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 s i x t h e d i t i o n

Teaching Physical Education

for learning

Judith E. Rink
University of South Carolina
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of

the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1998, 1993, 1985 The McGraw-Hill
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any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent
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storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 FGR/FGR 0 9

ISBN: 978-0-07-337652-3
MHID: 0-07-337652-3

Editor in Chief: Michael Ryan

Publisher: William R. Glass
Senior Sponsoring Editor: Christopher Johnson
Executive Marketing Manager: Pamela Cooper
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Production Editors: Melissa Williams/Les Chappell, Macmillan Publishing Solutions
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Composition: This text was set in 10/12 Times Roman by Macmillan Publishing Solutions
Printing: Printed on 45# New Era Matte Plus by Quebecor World, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rink, Judith.
Teaching physical education for learning / Judith E. Rink.—6th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-07-337652-3
1. Physical education and training—Study and teaching. 2. Physical education for children—Study
and teaching. I. Title.
GV363.R55 2010
613.7’07—dc22
2009002183

www.mhhe.com
For my mother, Eleanor
Brief Contents

Preface xv 7 Teacher Functions During Activity 130

8 Teaching Strategies 151
P A R T I 9 Student Motivation, Personal Growth,
Understanding the Teaching-Learning and Inclusion 181
Process
10 Planning 209
1 Teaching Physical Education: 11 Assessment in the Instructional Process 239
An Orientation 1
2 Factors That Influence Learning 21 P A R T III
Context and Ref lection
P A R T II 12 Content-Specific Pedagogy 269
Effective Teaching Skills
13 The Professional Teacher and the
3 Designing Learning Experiences Continuous Learner 304
and Tasks 41 14 Observation Techniques and Tools 322
4 Task Presentation 62 Glossary 352
5 Content Analysis and Development 82 Index 357
6 Developing and Maintaining a Learning
Environment 107

vii
Contents

Preface xv Summary 19
Checking Your Understanding 19
P A R T I 2 Factors That Influence Learning 21
Understanding the Teaching-Learning
Process What Is Learning? 22
How Do People Learn Motor Skills? 23
1 Teaching Physical Education: An Understanding the Control of Movement 24
Orientation 1 Stages of Motor Learning 25
Requirements for Learning a Motor Skill 26
Teaching as a Goal-Oriented Activity 2 Prerequisites 27
Types of Goals 3 Clear Idea of the Task 27
Establishing Realistic Goals 5 Motivational/Attentional Disposition
Choosing Instructional Processes to Meet to the Skill 28
Goals 6 Practice 28
Achieving Goals Through Processes 6 Feedback 28
Criteria for a Learning Experience 7 The Nature of Motor Skill Goals 29
Criterion One 9 Open and Closed Skills 29
Criterion Two 10 Discrete, Serial, and Continuous Skills 31
Criterion Three 11 Issues of Appropriateness in Skill Development
Criterion Four 11 and Learning 31
Understanding the Instructional Process 12 Environmental Conditions 31
Prelesson and Postlesson Routines 12 Learner Abilities 32
Movement Task–Student Response Unit Practice Profiles and Success Rates 33
of Analysis 13 Whole or Part 33
Teaching Functions 14 Practice Variability 33
Management and Content Behavior 15 Massed and Distributed Practice 35
Looking to the Future: Becoming a Professional Motivation and Goal Setting 35
Teacher 16 Transfer of Learning 36
Value Positions and Beliefs in Teaching 16 Bilateral Transfer 36
Personal Characteristics of a Teacher 17 Intertask Transfer 36
Developing Commitment 18 Intratask Transfer 37

ix
x Contents

Learner Characteristics 37 Personalize the Presentation 68

Motor Ability 37 Repeat Things Difficult to Understand 68
Intelligence and Cognitive Development 38 Draw on the Personal Experience of
Summary 39 Students 68
Checking Your Understanding 39 Check for Understanding 68
Present Material Dynamically 69
P A R T II Choosing a Way to Communicate 69
Verbal Communication 69
Effective Teaching Skills Demonstration 69
Media Materials 72
3 Designing Learning Experiences and Selecting and Organizing Learning Cues 72
Tasks 41 Good Cues Are Accurate 73
Good Cues Are Brief and Critical to the Skill
Criteria for a Learning Experience 42 Being Performed 73
Designing the Movement Task 42 Good Cues Are Appropriate to the Learner’s
Content Dimension of Movement Tasks 43 Skill Level and Age 75
Goal-Setting Dimension of the Task 44 Good Cues Are Appropriate for Different
Organizational Arrangements for Tasks 46 Types of Content 77
Transitions from One Organization to Cues Are More Effective If They Are
Another 52 Sequentially Organized and Learners Have
Designing Learning Experiences That Are Safe 52 the Opportunity to Rehearse Them 79
Teacher Legal Liability for Student Safety 53 Summary 81
Student Decision Making in Environmental Checking Your Understanding 81
Arrangements 54
The Influence of the Nature of Motor Content 5 Content Analysis and Development 82
on the Design of a Learning Experience 55
Closed Skills 57 The Process of Content Development—
Open Skills 58 Overview 83
Summary 59 Establish a Progression (Extension) 83
Checking Your Understanding 60 Demonstrate a Concern for Quality
of Performance (Refinement) 84
4 Task Presentation 62 Give Students an Opportunity to Apply/Assess
Their Skills (Application) 85
Getting the Attention of the Learner 63 Planning for Content Development: The
Establishing Signals and Procedures 64 Developmental Analysis 86
Student Preoccupation with Other Developing Extension Tasks—The Teacher’s
Environmental Factors 65 Progression 88
Inability to Hear or See 65 Adding the Qualities of Refinement 92
Inefficient Use of Time 65 Designing Application/Assessment Experiences
Sequencing the Content and Organizational for Content 93
Aspects of Tasks 66 What Content Development Looks Like
Improving the Clarity of Communication 67 in a Real Lesson 95
Orient the Learner (Set Induction) 67 Guidelines for Developing Different Types
Sequence the Presentation in Logical Order 68 of Content 95
Give Examples and Nonexamples 68 Developing Closed Skills 96
 Contents xi

Developing Closed Skills Performed in Different Observing and Analyzing Student

Environments 98 Responses 136
Developing Open Skills 98 Positioning of the Teacher 137
Summary 105 Determining a Plan for Observing Large
Checking Your Understanding 105 Groups 137
Knowing What to Look For 138
6 Developing and Maintaining a Learning Providing Feedback to Learners 139
Environment 107 Evaluative and Corrective Feedback 140
Congruency of Feedback 140
The Ecology of the Gymnasium 108 General versus Specific Feedback 141
Establishing and Maintaining a Management Negative versus Positive Feedback 142
System 109 The Target of Feedback 143
Establishing Routines 109 Timing of Feedback 144
Establishing Class Rules 113 Use of Feedback to Promote Student
Gaining and Maintaining the Cooperation of Understanding 144
Students 114 Changing and Modifying Tasks for Individuals
Strategies for Developing Student Self-Control and Small Groups 144
and Responsibility 117 Extending the Task for Individuals 145
Hellison’s Levels of Responsibility 118 Designing Applying/Assessment Task
Behavior Modification 118 for Individuals 145
Authoritative Orientations to Changing the Task Completely
Management 122 for Individuals 146
Group Process Strategies for Developing Refining the Task for Individuals 146
Self-Direction 122 Indirectly Contributing Behaviors 146
Conflict Resolution 123 Attending to Injured Students 146
Discipline: What to Do If It Does Not Engaging in Off-Topic Discussions 147
Work 123 Dealing with the Personal Needs
Deterring Problems Before They of Students 147
Become Problems 124 Participating with Students and
Continued Inappropriate Behavior 124 Officiating 148
Handling Students Who Continually Noncontributing Behaviors 148
Misbehave 126 Summary 148
Summary 128 Checking Your Understanding 149
Checking Your Understanding 128
8 Teaching Strategies 151
7 Teacher Functions During Activity 130
Direct and Indirect Instruction 152
I’ve Sent the Students Off to Practice—Now The Teaching Strategy as a Delivery
What? 131 System 155
Setting Priorities of What to Do First 133 Selection of Content 156
Maintaining a Safe Learning Environment 134 Communication of Tasks 156
Clarifying and Reinforcing Tasks Progression of Content 156
for Learners 134 Provision for Feedback and Evaluation 156
Maintaining a Productive Learning The Teaching Strategies Described 156
Environment 135 Interactive Teaching 157
xii Contents

Station Teaching 160 Becoming Aware 200

Peer Teaching 162 Developing a Climate for Inclusion 201
Cooperative Learning 166 Building Equity 202
Self-Instructional Strategies 169 Gender Equity 202
Cognitive Strategies 172 Ethnic and Cultural Differences 203
Team Teaching 175 Disadvantaged Students 203
Selecting a Teaching Strategy 179 Students with Disabilities 204
Summary 179 Discussion of Affective Goals for Physical
Checking Your Understanding 179 Education 206
Summary 207
9 Student Motivation, Personal Growth, Checking Your Understanding 207
and Inclusion 181
10 Planning 209
Motivation in Learning 183
Theories of Motivation—The Why of Establishing Goals and Objectives
Behavior 183 for Learning 211
Behaviorism 183 Writing Objectives in Terms of What Students
Social Learning Theory 183 Will Learn 211
Self-Determination Theory 183 Levels of Specificity in Educational
Achievement Goal and Social Goals Objectives 213
Theory 184 Objectives in the Three Learning
Interest Theories 185 Domains 215
Designing Experiences to Develop Personal Writing Objectives Consistent with Content
and Situational Interest 186 Standards 215
Implications of Theories of Motivation 186 Planning Physical Education Experiences 217
Promoting Personal Growth Through Personal Planning the Lesson 217
Interaction 190 Beginning the Lesson 218
Motivation and Personal Growth Through Developing the Lesson 218
Instructional Decision Making 192 Ending the Lesson—Closure 219
Planning 192 Format for Lesson Planning 219
Selection of Tasks and Design of Learning Planning the Curriculum 225
Experiences 193 Developing Curriculum from a Set of
Presentation of Units and Tasks 194 Standards 226
Organizational Arrangements 195 Planning for Units of Instruction 226
Teacher Functions During Activity 195 Considerations in Planning Units 229
Pacing of Lessons 196 Developing the Unit 231
Assessment of Tasks, Units, and The Unit Plan 232
Lessons 196 Summary 238
Teaching Affective Goals as a Lesson Checking Your Understanding 238
Focus 196
The Unique and Shared Affective Goals
of Physical Education 197 11 Assessment in the Instructional Process 239
Instructional Strategies for Teaching
Affect 197 The Role of Assessment in Physical Education
Physical Education for Inclusion 199 Programs 240
 Contents xiii

Formative and Summative Assessment 241

Formative Assessment 241
P A R T III
Summative Assessment 242 Context and Reflection
Validity and Reliability Issues of
Assessment 243 12 Content-Specific Pedagogy 269
Validity of Assessment Measures 243
Reliability of Assessment Measures 244 Teaching Lifetime Physical Activity and
Collecting Information: Formal and Informal Fitness 270
Evaluation 245 Teaching Lifetime Physical Activity 271
Alternative Assessment 246 Teaching Fitness Concepts in the
Checklists 246 Classroom 272
Rating Scales 247 Curricular Alternatives to Teaching
Scoring Rubrics 247 Fitness 272
Types of Student Assessment 248 Teaching Games and Sports 275
Observation 248 The Games Stages 276
Event Tasks 250 Considerations Using the Games Stages 284
Student Journals 255 Tactical and Skill Approaches to Teaching
Portfolio 256 Games and Sports 284
Written Test 256 Sport Education 286
Skill Tests 257 Dance 287
Student/Group Projects and Reports 258 Gymnastics 287
Student Logs 258 Outdoor Pursuits 287
Student Interviews, Surveys, and Movement Concepts—Teaching for
Questionnaires 258 Transfer 289
Parental Reports 260 Learning Theory Associated with the Transfer
Making Assessment a Practical and Important of Learning 290
Part of Your Program 260 Important Concepts in Physical
Establish Criteria 260 Education 291
Use Self-Testing Tasks Frequently 262 Teaching Movement Concepts 295
Use Simple Check Sheets and Rating Summary 301
Scales 262 Checking Your Understanding 302
Use Peer Assessment 263
Use Thirty-Second Wonders 263 13 The Professional Teacher and the Continuous
Use DVD/Computers 263 Learner 304
Sample Student Behavior 264
Get Comfortable with Technology 264 Teaching as a Profession 305
Preparing for Formal and High-Stakes What Does It Mean to Act Professionally? 305
Assessment 264 Professional Teachers Acquire the Skills
Student Grading 266 for Best Practice 305
Student Achievement 266 Professional Teachers Are Continuous
Student Improvement 266 Learners 307
Student Effort 266 Collecting Information on Your Teaching 312
Student Conduct 266 Maintaining a Teaching Portfolio 312
Summary 267 Collecting Data on the Products and Processes
Checking Your Understanding 267 of Teaching 312
xiv Contents

Observing and Analyzing Your Teaching 313 Scoring Rubric 329

Deciding What to Look For 313 Event Recording 329
Choosing an Observational Method or Tool Duration Recording 331
to Collect Information 315 Time Sampling 332
Collecting Data 318 Observational Tools for the Analysis of
Analyzing and Interpreting the Meaning Teaching 335
of Data 319 Student Motor Activity: ALT-PE 335
Making Changes in the Instructional Student Use of Time 337
Process 319 Content Development: OSCD-PE 338
Monitoring Change in Teaching 320 Teacher Feedback 339
Summary 320 Student Conduct 341
Checking Your Understanding 320 Qualitative Measures of Teaching Performance
Scale (QMTPS) 343
14 Observation Techniques and Tools 322 Teacher Movement 347
Summary 350
Observational Methods 323 Checking Your Understanding 350
Intuitive Observation 323
Glossary 352
Anecdotal Records 325
Rating Scales 327 Index 357
Preface

T
he recent obesity epidemic in this country has ■ ORGANIZATION
given physical education programs an oppor-
tunity to demonstrate that we can achieve The text is organized to begin with an orientation
what we say we can do. In order to do this, teachers chapter that sets the stage for student learning as the
are going to have to have the skills to teach effec- primary goal of the teaching process. This chapter
tively to outcomes. Teaching is a process that is both is a key to developing student understanding of the
interactive and context specific. Teachers need the importance of chapters to follow. It is followed by
technical skills of teaching, but they also need to be a chapter on factors that influence student learning.
able to apply them situationally. Although many programs have course work in motor
The focus of this book is on the basic skills of learning and development, the essential concepts from
teaching that are appropriate to teaching all con- these areas are presented with their implications for
tent areas. Without these skills teachers cannot be teaching.
effective. Part II of the text presents chapters on the criti-
cal teaching skills for teaching physical education.
Although there is a rationale for the order in which
■ CHANGES IN THIS NEW EDITION they are presented, it is expected that instructors use
order flexibly according to the specific needs of a pro-
In this new edition, the beginning teaching stan- gram. Part III of the text presents a chapter on content-
dards (NASPE, 2008) are woven into each chap- specific pedagogy. This chapter is not intended to be
ter’s introduction and are used as a framework for inclusive of what a teacher needs to know to teach fit-
the introductory chapter. The research chapter has ness, games/sports, or movement concepts, but rather
been removed, primarily because other, more inclu- begins to identify pedagogical issues specific to a
sive sources for this information are now available content area. The Rink Games Stages, a model found
and most beginning methods classes have not used useful by many programs to help learners understand
the chapter. The chapter including motivation has progressions in teaching games, is described in this
been rewritten to include a more comprehensive chapter. Chapters on the professional teacher and
discussion of newer motivation theories as the basis observational techniques and tools are included in
for teacher decision making and teacher efforts to Part III of the text, as well. Many instructors want to
increase student motivation. New and revised sec- begin course work in pedagogy with the chapter on
tions on Mosston’s teaching styles, organizational the professional teacher to set the stage for that course
transitions, legal liability, Bloom’s taxonomy, diver- work. The chapter on observation is designed as a ref-
sity, and writing objectives using standards have all erence tool for systematic observation of teaching to
been added to this addition. Additional examples facilitate instructor feedback on the teaching skills
and clarifications of material occur throughout. described in the text.

xv
xvi Preface

■ SUCCESSFUL FEATURES AND challenge for me and have played a major role in the
SUPPLEMENTS development and growth of this text over the years.
I am grateful to the reviewers who have challenged
Each chapter begins with an overview that sets the me to continue to make this text a better source for
stage for the importance of the chapter, followed by new generations of teachers.
an outline of the major topics presented in the chapter.
Chapters conclude with a summary of key ideas of the Reviewers for this edition include:
chapter, questions designed to check student under-
standing of the materials, references, and suggested Thomas Fuchs
reading. The website that accompanies Teaching State University of New York Cortland
Physical Education for Learning includes a test bank
of short-answer questions for the instructor, as well as Deborah A. Garrahy
PowerPoint presentations for each of the chapters. Illinois State University
The latest edition of Moving into the Future:
National Content Standards for Physical Education Betsy A. McKinley
can be packaged with Teaching Physical Education Slippery Rock University
for Learning at the instructor’s request. This resource
is an ideal accompaniment for the text, as the standards Joan Neide
define learning outcomes for effective teaching. California State University Sacramento

■ ACADEMIC REVIEWERS

I am indebted to the many friends, colleagues,

and students with whom I have worked over the
years. They are a continuous source of support and
 Teaching
Physical Education: 1
An Orientation

O V E R V I E W
Teaching can be viewed from many perspectives. The perspective teachers take when they look at
the teaching-learning process determines what they will look at in that process and how they will
look at it. Perspectives are important because they cause the teacher to see things in certain ways.
This chapter establishes a perspective for this text. It is an overview on instruction from which
other chapters in the text are developed.

O U T L I N E

■ Teaching as a goal-oriented activity ■ Understanding the instructional process

Types of goals Prelesson and postlesson routines
Establishing realistic goals Movement task–student response unit of
Choosing instructional processes analysis
to meet goals Teaching functions
Achieving goals through processes Management and content behavior
■ Criteria for a learning experience ■ Looking to the future: Becoming a
Criterion One professional teacher
Criterion Two Value positions and beliefs in teaching
Criterion Three Personal characteristics of a teacher
Criterion Four Developing commitment

1
2 PART I Understanding the Teaching-Learning Process

ost people who decide to teach physical information but that they are able to use this informa-

M education do so because they are good

at it, have enjoyed their past experiences
with sport and physical education, and like to work
tion in their balance activities. If you want students
to lead a physically active lifestyle outside of your
class and as adults, you will teach differently than if
with people. These are good reasons to choose a you want them only to know that physical activity is
profession. Because engaging in sport and physical good for them.
activity is fun for most people, a misconception often It is important for teachers to choose instructional
exists that teaching physical education is easy, or at processes appropriate to their goals. To do this, teach-
least easier than teaching any other content. Teaching ers must have a clear idea of what they want students
physical education can be exciting, rewarding, and to be able to do and be able to implement instructional
fun, but to do it effectively is not easy. processes effectively for a given activity and group of
Teaching is a complex activity. Its goal is stu- students. This chapter explains the basic framework
dent learning. The teacher has primary responsibil- of the instructional process in physical education and
ity for directing the teaching-learning process. This identifies the skills needed to operate successfully
is why teaching can become difficult. If a student is within this framework.
not learning, the teacher must find an effective way
to reach this student. There are many types of stu- ■ TEACHING AS A GOAL-ORIENTED
dents and many types of skills, knowledges, and val- ACTIVITY
ues that teachers will want to teach. Finding ways to
reach objectives for learning with all students is a real Instruction is guided by a long-term plan for student
challenge. Teaching is not an exact science. Teach- outcomes called the curriculum. When curricular
ers need to design and redesign experiences for their decisions are not made or used to guide instruction,
students based on their pedagogic goals and their the instructional process is like a moving car without
knowledge of the learner, the lesson content, and the a driver. For this reason curriculum and instruction are
teaching-learning process. integrally related. Teaching as a goal-oriented activity
Teaching Physical Education for Learning is pri- begins at the curricular level. Many curricular deci-
marily a text on instructional processes and the teaching sions in today’s educational climate are being deter-
skills required to execute those processes effectively; mined by content standards at the national, state, and
that is, what teachers can do to help students learn local level that clearly prescribe what students should
what teachers want them to learn. Several key ideas know and be able to do in physical education. The
will be reinforced throughout this text. The first is that consensus in the field is that the purpose of physical
instruction is a goal-oriented activity. This means that education is the development of a physically active
the process is meaningless unless it is designed with a lifestyle. The national standards for physical educa-
clear goal regarding what the student will learn. You tion were developed and published by the National
will be asked to articulate what you want learners to Association for Sport and Physical Education in 1995,
learn as a result of what you do as a teacher. The sec- revised in 2004, and have been used extensively by
ond key idea is that instructional processes are specific states and local districts to articulate program goals
to an intent. This means that you select an instructional related to this purpose. The six standards describe the
process to best accomplish a specific purpose. skills, abilities, and dispositions students will need to
For instance, a teacher may decide to lead students lead a physically active lifestyle. These standards are
through a problem-solving experience while teaching listed in box 1.1. In the publication Moving into the
balance to help them understand principles related to Future: National Standards for Physical Education
base of support. The teacher selects problem solving (NASPE, 2004), each of the standards is broken down
as the instructional process rather than telling because by grade level so teachers can identify what students
the teacher’s intent is not only that students know the at each age should know and be able to do.
 Chapter 1 Teaching Physical Education 3

B O X 1 · 1 relationship between curriculum and instruction must

be clearly defined and programs must be oriented
National Content Standards for Physical toward clearly stated goals. The contrast between two
Education Programs elementary and secondary programs is made clear in
box 1.2 (see p. 4), which describes two different pro-
Standard 1: Demonstrates competency in motor skills grams, one defensible and one not defensible. Read
and movement patterns to perform a variety of
the example and see if you can identify what it is that
physical activities.
Standard 2: Demonstrates understanding of movement
makes a program defensible.
concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they Types of Goals
apply to the learning and performance of physical
activities. Educational program outcomes are commonly
Standard 3: Participates regularly in physical activity. called goals when they refer to broad outcomes and
Standard 4: Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing objectives when they refer to more specific outcomes.
level of physical fitness. Whereas curriculum objectives and, more recently,
Standard 5: Exhibits responsible personal and social student performance standards usually define what the
behavior that respects self and others in physical student should achieve as result of an entire program,
activity settings. instructional objectives usually describe what the stu-
Standard 6: Values physical activity for health, enjoy-
dent should achieve as a result of a single lesson or
ment, challenge, self-expression, and/or social
interaction.
unit of instruction. Educational goals and objectives
are used for both curriculum and instruction. They are
Reprinted from Moving into the Future: National Standards usually classified under one of three interrelated cate-
for Physical Education (2nd ed., 2004). gories according to the domain of learning that charac-
terizes that particular goal or objective: psychomotor,
cognitive, or affective. As you review the national
standards, you should be able to identify which of the
Physical educators must explain and defend their standards address which domain (figure 1.1).
role and program in the schools. Physical education
programs are expensive in the facilities, equipment, and
personnel they require. Growing opportunities for stu- Psychomotor Domain Affective Domain
dents to participate in sport activities outside the schools
have caused educators, administrators, and taxpayers
Motor Skills Feelings
to view with uncertainty the contributions of physical
Fitness Outcomes Values
education programs to the overall educational picture.
Social Behavior
Research done by physical educators on the attitudes
Attitudes
of secondary students toward physical education (and
the products and processes of physical education
programs) largely confirms the discrepancy between
what physical educators promise and what they Cognitive Domain
produce. Many physical education programs are not
defensible. Lack of accountability for program goals Knowledge
in the schools has resulted in many poor programs Strategies
of physical education: those without identifiable or Cognitive Abilities
defensible goals and programs that bear no relation FIGURE 1.1
to their stated goals. If physical education is to Physical education has responsibility for all domains
attain credibility as a truly educational program, the of learning.
4 PART I Understanding the Teaching-Learning Process

B O X 1 · 2 Goals and objectives that deal with motor and

physical abilities are termed psychomotor objec-
Defensible and Not Defensible Programs tives. Standards 1 and 4 (box 1.1) are directly related
Elementary—Defensible to the psychomotor content of physical education.
Psychomotor outcomes are the unique contribution
The teacher has planned the day’s lesson with psycho-
motor, cognitive, and affective objectives from a writ-
of physical education to the education of the stu-
ten plan that describes what the learning objectives for dents. No other educational program emphasizes
the day will be and how the lesson will proceed. The psychomotor objectives the way physical education
second-grade class will be working on combining lo- does. Psychomotor objectives include motor skill
comotor patterns. Opportunities to practice the skills objectives such as teaching fundamental skills (e.g.,
separately and then combine them are provided. The skipping, throwing, or rolling) or the complex skills
teacher also has planned to have each student develop required for sports (e.g., the basketball layup or back
a personal routine that will be shared with a partner handspring). Psychomotor objectives also include
and assessed using peer review. fitness outcomes (e.g., arm strength, cardiorespira-
tory endurance, and flexibility). A psychomotor goal
Elementary—Not defensible might be to play basketball at an intermediate level
The teacher decides on the way to work that the of ability or to reach a particular level of ability on
second-grade class really likes to play with the para- a fitness test.
chute so that is what the class will do today. The Cognitive objectives describe knowledge or abil-
teacher thinks of all the fun things that the students ity levels in processing information. The national
like to do with parachutes and writes them down when standard that is related to this outcome is primarily
he/she gets to work. standard 2: Demonstrates understanding of move-
ment concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as
Secondary—Defensible they apply to the learning and performance of physi-
The teacher is teaching a unit on volleyball. The cal activities. Many aspects of performance in the
teacher has carefully planned the unit so that each day psychomotor and affective domains (discussed next)
students work on some aspect of their skill develop- are related to cognitive abilities that must be devel-
ment they have decided with the teacher is a weak- oped as well. In other words, you have to know how
ness. Each part of every day is also devoted to some to achieve fitness in order to design a program to
gamelike or game play. At the end of each class the
achieve and maintain a fitness level. Cognitive goals
teacher and the students assess their play and skill and
make a decision about what needs the most attention.
and objectives are intellectual and thinking related.
The teacher plans the next lesson to work on those They include outcomes related to knowledge students
aspects of play that need attention. should have (e.g., how to develop joint flexibility)
and outcomes related to problem solving and cre-
Secondary—Not defensible ativity or the transfer of knowledge from one situa-
tion to another (e.g., how to apply zone defense to a
The teacher has been working on a unit in volley-
six-on-six soccer game).
ball. The first day of the unit the teacher presented all
of the skills of volleyball and is running a tournament Affective objectives describe student feelings,
for the rest of the unit. Some students are better than attitudes, values, and social behaviors. The national
others, but the students really don’t like to practice standards directly related to affective outcomes are
the skills. The teacher has decided that his/her role is 5 and 6. Standard 5 deals with personal and social
primarily to keep the peace during play and to help behavior, standard 6 with values related to the ben-
the students deal with conflict that emerges on an efits of participation in physical activity. The desire to
individual basis. have students value fitness and engage in activity on
a regular basis (standard 3) is mostly an affective goal
 Chapter 1 Teaching Physical Education 5

instructional situation. Instructional programs cannot

be conducted in a manner consistent with established
goals if the goals set are hopelessly unattainable.
Selecting realistic goals for a program is difficult in
physical education. The field has the potential to con-
tribute in many ways to educational goals and objec-
tives. Physical educators can use active learning and
physical activity to make major contributions to all
domains of learning, and that makes it difficult to
define our responsibility. Designating realistic goals
has been a major problem for many programs. Physi-
cal educators for the most part have tried to be all
Physical education should prepare students for a life things to all people. As a result, they have tended to
of physical activity. accomplish little. For example, a representative high
school curriculum guide for the ninth grade might list
the following goals:
that needs skill and knowledge. Objectives teachers ■ Develop and maintain fitness.
have related to student feelings, attitudes, values, and ■ Develop skills for participation in six team sports,
social behaviors are affective objectives. A major four individual sports, gymnastics, and dance.
goal of physical education is to prepare students for a ■ Teach students how to value themselves and
lifetime of physical activity. Unless teachers address interact with others in positive ways.
affective goals in their programs, students may be ■ Teach students how to be independent learners
skilled and may even be knowledgeable but may and problem solvers.
choose not to participate. ■ Develop skills, attitudes, and knowledge related
Unlike sport programs outside the school, physical to participation in physical activity that will
education also shares many cognitive and affective transfer to new skills and encourage lifetime
goals with all educational programs within a school. participation.
The teacher in physical education often has psycho- If students in this ninth grade have physical educa-
motor, cognitive, and affective objectives in one les- tion class two times a week, it should be apparent that
son. Physical educators should help students to be even the first goal of fitness is not attainable within
thinking, caring, and sharing individuals. Lessons the confines of the assigned class time. If the sport,
that in part teach working productively with a partner, gymnastics, and dance objectives are divided by the
fair play, independent learning skills, and positive time normally available in a school year, the extent
self-regard have objectives classified as affective. of the problem becomes apparent. Each sport would
Chapter 10, “Planning,” describes in detail how have less than two weeks of program time. Enough
teachers can write goals and objectives for different time is not available to successfully complete even
purposes when planning both curriculum and instruc- the simplest of the stated goals. The goals listed in
tion. At this point it is important to recognize that this curriculum are worthwhile. Teachers should be
educational goals are concerned with each dimension setting their goals high. However, had the designers
of human development. of this curriculum considered the instructional pro-
cess needed to reach their goals, they would have
Establishing Realistic Goals realized that the goals stated were not attainable in
If the relationship between curriculum and instruc- the time allotted.
tion is to be maintained, the curriculum goals and To attempt to meet all of these goals in one pro-
objectives established must be appropriate to the gram can result only in accomplishing none of them,
6 PART I Understanding the Teaching-Learning Process

because the students need adequate time to experi- layup shot) require different processes from closed
ence any degree of success. The goals established for skills (those that take place in more stable environ-
any program must be realistic to their setting, which ments, such as archery). Teaching for transfer of
often means that the teacher must choose between learning from one skill to another requires a differ-
many worthwhile goals. ent process from teaching that does not intend trans-
More realistic skill and fitness goals for this ninth- fer. All motor skill learning involves processes that
grade setting might have included the following: require consideration of certain prerequisites for
■ Students should be able to design personal learning, such as the amount and type of information,
goals for fitness with the help of the instructor practice, and feedback that learners at different levels
and meet those goals by the end of the school of development need.
year through a personal fitness program. Processes and criteria for meeting affective and
■ Students should be able to attain a participant cognitive objectives in physical education are not
level of competency in one team sport and one neatly packaged but are as specific as those for other
individual sport of their choice. areas. Physical educators have traditionally assumed
■ Students should be able to design and safely that if learners are engaged in creative experiences,
conduct a personal weight-training program. creative learning is occurring. They have assumed that
learners engaged in social interaction with others are
Choosing Instructional Processes developing positive social interaction skills and that
to Meet Goals learners engaged in team sports will develop sports-
Once the teacher has chosen goals and has trans- manship and self-discipline. Teachers have come to
lated those goals into objectives for instruction, the realize that merely engaging in an experience that has
teacher must choose instructional processes that the potential to make a positive contribution to affec-
can reach a specific objective. Instructional experi- tive or cognitive goals does not ensure that these goals
ences and processes are chosen intentionally to reach are met. Learning experiences must be designed and
specific goals. Although more occurs in classes developed for specific outcomes: What is not taught
than is intended, teaching processes are designed often is not learned. Fair play, independent learning
to be specific to their desired learning outcomes. It skills, problem solving, positive social interaction,
is impossible to discuss what to do or what is good and the development of positive self-concepts require
instruction without discussing what the teacher hopes specific conditions and processes. These goals should
to accomplish. be designated, planned for, taught, and assessed, as
One of the best examples of the specificity of teach- with other kinds of content goals.
ing processes to desired outcomes occurs in the area
of fitness. Fitness is developed only when certain cri- Achieving Goals Through Processes
teria for workload, duration of activity, and intensity Teachers can achieve psychomotor goals and
are met. The type of exercise is specific to the type objectives directly by teaching movement content.
of fitness desired (e.g., strength, muscular endurance, Physical educators can teach basketball, jumping,
flexibility, or cardiorespiratory endurance). Most dance, or swimming by providing carefully planned
activities that develop strength do not also develop and conducted experiences in basketball, jumping,
flexibility. The type of fitness is specific not only to dance, or swimming. A more difficult question con-
the type of exercise but also to a muscle group. cerns how the educator teaches creativity, positive
Criteria for teaching processes involved in learn- self-concept, positive social interaction skills, love of
ing motor skills objectives are not as neatly defined as activity, or fair play.
those for fitness, but they are beginning to emerge in Sometimes a teacher might put the primary
the literature. Open motor skills (those that take place emphasis of a lesson on developing student coopera-
in changing environments, such as the basketball tive behavior or creativity through physical activity. A
is

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309

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