) (Fig. (b)) has been designated a “wetland of international importance” under
the Ramsar Convention (2010). Kolkata is located on the lower part of the deltaic alluvial plain
of the southern Bengal Basin. Sedimentary deposits are flu- vial, of Quaternary age, and have
been continuously deposited by the River Ganges (Fig. (a)) and its tributaries and distributaries.
The city is dotted with numerous industries that produce products such as jute, basic metal
alloys, organic chemicals, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, paints and varnish, acid, pesticides,
leather, and coal-based power, which are all sources of water, soil and air pollution. As in other
major urban centres, these industries and the enormous population require large quantities of
water, much of which is supplied by groundwater abstraction. There are several potential
sources of groundwater contamination in this area. One is the EKW, a complex of natural and
human-made freshwater wetlands, which covers an area of 125 km 2 and comprises marshes
with wastewater treatment areas that include sewage farms, settling ponds and oxidation basins

6
 E. Ground-Water Recharge
Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process
where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary
method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the vadose
zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface.
Recharge occurs in two ways:
1. Naturally (through the water cycle)
2. Through anthropogenic processes
(i.e., "artificial groundwater
recharge"), where rainwater and
or reclaimed water is routed to the
subsurface.
Groundwater is recharged naturally
by rain and snow melt and to a smaller
extent by surface water (rivers and
lakes). Recharge may be impeded
somewhat by human activities. These
activities can result in loss of topsoil Fig-3. Groundwater zone
and reduced water infiltration, enhanced surface runoff and reduction in recharge. Groundwater
recharge is an important process for sustainable groundwater management, since the volume-
rate abstracted from an aquifer in the long term should be less than or equal to the volume-rate
that is recharged.
Artificial groundwater recharge is becoming increasingly important in India, where over-
pumping of groundwater by farmers has led to underground resources becoming depleted. In
2007, on the recommendations of the International Water Management Institute, the Indian
government allocated ₹1,800 crore (equivalent to ₹39 billion or US$590 million in 2017) to
fund dug-well recharge projects (a dug-well is a wide, shallow well, often lined with concrete) in
100 districts within seven states where water stored in hard-rock aquifers had been over-
exploited. Another environmental issue is the disposal of waste through the water flux such as
dairy farms, industrial, and urban runoff.

7
 F. ESTIMATION OF NATURAL GROUND
WATER RECHARGE
Estimation of groundwater recharge is a complexity of factors – hydrogeological, hydrological
and climatological, control the groundwater occurrence and movement. The precise assessment
of recharge and discharge is rather difficult, as no techniques are currently available for their
direct measurements. Hence, the methods employed for groundwater resource estimation are all
indirect.

Fig 4: Step for estimation & categorization of annual replenishable groundwater

resources

8
Groundwater being a dynamic and replenishable resource is generally estimated based on the
component of annual recharge. The groundwater resources in unconfined aquifers can be
classified as static and dynamic. The static resources can be defined as the amount of
groundwater available in the permeable portion of the aquifer below the zone of water level
fluctuation. The dynamic resources can be defined as the amount of groundwater available in the
zone of water level fluctuation. The replenishable groundwater resource is essentially a dynamic
resource which is replenished annually or periodically by precipitation, irrigation return flow,
canal seepage, tank seepage, influent seepage, etc.

There are mainly two methods of recharge volume against rainfall data namely Water Level
Fluctuation (WLF) and Rainfall Infiltration Method (RIM).

1. Water Level Fluctuation Method:

The water-table fluctuation (WTF) method provides an estimate of groundwater recharge by
analysis of water-level fluctuations in observation wells. The method is based on the assumption
that a rise in water-table elevation measured in shallow wells is caused by the addition of
recharge across the water table.
Recharge by the WTF method is estimated as:
R(tj) = Sy* H(tj) (1)
where R(tj) (cm) is recharge occurring between times
t0 and tj, Sy is specific yield (dimensionless), and H(tj) is
the peak water level rise attributed to the recharge period
(cm). Although simple in theory, some key assumptions
and critical issues inherent in the WTF method have great
bearing on its successful application: (1) the observed
well hydrograph depicts only natural water-table fluctuations caused by groundwater recharge
and discharge; (2) Sy is known and constant over the time period of the water-table fluctuations,
and (3) the pre-recharge water-level recession can be extrapolated to determine H(tj).This
method is done in Monsoon time.

2. Rainfall Infiltration Method:

9
Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which water enters into the soil at the ground surface.
The infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency, if any, and further the excess water
moves vertical and inclined direction to reach the groundwater table. Infiltration rate can be
determined using W- index method from following equation “(2)”. The Windex is the average
infiltration rate where rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity rate. W-index = t P − R
(2) Estimation of infiltration loss by W- index. Where, P = Total Rainfall (cm) R = Surface
Runoff (cm) t = Duration of Storm (hr.) If w- index is greater than rainfall intensity, then
infiltration is equal to rainfall. And if the W-index is less than rainfall intensity then infiltration
is equal to w-index .

HORTON'S INFILTRATION MODEL: The infiltration process was thoroughly studied

by Horton in the early 1930s [4).An outgrowth of his work, was the following relation for
determining
Infiltration capacity fp=fc+(fo- fc) e-kt
Where, fp= the infiltration capacity (depth/time) at some time t
k= a constant representing the rate of decrease in / capacity
fc= a final or equilibrium capacity
fo = the initial infiltration capacity

It indicates that if the rainfall supply exceeds the infiltration capacity, infiltration tends to
decrease in an exponential manner. Although simple in form, difficulties in determining useful
values for /0 and k restrict the use of this equation. The area under the curve for any time
interval represents the depth of water infiltrated during that interval. The infiltration rate is
usually given in inches per hour and the time t in minutes, although othdr time increments are
used and the coefficient k is determined accordingly.

Normalisation of rainfall recharge: The water table fluctuation in an aquifer corresponds to

the rainfall of the year of observation. The rainfall recharge estimated should be corrected to the
long term normal rainfall for the area as given by India Meteorological Department.
For calculating the annual recharge during monsoon the formula indicated below may be
adopted.
Monsoon Recharge = (S + DW - RS - RIGW - RIS) ×Normal Monsoon RF+ RS + RIS
Annual Monsoon RF

10
where,

S = change in ground water storage volume during pre and post monsoon period
(April/May to November), (million cubic metre or mcm) obtained as below:-

Area (sq.km.) x Water level fluctuation (m) x Specific yield

The areas not suitable for recharge like high hilly and saline area should be excluded.

DW = gross ground water draft during monsoon (mcm)

RS = recharge from canal seepage during monsoon (mcm).
RIGW = recharge from recycled water from ground water irrigation during monsoon (mcm).
RIS = recharge from recycled water from surface water irrigation during monsoon (mcm)
RF = rainfall (metre).
To eliminate the effects of drought or surplus rainfall years, the recharge during monsoon is
estimated as above for a period of 3 to 5 years and an average figure is taken for long term
recharge. Recharge from winter rainfall may also be estimated on the same lines.

These methods are used to estimate the recharge volume from rainfall during monsoonal season
and the equations are described in Table 1. The recharge volume during non-monsoonal
period is calculated by using RIM only. The methods of governing equations are highlighted
in Table 1.

Method/Type Equation Remarks

Recharge from tanks & RT = AWSA*days*RFact AWSA=avgwater spread

ponds (RT in ha-m) here RFact= 1.4 mm/d area, RFact=a recharge factor

in mm/d

Recharge from Rainfall, RRF RRF = NMR x A x RFIF NMR=normal monsoon

11
using Rainfall Infiltration rainfall, RFIF=rainfall

factor method (RIF)

infiltration factor, A=total area

of the sub unit

A = area suitable for recharge,

Recharge from rainfall WLF=water level fluctuation,
using water level RRF = (A x WLF x S y) + D -
fluctuation Sy =specific yield, D=gross
Rother
Draft and Rother=recharge
method (WLF)
from other sources.

Table 1. Governing equations for calculation of recharge volume

3. Recharge from other sources:

a) Recharge due to seepage from canals:The following norms may be adopted in most of the
areas except where realistic values have been arrived at, from project studies.
(i) For unlined canals in normal type of soil with some clay content along with sand:15 to 20
ham/day/106 sq.m of wetted area of canal
(ii) For unlined canals in sandy soils :-25 to 30 ham/day/106 sq.m of wetted area
(iii) For lined canals, the seepage losses may be taken as 20 percent of the above value

12
b) Return seepage from irrigation fields
(i) Irrigation by surface water sources
(a) 35% of water delivered at the outlet for application in the field. The variation in
percentage of seepage may be guided by studies undertaken in the area or in a similar area.
(b) 40% of water delivered at outlets for paddy irrigation only.
(ii) Irrigation by ground water sources
1. 30% of the water delivered at outlet. For paddy irrigation 35% as return seepage of
the water delivered may be taken.
In all the above cases, return seepage figures include losses in the field channel also and these
should not be accounted for separately.
c) Seepage from tanks
The seepage from the tanks may be taken as 44 to 60cm per year over the total water spread.
The seepage from percolation tanks is higher and may be taken as 50% of its gross storage. In
case of seepage from ponds and lakes, the norms as applied to tanks may be taken.
Annual ground water recharge:
The annual replenishable ground water recharge includes the following components :
Total annual recharge = Recharge during monsoon + Non-monsoon rainfall recharge + Seepage
from canals + Return flow from irrigation + Inflow from influent rivers etc. + Recharge from
submerged lands, lakes etc.

13
 G. Water Budget:
A water budget reflects the relationship between input and output of water through a region.
The water balance graph shows precipitation and potential evapotranspiration both as line
graphs. Thus we have a direct comparison of supply of water and the natural demand for water

Water Budget equation: A general Water Budget Equation is-

P=Q+ E +∆ S
Where,
P = Precipitatiom
Q =Surface runoff, Q=CIA,Where, A=Area, I=Intencity of rainfall, C=Runoff
coefficient
E = Evaporation
∆ S = Change in Storage( in Soil or the Bed-rock)

14
 H. Calculation of natural recharging in
the year 2016 in Kolkata
 Calculation of Evaporation and Precipitation:
MONTH PRICIPITATION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
(mm) (mm)
JANUARY 38.39 4.88
FEBRUARY 5.67 5.37
MARCH 23.57 6.19
APRIL 28.2 6.88
MAY 16.11 6.82
JUNE 5.8 5.92
JULY 229.31 4.91
AUGUST 360.4 4.69
SEPTEMBER 396.87 4.67
OCTOBER 347.53 4.68
NOVEMBER 226.81 5.18
DECEMBER 155.21 4.91

TABLE 2. PRECIPITATION AND EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION IN KOLKATA 2016

Chart Title
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
L
R Y R Y CH RI AY NE LY ST BE
R
BE
R
BE
R
BE
R
UA UA AR A P M JU JU U
N BR M UG EM TO EM EM
JA FE
A PT OC V
DE
C
SE NO

PRICIPITATION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

TABLE 3. BAR DIAGRAM OF PRECIPITATION AND EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION

15
 Calculation of Surface Run-off:
For January,
Q=CIA
Q=0.5 x 185 x 38.39 x 1012 [ A=185 km(kolkata)
15
Q=3.59 x 10 mm3/month C=0.5
6
Q=3.59 x 10 m3/month I=38.39 mm ]
In a similar way we calculate the runoff for other months

 Calculation of Change in Storage:

For January,
ΔS=(P x A)-(E x A)-R
ΔS=(38.39 x 185 x 1012)-(4.88 x 187 x 1012)-(3.59 x 1015)
ΔS=2.67 x 1015 mm3/month=2.67 x 106 m3/month
In a similar way we calculate the runoff for other months

RUNOFF CHANGE IN STORAGE

MONTH
mm3/month mm3/month

JANUARY 3.59*1015 2.67*1015

FEBRUARY 5.28*1014 -4.72*1014
MARCH 2.16*1015 1.01*1015
APRIL 2.64*1015 1.36*1015
MAY 1.50*1015 0.23*1015
JUNE 5.43*1014 -5.57*1014
JULY 2.14*1016 20.48*1015
AUGUST 3.37*1016 32.82*1015
SEPTEMBER 3.71*1016 36.22*1015
OCTOBER 3.25*1016 31.56*1015
NOVEMBER 2.12*1016 20.23*1015
DECEMBER 1.45*1016 13.52*1015

TABLE 4. RUN-OFF AND CHANGE IN STORAGE

According to water budjet equation total change in storage in the year 2016 is
ΔS=1.59*1017 mm3/month=1.59*108 m3
TOTAL GROUND-WATER RECHARGE:

16
 Method Equation Remarks
Recharge from RRF = (A x WLF x Sy) + D - Rother A=area suitable for
rainfall using recharge
RRF =(187.33*10002*15*7) +1200
water level
WLF=water level
fluctuation 100
fluctuation
method
RRF= 1.97*108 m3
Sy=specific yield
17 3
RRF= 1.97*10 mm
D=gross draft
4
RRF= 1.97*10 he-m
Recharge from RIF=NMR*A*RFIF NMR=normal monsoon
rainfall using rainfall
RIF=992.38*187.33*0.15*1012
rainfall
RFIF=rainfall infiltration
infiltration RIF=2.79*1016 mm3
factor
method
RIF=2.79*107 m3
A=total area
3
RIF=2.79*10 ha-m

Recharge from RT=ASWS*days*RFact ASWA=avg . water spread

tanks & ponds area
RT=11984353*365*1.4
RFact=a recharge factor in
RT=6.12*106 m3
mm/d(here
RT=6.12*102 ha-m RFact=1.4mm/d)

TABLE 5. TOTAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE IN KOLKATA 2016

Total recharge of water=1.97×104 +2.79×103+6.12×102

=2.31*104 ha-m

17
 I. Artificial Groundwater Recharge
The artificial recharge to ground water aims at augmentation of ground water reservoir by
modifying the natural movement of surface water utilizing suitable civil construction
techniques. Artificial recharge techniques normally address to following issues-
a. To enhance the sustainable yield in
areas where over-development has
depleted the aquifer.
b. To ensure that ground settlements
caused by drawdown are small, this
reducing the risk of damage to nearby
structures.
c. To avoid depletion of water resources
when dewatering is carried out in
aquifers used for water supply.

es d. Conservation and storage of excess surface water for future requirements, since these
requirements often changes within a season or a period.
e. To reduce environmental impacts on sensitive water-dependent features such as wetlands.
f. To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution.
g. To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste water so that water
is suitable for re-use.
Groundwater Engineering provides complete artificial recharge solutions:
 Design of recharge systems
 Well drilling and installation
 Pumping and recharge tests
 Equipment sales and rental
 Monitoring systems
 On-site operation and maintenance
The basic purpose of artificial recharge of ground water is to restore supplies from aquifers
depleted due to excessive ground water development.

J. Methods of Artificial Recharge

18
 A wide spectrum of techniques are in vogue to recharge ground water reservoir. Similar to the
variations in hydrogeological framework, the artificial recharge techniques too vary widely.
The artificial recharge techniques can be broadly categorised as follows:-
1. Direct Surface Techniques
1.1. Flooding
1.2. Basins or percolation tanks
1.3. Stream augmentation
1.4. Ditch and furrow system

2. Direct Sub Surface Techniques

2.1. Injection wells or recharge wells
2.2. Dug well recharge
2.3. Recharge pits and shafts
2.4. Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting and Aquifer Recharge

1. Direct Surface Techniques

1.1. Flooding: This method is suitable for relatively flat topography .Water is spread as a
thin sheet .It requires systems of distribution channel for the supply of water for flooding .
This method can achieve higher rate of
infiltration in a region having thin
vegetation cover or sand soil cover . An
average daily rate of recharge of 80
mm/thy for a 32‐day period each year
was achieved through a clay loam soil.
There were no adverse effects on the
grapevines and yields in the flooded
plots in any of the growing seasons
following recharge periods. Yields were Fig-5. Artificial Recharge by Flooding
higher in the recharge plots than in the control plots in the last year of the study. We
conclude that artificial ground water recharge by continuous flooding during grapevine
dormancy is a viable recharge method.

1.2. Basins or perco

recharge. Unlike flooding here the water is

19
 impounded on series of small basins or tanks. Percolation tanks with wells and shafts
Percolation tanks are also constructed to recharge deeper aquifers where shallow or
superficial formations are highly impermeable or clayey with certain modification.
Recharge wells with filter are constructed in the Percolation Tanks and the stored water is
Moti Ranjan and Bhujpur, Mandvi Kutch district, Gujarat.

1.3. Stream Augmentation: Seepage from natural streams or rivers are very common
form of groundwater recharge. The runoff
water is arrested through check bunds or
widening the stream beds thus the larger
area is available to spread the river water
increasing the infiltration. Results
indicated that the aquifer could be used to
improve low-flow season streamflow
values utilizing both infiltration basins
and injection wells with winter surface
water diversions. Depending on the Fig-7. Stream Augmentation
location, as much as 30% of the winter
diversion rate could be lagged to improve summer flows at the Spokane gage. Thus, a
regional mitigation strategy is scientifically feasible.

1.4. Ditch and Furrow System: This method is suitable for undulated or irregular
topographic region. Ditches and furrows
produces maximum water contact area for
recharge as other methods won’t be applicable
in this respect. Generally three patterns of
ditch and furrow system are adopted. This
technique consists of a system of shallow, flat
bottomed and closely spaced ditches, which
Fig-8. Ditch and Furrow System are used to carry water from sources like
stream or distribution channels. These provide
more percolation opportunity.
2.Direct Sub-Surface Techniques:

20
2.1. Injection Wells or Recharge Wells: Injection wells are structures similar to a
tube well but with the purpose of augmenting the groundwater storage of a confined aquifer
by pumping in treated surface water under pressure. The injection wells are advantageous
when land is scarce. In alluvial
areas injection well recharging
a single aquifer or multiple
aquifers can be constructed to
normal gravel packed pumping
well. An injection pipe with
opening against the aquifer to
be recharged may be sufficient.
The injection wells as a means
of artificial recharge are
comparatively costlier and
require specialised techniques
Fig-9. Injection Well Recharge
of tubewell constructed
supported by operation and maintenance to protect the recharge well from clogging.

2.2. Dug Well Recharge: In alluvial as well as hard rock areas, there are thousands of dug
wells which have either gone dry or the water levels have declined considerably. These dug
wells can be used as structures to
recharge. The ground water reservoir,
storm water, tank water, canal water etc.
can be diverted into these structures to
directly recharge the dried aquifer. By
doing so the soil moisture losses during
the normal process of artificial recharge,
are reduced. The recharge water is
guided through a pipe to the bottom of
Fig-10. Dug Well Recharge well, below the water level to
avoid scoring of bottom and entrapment
of air bubbles in the aquifer. The quality of source water including the silt content should
be such that the quality of
ground water reservoir is not
deteriorated.
2.3. Recharge Pits and
Shafts: These are the most
efficient and cost effective
21
 structures to recharge the aquifer directly. In the areas where source of water is available
either for some time or perennially e.g. base flow, springs etc. the recharge shaft can be
constructed. Recharge shafts are constructed in the situation when phreatic aquifers are not
hydraulically in connection with the surface water. Generally on a regional scale
impermeable layers or lenses form barrier between the surface water and water table, and
thus the water spreading methods show low efficiency in recharge. For effective recharge
of the aquifers, the less permeable zones are required to be penetrated so that the aquifer
zones can receive the water. The recharge shafts can be constructed in two different ways
viz. Vertical and lateral.

2.4. Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting or Recharge Well: In urban areas where
open land is not commonly available, roof top rain water can be conserved and used for
recharge of ground water. This approach
requires connecting the outlet pipe from
roof top to divert the rain water to either
existing wells / tube wells / bore wells or
specially designed recharge trench /
recharge shaft cum bore well. Drain pipes,
roof surface sand storage tanks should be
constructed of chemically inert materials
such as plastics, aluminum, galvanized iron
or fiber glass, in order to avoid
contaminating the rainwater. The impact of
recharge through these structures to ground
water regime is local, but if implemented on a
massive scale, it can raise the water level Fig-12. Roof Top Rain Water
remarkably and increase the sustainability Harvesting
of water supply through shallow depth ground water structures.

K. Rain water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than
allowing it to run off. Rainwater can be collected from rivers or roofs, and in many places, the
water collected is redirected to a deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation,
or collected from dew or fog with nets or other tools. Its uses include water for
gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, indoor heating for houses,
etc. The harvested water can also be used as drinking water, longer-term storage, and for other
purposes such as groundwater recharge. Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest
methods of self-supply of water for households usually financed by the user. In Urban areas,
22
the roof top rainwater can be conserved and used for recharge of ground water. This approach
requires connecting the outlet pipe from rooftop to divert the water to either existing wells/
tubewells/borewell or specially designed wells. The urban housing complexes or institutional
buildings have large roof area and can be utilising for harvesting roof top rainwater to recharge
aquifer in urban areas. Table shows availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater
Harvesting.

Rainfall(mm) 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Roof top Harvested water from Roof top (cum)
area (sqm)
20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.6 28.8 32
30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4 43.2 48
40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2 57.6 64
50 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8 86.4 96
70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6 100.8 112
80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102.4 115.2 128
90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 57.6 72 86.4 100.8 115.2 129.6 144
100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160
150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256 288 320
250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384 432 480
400 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512 576 640
500 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
1000 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280 1440 1600
2000 160 320 480 640 800 960 1280 1600 1920 2240 2560 2880 3200
3000 240 480 720 960 1200 1440 1920 2400 2880 3360 3840 4320 4800

Table-6. Availability of Rain Water through Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting

It is high time to start harvesting rainwater, specially in urban cities and drought-prone districts
of the state. The rainwater during the rainy seasons can easily be collected from the rooftop
(even in thatched huts). The collected rainwater may either be recharged into the groundwater
aquifers or storied for direct use after very simple pre-treatment.

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

➔ Helps in meeting the ever increasing demand for water;

➔ Helps in conserving ground water and supplement surface water resources;

➔ Rain water is bacteriologically pure, free from organic matter and soft;

23
➔ Helps in utilization of the runoff going into drains; and

➔ Reduces soil erosion, flood hazard, etc.

A typical rooftop rainwater harvesting system comprises of following:

● Catchment;
● Gutters;
● Down pipe and first flush pipe;
● Filter unit;
● Storage tank; and
● Collection pit.

Fig
-13. Schematic Representation of Typical Rainwater Harvesting Techniques

L. Artificial Recharge by Rainwater

Harvesting in Kolkata
1. Administrative details:
Kolkata Municipal Corporation area is bounded by river Hugli in the Northwest, South 24
Parganas district in the south and southwest, Salt Lake City in the east and North 24 Parganas
district in the north. The area falls between north latitudes of 22028′00″ and 22037′ 30″and east
longitudes 88017′30″ and 88025′00″. KMC covers an area of 187.33 sq.km. and is divided into
141 wards (Fig-1) and 15 nos of borough (Fig-2). Initially the city covered an area of 104
sq.km with 100 nos of wards, which subsequently extended to the present area after including
44 nos of more wards from the municipalities of South Suburban, Garden Reach and Jadavpur
in 1983.
24
2. Rainfall & Climate:
The normal annual rainfall is 1647mm. Monthwise normal rainfall (mm) in Kolkata 2016 is
given in fig-4. Kolkata experiences the following four distinct climatological features eg. i)
Mild Winter, ii) Brief Spring, iii) Summer with occasional Norwesters and iv) Prolong Monsoon.
The mean temp in winter is 22.5 0 C, which goes down to a minimum of 10 0 C in the months of
December-January. The mean temp in summer is 29.25 0 C and goes up to a maximum of 40 0 C
in the month of April. The climate during monsoon months is warm and humid.

PRECIPITATION (KOLKATA,2016)
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
CH

AY
Y

LY

PT ST
RY

NE

O C ER

NO BER

R
DE B E R
RI
AR

BE
JU

GU
UA

B
JU
AR

AP
NU

EM

M
M
TO
AU
BR

CE
VE
JA

FE

SE

PRECIPITATION
Table-7. Monthwise Rainfall Intensity (in mm) in Kolkata, 2016
3. Groundwater Management Strategy:
Withdrawal of ground water in KMC area by KMC owned tube wells increased progressively
from 121.5 mld in 1986 to 209.7mld in 1998 and it continued upto 2004. As a result the
piezometric surface becomes deepest around Park Street forming a trough in Central Kolkata
around Park Street, Rajabazar, Fort William etc due to excessive withdrawal of ground water as
well as due to interference effect of closely spaced tube wells running simultaneously. The long
term trend of ground water level in this part indicates a falling trend in both pre and post
monsoon period. There is fall of 7 to 11m in ground water level in last 45 years from 1958 to
2003 (Fig- 11). From 2005 KMC started replacing gradually the ground water supply by
surface water supply. As a result there is a reduction in the quantum of ground water
withdrawal by KMC tube wells from 2005. The impact is very positive on ground water
regime, as the area of the ground water trough started reducing.
4. Water Conservation & Artificial Recharge:
Considering the hydrogeological condition in KMC area vis -a -vis the withdrawal of ground
water, it is very much necessary to reduce the stress on ground water resources. Net rainwater
25
available annually in KMC area is 247mil m3. In Kolkata Municipal Corporation area the
presence of a thick clay layer at the top of the sedimentary sequence and the metalled and
concrete pavement in the surface restrict the rainfall recharge to ground water in the area.
Considering hydrogeological set up of KMC area gravity head recharge tube well using the
roof top rainwater is the only recharge structure feasible. The exact depth, dimension of the
tube well and position of slots will be decided on the basis of the depth of aquifer to be
recharged and the quantum of roof top rainwater available. The recharge shafts can be
constructed in two different ways viz. vertical and lateral. Vertical recharge shafts can be
further improvised with or without injection well. Recharge pits overcome the difficulty of
artificial recharge of phreatic aquifer from surface water sources. Recharge pit is excavated
sufficiently deep to penetrate less permeable strata. In case aquifers are located below the land
surface and overlain by poorly permeable strata, a recharge shaft similar to a recharge pit but
much smaller in cross section is constructed. In Kolkata Municipal Corporation area gravity
head recharge tube well may be used where a huge ground water trough has been formed in
central Kolkata around Park street, Camac street, Fort William, Kalighat, Ballygungj etc and
has been demarcated in Figure. 14.
5. Implementing Rainwater Harvesting Methods- A study in Baishnabghata-Patuli,
Kolkata, India
The city of Kolkata is carrying unbearable load of population where the civic facilities are
insufficient, poor and old for the growing population. Thus various efforts are made in order to
reduce such problems both at the macro level and micro level. One of such efforts has been the
establishment of a new urban area, namely, Baishnabghata-Patuli located in the southeastern
fringes of the city proper. Artificial recharge scheme has been taken under Central Sector
Scheme at All India Soil & land Use Survey Building having roof area of 676 sq.m by CGWB,
ER, Kolkata. Two no.s of gravity head recharge tube wells of 119.38 mbgl depth have been
constructed in a recharge trench (11.57m X 1.65m X 3m) filled with filter materials. The
rooftop of the Building of All India Soil and Land Use Survey has served as catchment, and the

Fig-15. Picture of Recharge Trench in

Baishnabghata, Patuli
water conveyance pipe line is connected to roof drain. Besides control units or chlorinated
26
chambers are connected to the roof drain. Besides the recharge pit acting as collecting and
filtering chamber connected through the pipe to the chlorinated chamber and the recharge pit is
again backfilled with boulder, gravels and coarser sand. Besides, two gravity –head recharge
wells within the pit are fitted well so that the filtered water sits into these wells in its journey to
the aquifer. The harvested water has agreeable taste and odour and pH levels which is
satisfactory to be utilized for domestic purposes.
6. “JAL DHORO JAL BHORO” Programme:
A programme named "Jal Dharo-Jal Bharo" was launched during 2011-12 with the aim on
preserving precious water resources by large scale harvesting of rain water as well as arresting
runoff of surface water to improve and availability of precious water resources through the
construction and management of Minor Irrigation structures. Water Resources Investigation &
Development Department of Government of West Bengal has taken a lead role under the
programme to re-excavate all kinds of water bodies viz, tanks, ponds, reservoirs, canals where
water holding capacities have lower down at present in convergence with P&RD Department,
Govt of West Bengal and other different programmes and also emphasised on underground
artificial recharge through rooftop rainwater harvesting. Check Dams, Water harvesting Tanks
and Surface Flow Minor Irrigation Schemes which are being constructed by WRI&DD would
help in arresting surface runoff water and at the same time irrigation potential of the state are
being increased by utilisation of the same. Increased holding capacities in the water bodies will
immensely support protective irrigation during the dry spell. As of December 2014, 1,18,557
nos water bodies/ retention structures have been created out of which 32,851 pond equivalent
has been created by WRI&DD, 85,423 nos have been created in convergence with P&RD

Deptt. and 283 nos tanks have been created by WRI&DD under MGNREGA.

27
 M. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
Proposal Report
Artificial recharge to ground water is a process
by which the ground water reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that under natural
conditions of replenishment. The collected water
is stored and pumped in a separate pipe
distribution. This is a very useful method for a
developing country like India in reducing the cost
and the demand of treated water and also
economising the treatment plants operation,
maintenance and distribution costs.
Roof top rain water harvesting can be a very
effective tool to fight the problem of water
shortage particularly in urban areas. Roof top rain
water harvesting depends upon the amount of Fig-16. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
through Recharge Pit
rainfall and the roof top area.

Need:
i. To overcome the inadequacy of surface water to meet our demands.
ii. To arrest decline in ground water levels.
iii. To enhance availability of ground water at specific place and time and utilize rain water for
sustainable development.
iv. To increase infiltration of rain water in the subsoil this has decreased drastically in urban
areas due to paving of open area.
v. To improve ground water quality by dilution.
vi. To increase agriculture production.
vii. To improve ecology of the area by increase in vegetation cover etc.
Hence keeping it mind the massive ratio of natural groundwater recharge to its uses leading to
massive declination of water table due growth of population and exploitation, a proposal for
rooftop rainwater harvesting in a broad scale along with the design and cost effectiveness in
support for the proposal is provided.

28
 Calculation of Monthly Rainfall(Kolkata,2016) &
Estimation of Volume of Water Harvested(50sq.m
area)
MONTH PRECIPITATION (mm) RUNOFF OF RUNOFF OF
WATER(m3/M) WATER(LITER/M)
JANUARY 38.39 0.959 959
FEBRUARY 5.67 0.141 141
MARCH 23.57 0.589 589
APRIL 28.2 0.705 705
MAY 16.11 0.402 402
JUNE 5.8 0.145 145
JULY 229.31 5.732 5732
AUGUST 360.4 9.01 9010
SEPTEMBER 396.87 9.921 9921
OCTOBER 347.53 8.688 8688
NOVEMBER 226.81 5.670 5670
DECEMBER 155.21 3.88 3880

 Calculation of Volume of water Harvested(50sq.m area)

Volume of water(Q)=CIA

Where, C=Runoff coefficient ,0.5; I= Precipitation; A= area

FOR JANUARY;

Q =(0.5*38.39*50)/1000

=0.959 m3/M = 959 L/Month

FOR FEBRUARY;

Q =(0.5*5.67*50)/1000

=0.141 m3/M = 141 L/Month

FOR MARCH;

Q =(0.5*23.57*50)/1000

=0.589 m3/M = 589 L/Month

29
FOR APRIL;

Q =(0.5*38.39*50)/1000

=0.959 m3/M = 959 L/Month

FOR MAY;

Q =(0.5*16.11*50)/1000

=0.402 m3/M = 402L/Month

FOR JUNE;

Q =(0.5*5.8*50)/1000

=0.145 m3/M = 145 L/Month

FOR JULY;

Q =(0.5*229.31*50)/1000

=5.732 m3/M = 5732 L/Month

In this way we calculate the runoff of water for remaining months.

In september the ammount of runoff of water(9921L/M) in maximum.So our capasity of tank

must be greater than 9921 L.

Using this formula we calculate the volume of water for every month.We want to restore this
water in a under ground rerervoir.

In this case, there is no evapotranspiration because the rain water drain immediately after fall
on the roof catchment.The water flows through pipe from roof catchment to under ground
reservoir.

The size of the reservoir/ recharge pit = 2.5×2.5×2 m.So the capasity of our tank
is=(2.5*2.5*2)=12.5m = 12500 L >9921 L

The water from the reservoir are then can be used for daily house hold activities and the
rest a released directly/through injection well for ground water recharge. This reduces
the excess withdrawl of ground water as well as helps in groundwater recharge.

Design of Single Storey Building with Rooftop Rain

Water Harvesting System and Reservoir
30
 Cost Estimation for Underground Reservoir or
Recherge Pit

UNI
ITEM NO L B H QUANTITY RATE(RS)
T
EARTH WARK IN EXCAVATION 1 2.9 2.9 2.525 M3 21.23525 4085.237
SAND FILLING 1 2.9 2.9 0.1 M3 0.841 787.3526
B.F.S 1 2.9 2.9 M2 8.41 3010.78
LABOUR FOR LAYING SINGLE BRICK FLAT SOLING 336.4
P.C.C(1:2:4) 1 2.9 2.9 0.15 M3 1.2615 10594
R.C.C(1:2:4) FLOOR 1 2.9 2.9 0.2 M3 1.682
R.C.C(1:2:4) WALLS 2 5.4 0.2 2 M3 4.32
R.C.C(1:2:4) SLAB 1 3.5 2.5 0.125 M3 1.09375
3.14*0.25
DEDUCTION FOR MANHOLE 1 2 0.125 M3 0.02453125
TOTAL R.C.C M3 7.07121875 59241.5
STEEL 1.5% OF R.C.C KG 666.108806 27239.4
SHUTTERING 4 2.5 2 M2 20 6960
EARTH WORK IN EXCAVATION(FOR
1 3.14*0.1502 10 0.7065 25
INJECTION WELL)
PVC WATER TANK 2800
WATER PUMP 3000
UPVC (75 mm & 110 mm) 5000
LABOUR COST 7040
TOTAL COST 130119.7

LABOUR( 5 DAYS OF WORK)

RAT DAY
ZONE NO TOTAL
E S
MASON(HEAD) 1 326
326 5
MASON(ORDINARY) 2 296
592 5
MAZDOOR(MALE) 1 245
245 5
MAZDOOR(FEMALE) 1 245
245 5
TOTAL 7040 5
Table-4. Quantitative Estimation of Underground Reservoir

From Table-4, it is clear that rooftop rain water harvesting is the most cost effective procedure
for artificial groundwater recharge as well as assist in daily household usage. Rooftop setup for
rainwater harvesting along with construction of recahrge pit costs nearly Rs 1,30,120/- for a
single storey house, which is affordable for every individual.

31
 N. PERCOLATION TANK
We can also recharge water by excavate a percolation tank.The rain water fall directly on the
tamk and througn the process of infiltration it reaches in ground water.The area tank is 500
m2.The tank is circular.The hight of the tank is 2.5m.

So the capacity of the tank = (500*2.5)=1250m3

The rainfall data , evapotranspiration data and the

storage of water in the percolation tank
MONTH PRECIPITATION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF
(mm) (mm) WATER(mm)
JANUARY 38.39 4.88 33.51
FEBRUARY 5.67 5.37 0.3
MARCH 23.57 6.19 17.38
APRIL 28.2 6.88 21.32
MAY 16.11 6.82 9.29
JUNE 5.8 5.92 -0.12
JULY 229.31 4.91 224.4
AUGUST 360.4 4.69 355.71
SEPTEMBER 396.87 4.67 392.2
OCTOBER 347.53 4.68 342.85
NOVEMBER 226.81 5.18 221.63
DECEMBER 155.21 4.91 150.3
Total 1769.40

The volume of water storage in the percolation tank is =(1769.40*500)/1000

=884.7m3

Water also reach the percolation tank through surface runoff ,sub surface runoff and base
runoff.

32
 Recharge of water from this percolation tank
Method Equation Remarks

Recharge from RRF=NMR*A*RFIF NMR=Normal

rainfall using rainfall
RRF=(1769.40*500*0.15*)/1000
rainfall infiltration
RFIF=Rainfall
method RRF=132.705m3
infiltration factor

A=Total area

Cost of preparation of percolation tank

Item No Description Rate

EARTH 1 AREA=500m2 2,40,475

WORK IN
HEIGHT=2.5m
EXCAVATION
VOLUME=1250m3

33
 O. Conclusion and Future Scope of
Work
The total annual natural Ground water Recharge in Kolkata Municipal Corporation is 2.31*104
ha-m for the year 2016. Utilizing the rainwater harvesting provides certain advantages to the
community.first of all,harvesting rainwater allow us to better utilize an energy resource. it is
important to do so since drinking water is not easily renewable and it helps in reducing
wastage.

Water collected in the rainwater harvesting system can be put to use for several non-drinking
functions as well.on an industrial scale,harvesting rainwater can provide the nedded amounts of
water for many operations to take place smoothly without having to deplete the nearby water
sources.

Rainwater is free from many chemicals found in ground water, making it suitable for irrigation
and watering gardens. In fact, storing large reservoirs of harvested water is a great idea for
areas where forest fires and bush fires are common during summer months.

Rainwater when collected can be used for several non-drinking functions including flushing
toilets, washing clothes, watering the garden, washing cars etc. It is unnecessary to use pure
drinking water if all we need to use it for some other purpose rather than drinking.

During rainy season, rainwater is collected in large storage tanks which also helps in reducing
floods in some low lying areas. Apart from this, it also helps in reducing soil erosion and
contamination of surface water with pesticides and fertilizers from rainwater run-off which
results in cleaner lakes and ponds.

But they do call for the community effort and create the spirit of co-operation needed to
subsequently manage sustainably ground water as a community resource..

Hence for implementation of a fruitful artificial recharge technique and for sustainable recharge
of ground water rain water harvesting technique can be implemented initially from small scale
leading to a massive revolution.

34
 P. Reference
1. GROUND WATER INFORMATION BOOKLET KOLKATA MUNICIPAL
CORPORATION, WEST BENGAL
2. GROUND WATER SCENARIO IN INDIA,PREMONSOON, 2017 (CENTRAL
GROUND WATER BOARD, MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, GOVT OF
INDIA)
3. http://www.cgwskolkata.com

4. http://cgwb.gov.in/documents/Manual%20on%20Artificial%20Recharge%20of
%20Ground%20Water.pdf
5. https://globaljournals.org/GJRE_Volume13/3-Rooftop-Rain-Water-Harvesting.pdf
6. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (JHSS) ISSN: 2279-0837, ISBN:
2279-0845. Volume 5, Issue 1 (Nov. - Dec. 2012), PP 01-05 Www.Iosrjournals.Org
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8. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/rain-water-harvesting-in-india-need-methods-
and-other-details/20917
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting
10. "Believes in past, lives in future". The Hindu. India. 17 July 2010.
11. Report Of The Ground Water Resource Estimation Committee, New Delhi,2009
12. GROUNDWATER RECHARGE, Sophocleous M., University of Kansas, Lawrence,
United States
13. CENTRAL GROUND WATER BOARD MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES,
GUIDE ON ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE TO GROUND WATER, NEW DELHI, MAY,
2000
14. http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/kolkata/kolkata_wetlands.html
15. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/51181/13/13_chapter%207.pdf
16. www.rainwaterharvesting.org
17. https://www.google.co.in/search?
q=artificial+groundwater+recharge&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN772IN77
18. New Methods of Artificial Recharge of Aquifers: A Review, Mahati Kavuri1, Manasa
Boddu1 and Venu Gopal Madhav Annamdas
19. Bhattacharya A K (2010). “Artificial ground water recharge with a special reference to
India”, Academic Research Publishing Agency Press, Vol 4(2).
35
20. www.cgwb.gov.in/documents/Guide_on_ArtificialRecharge.pdf

36
37