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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

Ecology & Ecosystem

Topic Key Points

• Branch of biology → relation b/w organisms & environment
Meaning of Ecology • Term coined by Ernst Haeckel (1860s)
• From Greek: Oikos (house/living space) + Logos (study)
• Haeckel: relation of animals to organic + inorganic environment
Definitions
• Eugene Odum: study of structure & function of nature
• Biotic (living) + Abiotic (non-living)
Components of Ecology
• Interrelation: Climate ↔ Soil ↔ Vegetation ↔ Animal
• Propounded by A.G. Tansley (1935)
• Ecosystem = physical system of biotic + abiotic components
Ecosystem Concept
• Open system → continuous input/output of energy & matter
• Varies in size: micro (water droplet) → macro (ocean)
• Karl Mobius → Biocoenosis (community concept)
Other Thinkers
• Forbes → Microcosm (ecosystem in miniature)
• Thin layer of soil, rock, water, air
Biosphere
• Global system: biotic + abiotic components

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

• Definite area in biosphere

• Functional unit of nature
Characteristics of Ecosystem
• Has its own productivity
• Open system → energy & matter exchange continuous

Environment

Topic Key Points

• Environment = sum total of biotic + abiotic components influencing an organism
Definition
• Components interact with each other
1. Physical/Abiotic → Soil, air, water
Major Components 2. Biotic → Plants, humans, animals, microbes
3. Cultural (Man-made) → Economic, social, political
• Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson (marine biologist & ecologist)
Important Book
• Triggered modern environmental movement

Flow of Energy, Trophic Levels & Pyramids

Topic Key Points

• Energy flow in ecosystem = Unidirectional
• Source: Sun → Producers (plants) → Consumers
Flow of Energy
• Lost as heat → not recycled back to plants
• Biosphere = sum of all ecosystems
• 1st Law: Energy neither created nor destroyed → only transformed
Laws of
• 2nd Law: Energy conversion → some lost as heat → less usable energy at
Thermodynamics
higher trophic levels
• Energy decreases across trophic levels
Energy Transfer • Herbivores assimilate ~10% of gross productivity
• 10% Law → Raymond Lindeman (1940s)
• 1st → Producers (autotrophs)
• 2nd → Primary consumers (herbivores)
Trophic Levels • 3rd → Secondary consumers (carnivores)
• 4th → Tertiary consumers (omnivores)
• Decomposers act at all levels
• Only ~10% of energy passed to next level
Energy Loss
• Rest lost via respiration, heat, incomplete digestion
• Pyramid of Biomass: graphical biomass/unit area
• Grassland/forest → upright (biomass decreases upward)
Ecological Pyramids
• Pond ecosystem → inverted (producers small, biomass increases at higher
levels)

Biodiversity

Topic Key Points

• Diversity of organisms (plants + animals) in an ecosystem
Definition
• Organisms organized into communities within ecosystems
Whittaker (1960) • Classification into Alpha (α), Beta (β), Gamma (γ) diversity
• Alpha (α): diversity within a particular ecosystem → species richness
Types of Diversity • Beta (β): diversity among ecosystems → change in species composition
• Gamma (γ): overall/geographic-scale diversity within a region
• “Biological diversity” coined by Raymond F. Dasmann (1968)
Origin of Term
• Word “Biodiversity” first used by Walter Rosen (1985, NRC seminar)
• Maintains ecosystem stability
Significance
• Functions at species, community, ecosystem levels
• UN: May 22 → International Day for Biological Diversity
Important Days
• Some countries celebrate 29 Dec as Biodiversity Day

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

CBD (Convention on • Came into force: 29 Dec 1993

Biological Diversity)
• Genetic diversity → variation in genes
Levels of Biodiversity • Species diversity → variety of species
• Community & ecosystem diversity → diversity in regions/ecosystems
• CEBPOL (Centre for Biodiversity Policy & Law) set up in NBA, Chennai
Institutional Step (India) • With Norwegian Govt collaboration
• Aim: expertise in biodiversity policy, law, capacity building

Biodiversity Hotspots

Topic Key Points

• Regions with high species richness + endemism
• Term by Norman Myers (1988)
Biodiversity Hotspots –
• Criteria: (1) ≥1500 species of vascular plants as endemics (>0.5% world total)
Concept
• (2) ≥70% loss of original habitat (≤30% remains)
• Identified by Conservation International (1996 reassessment)
• 1999 – CI: 25 hotspots (“Earth’s Richest & Most Endangered Ecoregions”)
• 2025 – CI update: 36 hotspots
• Cover 2.3% Earth’s land but house >50% world’s endemic plant species &
Global Status
42% terrestrial vertebrates
• 2011 – Forests of East Australia added as 35th hotspot
• 2026 - North American Coastal Plain is the world's 36th biodiversity hotspot.
1. Himalaya → Entire Indian Himalayan region (incl. Pak, Tibet, Nepal,
Bhutan, China, Myanmar)
2. Indo-Burma → Entire NE India (except Assam & Andamans) + Myanmar,
Biodiversity Hotspots in
Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, S. China
India (4)
3. Western Ghats & Sri Lanka → Entire Western Ghats + Sri Lanka
4. Sundalands → Nicobar Islands + Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei,
Philippines

Biogeochemical Cycles • Sinks → Photosynthesis, oceans (carbon

sequestration), forests.
Types of Biogeochemical Cycles • Current Issue → Rising CO₂ → Climate
(a) Gaseous Biogeochemical Cycle change, global warming.
• Definition → The main reservoir of
nutrients is the atmosphere or the 3. Nitrogen Cycle
hydrosphere. • Steps →
• Examples → Carbon cycle, Nitrogen o Nitrogen Fixation (Rhizobium,
cycle, Oxygen cycle. lightning)
(b) Sedimentary Biogeochemical Cycle o Nitrification (NH₄⁺ → NO₂⁻ →
• Definition → The main reservoir of NO₃⁻)
nutrients is the Earth’s crust (rocks/soil). o Assimilation (plants absorb
• Examples → Phosphorus cycle, Sulphur nitrates)
cycle, Calcium cycle. o Ammonification (organic N →
NH₄⁺)
1. Water (Hydrological) Cycle o Denitrification (NO₃⁻ → N₂ gas).
• Process → Evaporation → Condensation • Importance → Essential for proteins,
→ Precipitation → Infiltration → Runoff. DNA, agriculture.
• Significance → Regulates climate,
supports agriculture, freshwater supply. 4. Phosphorus Cycle
• Source → Weathering of rocks.
2. Carbon Cycle • No gaseous phase (unique).
• Sources → Respiration, decomposition, • Importance → ATP, bones, nucleic acids.
fossil fuel burning, deforestation. • Threat → Excess fertilizers →
eutrophication.

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

5. Sulphur Cycle • Transitory communities in

• Natural Sources → Volcanic eruptions, between pioneer & climax
Seral
decomposition. • Show directional,
Community
• Human Impact → SO₂ & SO₃ from cumulative, non-random
industries → acid rain. change (1–500 yrs)
• Stable community → species
Ecological Succession Climax
reproduce & persist till climate
Community
remains unchanged
Topic Key Points • Primary → On previously
• Natural, sequential process of non-vegetated land
community development on - If on wetland → Hydrarch
Succession – bare area - If on dry land → Xerarch
Definition • Begins with pioneer • Secondary → On previously
community, ends with climax vegetated land, disturbed by
community Types of disaster/humans; faster
Succession recovery
• Hydric → Wet (pond
• Autogenic → Driven by
bottom)
Bare Area organisms themselves (e.g.,
• Xeric → Dry (rock surface,
Types shade, litter accumulation)
sand dunes)
• Mesic → Intermediate • Allogenic → Driven by
external factors (e.g., storms,
Pioneer • First community to colonize
fires)
Community bare area
• Whole sequence of
Sere communities replacing each
other → until climax

Environmental Institutions in India

Name Year HQ Act

Ballabhgarh (earlier Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Animal Welfare Board of India 1962
Chennai) Act, 1960
Central Zoo Authority 1992 New Delhi Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
Forest Survey of India 1981 Dehradun —
Botanical Survey of India 1890 Kolkata —
Zoological Survey of India 1916 Kolkata —
National Biodiversity Authority 2003 Chennai Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau 2006 New Delhi Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

National Ganga River Basin Feb Environment (Protection) Act,

New Delhi
Authority 2009 1986
National Board for Wildlife 2003 New Delhi Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
National Tiger Conservation
2006 New Delhi Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
Authority
Water (Prevention & Control of
Central Pollution Control Board 1974 New Delhi
Pollution) Act, 1974
Oct National Green Tribunal Act,
National Green Tribunal New Delhi
2010 2010
Genetic Engineering Advisory Rules under Environment
2010 New Delhi
Committee Protection Act, 1986
National Afforestation & Eco- Aug
— —
Development Board (NAEB) 1992

Types of Forests in India

Type Characteristics Region Vegetation

• Rainfall: >250 cm
Western Ghats (west side),
Tropical Wet • Annual Temp: 25– Mesaua, Cedar,
Arunachal, Upper Assam, Nagaland,
Evergreen 27°C Bamboo, Jamun,
Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura,
Forests • Humidity: >77% Canes
Andaman & Nicobar
• Dry season very short
Tropical Semi- • Rainfall: 200–250 cm
Assam, Eastern Himalayas (lower Semul, Rosewood,
Evergreen • Temp: 24–27°C
slopes), Odisha, Andaman Indian Chestnut
Forests • Humidity: 75%
Tropical Moist • Rainfall: 100–200 cm Western Ghats (strip), Shiwalik strip,
Timber, Teak, Sal,
Deciduous • Temp: 27°C Odisha, West Bengal, Andaman &
Lendi, Bamboo
Forests • Humidity: 60–75% Nicobar
Sundri, Agar,
• Found in deltas,
Littoral & Deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Krishna, Bhendi,
estuaries, creeks under
Swamp Forests Cauvery, Sundarbans (WB) Rhizophora, Canes,
tidal influence
Palms
Tropical Dry
• Rainfall: ~100 cm Jamun, Ritha,
Evergreen Along coasts of Tamil Nadu
• Temp: 28°C Tamarind, Neem
Forests
Tropical Dry Foothills of Himalayas to
Teak, Tendu,
Deciduous • Rainfall: 100–150 cm Kanyakumari (except Rajasthan, W.
Bamboo, Sal
Forests Ghats, W. Bengal)
• Rainfall: 75 cm
Tropical Thorn Rajasthan, SW Punjab, W. Haryana,
• Humidity: 50% Neem, Babul
Forests Kutch, parts of Saurashtra
• Temp: 25–30°C
Sub-Tropical • Rainfall: 75–125 cm Altitude 1000–2000 m (Nilgiri, Palni,
Oaks, Chestnuts,
Broad-Leaved • Temp: 18–21°C Mahabaleshwar, Satpura, Maikal,
Sals, Pines
Hill Forests • Humidity: 80% Aravallis)
Sub-Tropical
• Rainfall: 100–200 cm Altitude 1000–2000 m (Arunachal, Chir/Chil, Timber,
Moist Pine
• Temp: 15–22°C Manipur, Naga & Khasi hills) Resin, Turpentine
Forests
Sub-Tropical • Rainfall: 50–100 cm
Bhabar belt, Shiwalik, W. Himalayas Olive, Acacia,
Dry Evergreen • Hot summers & cold
(up to 1000 m) Pistachio
Forests winters, frost possible
• Height: 1800–3000 m
Montane Wet Deodar, Chestnut,
• Rainfall: 150–300 cm Higher hills of TN, Kerala, WB,
Temperate Birch, Plum, Oak,
• Temp: 11–14°C Assam, Arunachal, Sikkim, Nagaland
Forests Hemlock
• Humidity: >80%
Himalayan Moist
• Height: 1500–3300 m Kashmir, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Pines, Cedars,
Temperate
• Rainfall: 150–250 cm Sikkim Silver Firs, Spruce
Forests

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

Ozone Layer region; contains

clouds/weather
Topic Key Points • Tropopause separates it
• Triatomic oxygen from stratosphere
molecule
• Trace amount in Ozone Layer Depletion
atmosphere
Ozone (O₃)
• At surface → pollutant; in Topic Key Points
Basics
stratosphere → protects • 1985: British Antarctic Survey
from UV team (Joe Farman, Brian Gardinar,
• Formed by UV action on Jonathan Shanklin) discovered
O₂ Discovery ozone hole over Antarctica using
• Found mainly in Total Ozone Mapping
stratosphere (10–50 km) Spectrometer
• Maximum between 15–30 • Published in Nature journal
Location
km altitude • CFCs catalyze breakdown of O₃
• 90% in stratosphere, 10% → O₂
in troposphere • Highly stable → remains 80–100
• Absorbs harmful UV-B Role of yrs in atmosphere
rays CFCs • Non-toxic, non-flammable,
Functions • Protects life on Earth colorless, odorless
• Seasonal + geographical • Used in refrigerators, ACs,
variation in thickness sprays, foams, electronics
• Naturally regulated by Other • CFCs, Halons (1211, 1301),
NO₂ (Nitrogen dioxide) Depleting Nitrous Oxide,
Regulation &
• Thickness: highest in Gases Trichloroethylene
Variation
spring, lowest in rainy • Refrigerators → Mafron gas
season Coolants
• Big plants → Ammonia
• Unit: Dobson Unit (DU) Polar • Ozone formation = slow at poles
→ 1 DU = 0.01 mm pure O₃ Ozone • Depletion maximum over
Measurement at 0°C & 1 atm Depletion Antarctica
• Total atmospheric ozone ≈ • CFC → releases Cl atoms under
3 billion metric tons Chemical UV
• Troposphere (0–18 km at Process • Cl destroys ozone molecules
Other Facts equator; thinner at poles) (chain reaction)
• Troposphere = lowest

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

• Stratospheric clouds + nitric acid coughing, chest pain, lung

enhance Cl release damage
• Ozone shields Earth from UV-B • International treaty for
rays protection of ozone layer
Impact • Depletion → harmful UV • Targets → phase out CFCs,
reaches surface → ecological & Halons, Carbon
health hazards Montreal
Tetrachloride
Protocol
• Protocol to Vienna
Measures for Ozone Layer Preservation Convention (1985)
• Signed: 16 Sept 1987; In
Topic Key Points force: 1 Jan 1989
• Framework convention for
• 2005: G.W. Kent Moore
Vienna ozone protection
(Univ. of Toronto) team
Convention • Montreal Protocol acts as its
Tibetan discovered ozone hole over
protocol
Plateau Tibetan Plateau
• UN International Day for
Discovery • Excess ozone ring around
Preservation of Ozone Layer
plateau Ozone Day
• Observed every year on 16
• High ozone → causes
September (since 1994)

List of Research Institutes in India Central Scientific

Industrial Chandigarh
Name of Institute Head Quarter Organisation
Indian Agriculture Central Salt and
New Delhi Marine Chemical Bhavnagar
Research Institute
Central Rice Research Research Institute
Cuttack Archeological Survey
Institute Kolkata
Central Sugarcane of India
Coimbatore Central Jute
Research Institute
Central Potato Technological Kolkata
Shimla Research Institute
Research Institute
Central Tobacco Central Coconut
Rajahmundry Kasergod, Kerala
Research Institute Research Institute
Central Road Research Textile Research
New Delhi Ahmedabad
Institute Institute
National Sugar All India Institute of
New Delhi
Research Institute, Medical Science
Kanpur National Aeronautical
Indian Institute of Bangalore
Pulses Research Laboratory
Indian Lac Research National Institute of
Ranchi Panaji
Institute Oceanography
National Dairy National Geophysics
Karnal (Haryana) Hyderabad
Research Institute Research Institute
Central Fuel Research Indian Institute of
Dhanbad Dehradun
Institute Petroleum
Central Leather Central Building
Chennai Roorkee
Research Institute Research Institute
Central Mining Tata Institute of
Dhanbad Mumbai
Research Institute Fundamental Research
Central Drug Research High Altitude
Gulmarg
Institute, Indian Research Laboratory
Lucknow National Botanical
Institute of Sugarcane Lucknow
Research Research Institute
Indian Meteorological Central Food
Pune & Delhi Technological Mysore
Observatory
Raman Research Research Institute
Bangalore Central Glass and
Institute
Ceramic Research Kolkata
Institute

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IAS PCS PATHSHALA – UPPCS SPRINT Notes

National Uranium Corporation

Jadugoda
Environmental of India
Nagpur
Engineering Research Indian Institute of
Varanasi
Institute Vegetable Research
Central Electro– Central Institute of
Karaikudi (Tamil
Chemical Research Sub-tropical Lucknow
Nadu)
Institute Horticulture
Indian Institute of Central Arid Zone
Kolkata
Chemical Biology Research Institute Jodhpur
Industrial Toxicology (CAZRI)
Lucknow
Research Centre Central Tuber Crops
Central Mechanical Research Institute Thiruvananthapuram
Engineering Research Durgapur (CTCRI)
Institute Centre for Social
Centre for Cellular Forestry and Eco- Prayagraj
Hyderabad
and Molecular Biology Rehabilitation
Vikram Sarabhai Central Agroforestry
Thiruvananthapuram Jhansi
Space Centre Research Institute

Uttar Pradesh National Parks, Tiger Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries & Ramsar Sites

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🌿 Biosphere Reserves of India (1986-2011)
A Comprehensive Timeline for UPPSC Preparation

1986 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011

Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka | 5,520 km² | Nilgiri tahr, Lion-tailed

1 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 1986
macaque

2 Nanda Devi NP & BR 1988 Uttarakhand | 5,860 km² | Western Himalayas

3 Nokrek 1988 Meghalaya | 820 km² | Red panda

4 Gulf of Mannar 1989 Tamil Nadu | 10,500 km² | Dugong, Sea cow

5 Sunderbans 1989 West Bengal | 9,630 km² | Royal Bengal Tiger

6 Manas 1989 Assam | 2,837 km² | Golden Langur, Red Panda

Great Nicobar Biosphere Andaman & Nicobar | 885 km² | Saltwater crocodile
7 1989
Reserve

8 Simlipal 1994 Odisha | 4,374 km² | Gaur, Royal Bengal Tiger, Wild elephant

9 Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Assam | 765 km² | Golden langur

10 Dihang-Dibang 1998 Arunachal Pradesh | 5,112 km² | East Himalayas

Pachmarhi Biosphere Madhya Pradesh | 4,981.7 km² | Giant squirrel, Flying squirrel
11 1999
Reserve

12 Khangchendzonga 2000 Sikkim | 2,620 km² | Snow Leopard, Red Panda

Agasthyamalai Biosphere Kerala, Tamil Nadu | 1,828 km² | Nilgiri Tahr, Elephants
13 2001
Reserve

14 Achanakmar-Amarkantaka 2005 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh | 3,835 km² | Maikala hills

15 Great Rann of Kutch 2008 Gujarat | 12,454 km² | Indian wild ass

16 Cold Desert 2009 Himachal Pradesh | 7,770 km² | Snow leopard

17 Seshachalam Hills 2010 Andhra Pradesh | 4,755 km² | Eastern ghats

18 Panna 2011 Madhya Pradesh | 543 km² | Tiger, Chital, Sloth bear

Ecosystem Type Legend:

Western Ghats Western Himalayas East Himalayas

Coasts Gangetic Delta Islands

Deccan Peninsula Semi-arid Maikala Hills

Desert Eastern Ghats Catchment Area