STEAM TURBINES FUNDAMENTALS

Dedicated to green FSE s

1 Typical ST configurations
TYPICAL STEAM TURBINES COFIGURATIONS

Straight flow

Extraction

Injection

Double flow

Back pressure plus double flow

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 Straight flow
Straight condensing

Straight
condensing
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 Straight flow
Straight backpressure

Straight
backpressure
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 Extraction
Condensing / Back pressure controlled extraction

control
valve

contro
l valve

extraction
Condensing

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 Extraction
Condensing / backpressure non controlled extraction

Condensing type

extraction

Condensing

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 Injection
Condensing / backpressure with injection

Backpressure type

iniection
Backpressure

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Double flow condensing

Double Flow

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Back pressure + double flow
condensing

Backpressure Double flow condensing

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STEAM TURBINES FUNDAMENTALS

Dedicated to green FSE s

2 Typical turbounit lay out
TIPICAL TURBOUNIT LAYOUT can be:
• Table top
• Ground level

For:

Mechanical drive applications

Generator drive applications

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Mechanical drive applications

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 Mechanical drive applications

Steam Flexible coupling Compressor

turbine

On table top, water condenser or back pressure, single end

drive, one or more driven compressors

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 Mechanical drive applications

Steam Flexible coupling Compressor

turbine

Ground level, air condenser or back pressure, single end

drive, one or more driven compressors

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 Mechanical drive applications

Steam
Compresso turbine Compresso
r Flexible coupling r
Flexible coupling

On table top, water condenser or back pressure, double

end drive

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Generator drive applications

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 Generator drive applications
Power < 30-40 MW Geared coupling

Steam Gear Electric generator

turbine
box

Table top, water condenser or back pressure, radial

exhaust
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 Generator drive applications
Power < 30-40 MW Geared coupling

Steam Gear
turbine Electric generator
box

Ground level, air condenser or back pressure, radial

exhaust
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 Generator drive applications
Power > 30-40 MW Direct coupling

Steam
Electric generator
turbine Rigid
spacer

Table top, water condenser or back pressure, radial

exhaust 19 /
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 Generator drive applications
Power > 30-40 MW Direct coupling

Steam
Electric generator
turbine Rigid
spacer

Ground level, air condenser or back pressure, radial

exhaust
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 Axial
Generator drive applications
Power > 30-40 MW Direct coupling Axial exhaust

Steam
Condenser turbine (Rigid Electric
generator
spacer)

Ground level, water condenser, axial exhaust

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Water Condenser, Axial Exhaust

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STEAM TURBINES FUNDAMENTALS

Dedicated to green FSE s

3 ST architecture
STEAM TURBINE ARCHITECTURE

Condensing turbines, radial exhaust

Back pressure turbines

Condensing and back pressure turbines, flexible legs support

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Condensing turbine, radial exhaust
Fixed point and sliding or flexible legs front support

•Fixed point is located on exhaust casing

•Casing thermal expansion is accommodated the front support: “sliding” or

“flexible legs” type

•This configuration minimizes cold to hot at coupling flange location

•Internal axial clearances from cold to hot and vice versa remains almost
unchanged

•Rear support, being cold, is located in a niche of the exhaust casing

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 Condensing turbine, radial exhaust
Fixed point and sliding or flexible legs front support
Thrust bearing located
in front support

Casing to support
connection

Longitudinal
“key”

5-20 mm

Sliding support Fixed point

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 Back pressure turbines
Exhaust casing is normally hot therefore also the rear support is separated
from the casing
Casing to
front support Casing to
connection rear support
connection

5-20 mm

Sliding support Fixed point

Sliding front support is a typical european solution
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Condensing radial exhaust and back pressure turbines
“Flexible legs” support

Flexible legs

Flexible legs front support is an alternate solution to front sliding support.

Flexible legs front support is a typical american soloution

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 Axial
Condensing axial exhaust turbines

Condenser Steam Rigid Electric

turbine generator
spacer
Bellows Casing to rear
supports sliding

Keys to support
vacuum thrust

Casing longitudinal Front support bolted to

centering foundations and supporting
vacuum thrust

Ground level, water condenser, axial exhaust

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STEAM TURBINES FUNDAMENTALS

Dedicated to green FSE s

4 ST Rotor and buckets
STEAM TURBINES ROTOR AND BUCKETS

Impulse technology

Reaction technology

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Impulse technology

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Impulse technology
Rotor discs
Rotor structure

Rotor is disc type

Discs are integral with shaft

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Impulse technology
Buckets

inverted pine tree root

Buckets are normally provided with pine tree dovetail type connection to disc
and riveted shroud

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Impulse technology
Buckets

Riveted tip
shroud

Mid span shroud

Forked root
Last stages buckets are normally provided with forked or inverted pine tree
dovetail and “z” type integral shroud and/or mid span shroud
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Impulse technology
Buckets
“z” type
shroud

inverted
pine tree
root
Last stages buckets are normally provided with forked or inverted pine tree
dovetail and “z” type integral shroud and/or mid span shroud
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Reaction technology
Rotor structure

Rotor is drum type with one small disc only at front end, integral with shaft

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Reaction technology
Impulse stage buckets

Impulse stage bucket

Impulse stage buckets are provided with fork type dovetail and integral shrouds
in forced contact with adjacent shrouds

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Reaction technology
Reaction stages buckets

Reaction stage buckets

Reaction stages buckets are provided with

hammer type dovetail and integral shroud
in forced contact with adjacent shrouds

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Reaction technology
Last stage buckets

Last stage buckets are provide with fork type

Last stages dovetail and damping wire for variable speed
buckets
appl. and/or with inverted pine tree dovetail
and free standing airfoil for fixed speed appl.

Last stages buckets

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Reaction technology
Condensing stages new technology
New Technology
HS Condensing stages

New technology available by end ‘06 with inverted pine tree root and “z” type
integral shroud. Technology line 30%+ up

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 Erosion on LP-blades

Theory of condensation in wet-

steam turbines

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 Introduction
Effects of spontaneous condensation in LP stages of steam turbines:

Erosion of rotor blade tips through impingement of large drops

that detach from the stator trailing edge.

Loss in efficiency due to deviation from equilibrium conditions

⇒The knowledge of the condensation theory and flow field properties can
help predict the severity of erosion and eventually apply the appropriate
countermeasures

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Erosion - Examples

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Impact points

Vimpact > 250 m/s

(relative drop velocity)

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Other damages on buckets

Damping
wire

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STEAM TURBINES FUNDAMENTALS

Dedicated to green FSE s

5 ST Casing
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF STEAM TURBINE ENGINE
radial bearings & seals

rotor
stop & control casings
valves

support
thrust bearing
buckets

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Main costruction features

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Main costruction features

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Main costruction features

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STEAM TURBINES CASING

Impulse stages technology

Reaction stages technology

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Impulse stages technology

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Impulse stages technology

Stage diaphragms are

inserted into grooves
directly machined on
the external casing

Diaphragms are
centerline
supported

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Impulse stages technology

Steam chest is an integral part

of the casing cast

First stage may be equipped

with a built-in nozzle arc
or with separate inner casing

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Reaction stages technology

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 Reaction stages Technology
Stator blades are supported by blade
carriers, which help the outer casing to
withstand steam temperature and pressure

Impulse stage nozzles are

supported by inner casings
Inner casings and blade carriers
are centerline supported
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Reaction Technology
Steam chest is an integral part
of the casing cast

Stator blades are supported by blade

carriers, which help the outer casing to
withstand steam temperature and
pressure

Impulse stage nozzles are

supported by inner casings

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Steam Turbine General Description
Impulse & Reaction Stages

The difference between impulse and reaction expansion stage consists on the different ratio
between rotor stage pressure drop and total (stator + rotor) pressure drop.

Ratio between rotor stage enthalpy drop and total enthalpy drop (stator + rotor) is called
“Degree of Reaction” (R).

∆hrotor ∆protor
R= =
∆hrotor + ∆hnozzle ∆protor + ∆pnozzle

Impulse stage: the whole pressure drop occurs across

the nozzle; R = 0

Reaction stage: the pressure drop occurs in both nozzle

and buckets; R > 0

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End Sealings

Casing end seals avoid steam

leakages to atmosphere
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Impulse stage nozzle arrangment Seal system

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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF STEAM TURBINE ENGINE
LABYRINTH SEALS & BALANCING PISTON CONCEPTS

Shaft end seals avoids lube oil

leackages from bearings and
steam leackages.

Automatic valves A and B

assure constant pressure
sligthly above athmospheric
to minimise sealing steam flow
P>Pa
P>Pa through the vent lines.
Axial thrust
Red line connects the low
pressure chamber of the
balancing piston to the
condensing stages, to recover
relevant enthalpy

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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF STEAM TURBINE ENGINE
LABYRINTH SEALS & BALANCING PISTON DETAILS

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Basic Elements of Reaction Rotor
Rotor Expansion
Runner for the RXD
HP/Gen
HP/IP Coupling Inter-stage “J”
Balance Piston Coupling
seals

Steam In
Hi Lo End
27 High Packings
Thrust Runner Reaction Stages Bullgear
(Turning Gear)

HP Rotor
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 ROTOR
Impulse stage

Reaction stage

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 Journal and thrust bearing

Bearings represent a component of primary importance, because

they are the parts that serve as connection and interface between
stator and rotor components of a steam turbine.

The bearing type plays a fundamental role in the rotor-stator system

for the good or bad lateral behaviour of the system.

we may divide the bearings into two types:

1. Journal bearings which support the radial load of the rotor

2. Thrust bearings which support the axial load

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Journal bearings
Journal bearings
Oil is supplied through two axial
grooves located diametrally opposite
each other at the bearing horizontal
split line.
After entering the arc leading edge,
the oil is drawn by shaft friction into
the converging radial clearance
where it is compressed to a much
higher pressure, giving the bearing
its load carrying capability.
The shaft does not move vertically
downward under the vertical load
but, rather, also moves in the
horizontal (positive X) direction as
well. This is because of the cross-
coupling effects that are inherent to
fixed-geometry journal bearings.
These effects can contribute to rotor
dynamic instability in some
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Journal bearings

Fixed-geometry bearings differ from tilting pad bearings in that the fixed-
geometry bearing has no moving parts, making the lobes or arcs stationary
around the shaft

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Journal bearings

Oil film generates two forces. One in radial direction ( Fr) and one in tangential
direction ( Ft).
Cross coupling stiffness terms may promote sub synchronous whirl in fixed
geometry bearings
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 Journal bearings
Stiffness and damping coefficients- rigid bearing-lemon type

Radial bearings

Stiffness:
Kyx term is negative and has a very large magnitude across the entire speed range. It is this
large negative cross-coupling effect that promotes sub-synchronous whirl in fixed-geometry
bearings. In contrast, tilting pad bearings are without the high cross-coupling effects
because of the pad tilting action
Damping.
Both cross-coupled damping terms (Cxy and Cyx) are of relatively low magnitude, making
fixed geometry bearings prone to oil wirl rotor disturbances
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Journal bearings
Stiffness and damping coefficients- variable geometry-tilting pad type

Stiffness
Vertical and horizontal stiffness (Kyy and Kxx) are nearly the same over the entire speed
range. The most important stiffness characteristic for stability considerations are the very
low cross-coupled terms, Kxy and Kyx
Damping
Both cross-coupled damping terms (Cxy and Cyx) are of very low magnitude but, depite
this aspect, this kind of bearings are very suitable for applications requiring
maximum rotor dynamic stability

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Journal bearings
Stiffness and damping coefficients- comparison between fixed and variable geometry
bearings

Same vertical and horizontal stiffness and very low stiffness cross coupled terms make
tilting pads bearings more suitable for rotor dynamic applications than fixed geometry
bearings
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Journal bearings
Tilting pad preload
Oil film can be "stiffened" with a built-
in convergence, or preload

By adding preload, the bearing load

capacity and stiffness are usually
increased, and the possibility of pad
flutter is reduced because the top
pads carry more load.

Preload is accomplished by boring the

arcs of the pads to a larger diameter
than the clearance diameter

NP standard bearing preload is

Preload around 0.5

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Journal bearings
Tilting pad offset Pad offset is a measure of how far along
the pad arc the pivot is located. An offset
of 0.5 corresponds to a centered pivot,
where the pivot is positioned
symmetrically between the leading and
trailing edges.
Offsetting the pivots in the direction of
rotation to values greater than 0.5 can
raise the minimum film thickness, and
hence the load capacity. This is because
the moment balance of the oil film
pressure tilts the pad away from the shaft
at the leading edge, and closer to the shaft
at the trailing edge
The disadvantage of offset pivots is their
inability to work in both rotational
directions, limiting them to applications
having unidirectional operation. NP
standard bearing offset is about 0.6.
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Journal bearings
Type of lubrication

Journal bearing ( as well as thrust bearings) lubrication may be :

• Flooded. Bearing box is full of oil. Oil flow is controlled by clearance
between bearing box and shaft journal or by the supply pressure.
Traditional design

•Direct lubricated. Oil is injected at pads leading edge by a groove

machined in the pads themselves or it is sprayed at pads inlets by sprayers
located between the pads. Bearing box is empty. Oil flow is controlled by oil
passages area before spraying or by the supply pressure. Modern design.
Proven and reliable. Direct lubrication allows mechanical losses and
lubricating oil flow reduction and smaller sizes of lubricating oil systems

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 Journal bearings
Typical NP tilting pad bearing
Oil
inlet

Oil
discharge

Traditional variable geometry bearing ( tilting pad type). Five pads. Applied with load on pad for low
specific pressures. Applied with load between pads for low specific pressures. Flooded lubrication.
Diametral clearance in the range of 1.3 to 1.7 per thousand. For special applications may goes
down to 1.1 and up to 2.0 per thousand. Only tangential pivoting allowed. Maximum specific
pressure up to 20 Kg/mm**2. Maximum rotating speed up to 80 m/sec (some applications up to
100 m/sec)
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Journal bearings
Oil flow control

In a flooded lubricated journal bearing the flow control is achieved by the clearance between
oil seals and shaft journal and by oil supply pressure

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 Journal bearings
Tilting pad type

Typical NP tilting pad bearing Traditional variable geometry bearing ( tilting pad type). Five
pads. Applied with load on pad for low specific pressures. Applied with load between pads for
low specific pressures. Flooded lubrication. Diametral clearance in the range of 1.3 to 1.7 per
thousand. For special applications may goes down to 1.1 and up to 2.0 per thousand. Only
tangential pivoting allowed. Maximum specific pressure 20 Kg/mm**2. Maximum rotating
speed 80 m/sec ( some application up to 100 m/sec)
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 Journal bearings
Direct lubricated radial bearings: Kingsbury type (LEG - Tilting Pad)

Pad to bearing
housing connecting
pipes
Pad groove at
leading edge

Oil inlet chamber

In Kingsbury bearings, direct lubrication is achieved through small pipes connecting oil inlet
chamber with pad grove. In Glacier bearings, direct lubrication is achieved by sprayers located
between pads.

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 Journal bearings

The high rotordynamic stability of tilting pad bearings comes from the reduction of cross-
coupled stiffness that occurs when pads are free to tilt about their individual pivot points.
This attenuates the destabilizing tangential oil film forces that can induce catastrophic sub
synchronous vibration in machines equipped with conventional fixed-geometry bearings.
The spherically-pivoted pad can pivot about both the axial and tangential coordinates.
NP standard bearings can tilt only about circumferential direction.
Like the fixed-geometry bearings, there is a thin layer of Babbitt material (0.002 to 0.005 in.)
applied to the bearing surface to protect the shaft.

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 Journal bearings
RMT direct lubricating journal bearing

Open End Seal

Copper Chrome
Pad

RMT’s Bearing Design

4.0" @
14,050 rpm
245 f/s Spray Bar
Blocker

Heat Transfer
Chamber Bypass Cooling
Orifice

Sophisticated design

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 Journal bearings
RMT direct lubricating journal bearing

Wide Open End Seals

Wide Open Housing Drains

Sophisticated design

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Journal bearings
RMT direct lubricating journal bearing

Behind-the-Pad
Bypass Cooling
Heavy Pivot Offset

Interchangeable Pads
Sophisticated design Copper Chrome Pads

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Journal bearings
Oil flow control

In a direct lubricated journal bearing the flow control is achieved by the diameter
of pads to bearing box connecting pipes ( Kingsbury) and by the diameter of the
sprayers holes ( Waukesha ) and by the oil supply pressure
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Journal bearings
Assembly configuration
Rpm

Bearing Stiffness
“Load between pads”
Rpm

Bearing Stiffness

“Load on pad”

Load on pad configuration is generally used. Load between pad configuration is used in case
of very heavy rotors to decrease bthe specifica pressure on the white bmeatl

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Journal bearings
White metal temperature

White metal temperature is measured by thermo elements inserted under the white metal
near to trailing edge

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Thrust Bearings

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Thrust bearings
Why the thrust bearing

Thrust bearings withstand axial thrust and position axially the rotor with
respect to the stator

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Thrust bearings
Typical NP bearings arrangement

Thrust bearing active side plus journal bearing installed ( Horizontally split
compressor)
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Thrust bearings
Typical NP bearings arrangement

Thrust bearing and journal bearing installed ( Horizontally split compressor)

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Thrust bearings
Typical NP thrust bearing collar

Shrink fit on a conical surface by hydraulic force. No anti rotation keys. Retaining
nut to prevent slippage. Balancing holes and key phasor on external surface.

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Thrust bearings
Hydrodynamic principle

Journal and thrust bearing are both based on the same hydrodynamic
principle

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Thrust bearings

D.A.S.E. – Double Acting Self Equalizing thrust bearings are generally applied on
centrifugal compressors.
Double acting means they can withstand same force in both directions.
Self equalizing means they are provided with a system to equalize the force on
the pads of the same side
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Thrust bearings
Oil outlet from Hole controlling oil flow
Flooded lubrication oil control ring through bearing
(OCR) Oil inlets

Annular
chamber

Seal

Oil control
rings

Oil flows between pads and collar from inner to outer diameter and is
centrifuged by the thrust collar as it was a sort of pumping impeller. Oil flow
is controlled by oil control ring hole diameter Bearing box is full of oil.

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Thrust bearings
Flooded thrust bearing components

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Thrust bearings
Kingsbury direct lubricated thrust bearing

Oil is injected in a groove at pads leading edge by small pipes connecting

pads to bearing box

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Thrust bearings
Waukesha direct lubricated thrust bearing

Oil is supplied at pads leading edge by sprayers located between pads.

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Thrust bearings
White metal temperature

70%

White metal temperature is measured by thermocouples or by RTDs. Sensing

elements are inserted in a small hole under the white metal, in a a point where the
maximum temperature is expected as indicated in the picture. Values of 120-122 deg C
are not to be exceeded to avoid white metal damages

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Thrust bearings
RMT direct lubricated thrust bearings

Spherical pivot may allow a behavior at high axial load better than traditional pivot
that may undergo to slight plastic deformation with some tenth of millimeter rotor
axial displacement
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Thrust bearings
RMT direct lubricated thrust bearings

Spherical seat in back side of the pad and the spray bars are shown

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 Installation A and B

T.B. J.B. J.B. Coupl.

J.B. T.B. J.B. Coupl.

These installation utilize separated configuration of journal and thrust bearing.
Generally used for small and medium Steam Turbine and also on the Centrifugal
Compressor.

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 Installation C

J.B. J.B.

T.B. T.B. Coupl.

This installation utilizes combined configuration of journal and thrust bearing.

Generally used for large Steam Turbine

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 Journal and Thrust bearing
combined configuration

TILTING PADS
Thrust Bearing

TILTING PADS
Journal Bearing

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JOURNAL AND THRUST BEARINGS SIZE FOR STEAM TURBINES

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JOURNAL AND THRUST BEARINGS SIZE FOR STEAM TURBINES

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