J. Bio. & Env. Sci.

2025

Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES)

ISSN: 2220-6663 (Print) 2222-3045 (Online)
Vol. 26, No. 1, p. 46-56, 2025
http://www.innspub.net

RESEARCH
RESEARCH PAPER OPEN ACCESS

Soil carbon stock of climate smart agricultural practices along

slope gradients in cultivated landscape of Bona Dibero, central
Ethiopia: Implication for climate change mitigation
Belayneh Bufebo*1, Yohannes Erkeno2
1
Department of Natural Resource Management, Wachemo University, Hosanna, Ethiopia
2
Department of Plant Science, Wachemo University, Hosanna, Ethiopia
Article published on January 03, 2025
Key words: Bona Dibero, Climate smart agriculture, Slope gradient, Soil organic carbon stock

Abstract
Soils play a crucial role in regulating the global climate and are responsible for storing two-thirds of the
world’s carbon. Evidence on soil organic carbon (SOC) stock is fundamental for mitigating climate change by
addressing environmental degradation and enhancing ecological restoration. This study aimed to assess the
impact of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices, implemented for varying durations and across different
slope gradients, on bulk density, SOC percentage, and SOC stock (Mg ha⁻¹). The CSA practices examined
were: (i) land with nine years of CSA practices, (ii) land with five years of CSA practices, (iii) land with two
years of CSA practices and (iv) land without CSA practices (control), all under upper, middle, and lower slope
gradients. Twenty-seven soil samples were collected from each CSA practice across the slope gradients at a
depth of 0–30 cm, with nine replications. Additionally, undisturbed soil samples were taken using a core
sampler to determine bulk density. A two-way ANOVA was used to analyze variations in bulk density (g cm⁻³),
SOC percentage, and SOC stock (Mg ha⁻¹) among the slope gradients and CSA practices. A generalized linear
model analysis was conducted to assess the influence of independent factors on the response variables.
Treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) at a 0.05 significance level. The
findings indicated that SOC stock (Mg ha⁻¹), bulk density (g cm⁻³), and SOC percentage were significantly
influenced (p<0.001) by CSA practices. The highest mean values of SOC stock and SOC percentage were
observed in the CSA practices with nine years of implementation and lower slope gradients, while the lowest
values were found in soils from the control land and upper slope gradients. The results of this study revealed
that the soil organic carbon stock was negatively influenced in land without CSA practice (control) and upper
slope gradient and positively influenced by CSA practices with nine years duration of implementation and
lower slope gradient. Soil under climate smart practices with duration of 9 years was found to be a good
reservoir of carbon. This indicates the potential of the soil management (CSA) practices contributing to
greenhouse gas reduction and climate change mitigation. Therefore, implementing CSA practices that
maintain adequate SOC stock is essential for optimizing climate change adaptation and mitigation.
*Corresponding Author: Belayneh Bufebo  [email protected]

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Introduction soil, changes in soil moisture and temperature

Soils play a crucial role in regulating the global regimes (which accelerate organic matter
climate and are responsible for storing two-thirds decomposition), and the high decomposability of
of the world’s carbon. Various factors, such as crop residues due to differences in carbon-to-
slope gradient, tree species, climate, soil nutrient nitrogen ratio and lignin content (Ahmed et al.,
availability, disturbances, and management 2022).
practices, can influence carbon stock (Esubalew et
al., 2019). The depletion of soil organic carbon The agriculture sector is the backbone of Ethiopia’s
(SOC) can negatively impact soil productivity and economy and livelihoods. However, its heavy
fertility by affecting nutrient retention, physical reliance on rain-fed systems makes it particularly
structure, and water holding capacity (Lawler et vulnerable to fluctuations in rainfall and
al., 2018). Consequently, SOC depletion can temperature (FAO, 2016). Climate change could
threaten food security and the livelihoods of reduce the national GDP by 8–10% by 2050, but
households. Typically, changes in vegetation cover adaptation measures in agriculture could halve
to cultivated land and poor soil management climate shock-related losses (CSA, 2016).
practices increase erosion rates and reduce SOC
stock, thereby diminishing soil fertility (Abdela et The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
al., 2018). (MoANR) plays a crucial role in promoting climate-
smart agricultural (CSA) practices in Ethiopia
Slope gradient significantly affects soil profile through various projects and programs. These include
development by influencing soil moisture. As slope the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE)
gradient increases, runoff increases, reducing the Coordination Unit, the Sustainable Land
amount of water infiltrating the soil (Ahmed et al., Management Programme (SLMP) Coordination Unit,
2022). Slope and aspect also affect soil moisture the Soil Information and Fertility Directorate, the
and temperature, with steep, sun-facing slopes Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) Coordination
being warmer. Soils on steep slopes are more prone Unit, and the National Agricultural Research System,
to erosion and topsoil loss (Alemayehu, 2013; among others (FAO, 2016).
Wondimagegn et al., 2018). Consequently, soils on
steep slopes tend to be shallower compared to MoANR’s CSA initiatives aim to enhance productivity
more level soils that accumulate deposits from and climate resilience in the agricultural sector by
upper slopes (Houghton, 2018). Steep slopes have focusing on practices such as soil and water
a greater impact on soil composition than gentler conservation, conservation agriculture, agroforestry
slopes, as minerals and organic content move systems, fodder production (cut and carry), and
downslope due to heavy rainfall. Erosion is more improved crop varieties, particularly in areas like the
severe on slopes with less vegetation, altering Bona Dibero landscape. CSA practices in the Bona
hydrological processes and solar radiation Dibero agricultural landscape have been
intensity, which significantly influences organic recommended as effective means to increase and
matter decomposition rates (Lozano-García et al., sustain soil productivity in rainfed agricultural
2016). Wubie and Assen (2019) reported organic systems under changing climate conditions (Tambo
carbon losses on upper slope gradients, while lower and Kirui, 2021). CSA practices involve farm
slope areas and level depressions experienced management technologies that sustainably increase
organic carbon accumulation. productivity and resilience, reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, and enhance household food security
The depletion of SOC stock is attributed to several (FAO, 2016). These practices also contribute to
factors, including reduced biomass return to the resource use efficiency and environmental

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conservation, especially in the context of inconsistent Materials and methods

and erratic rainfall (Nagargade et al., 2017). Description of the study area
The Bona Dibero agricultural landscape is situated
This study aims to assess the effects of CSA practices
between 7° 24′ 0″—7° 26′ 0″ N latitude and 37° 35′
with varying durations of implementation along
30″—37° 38′ 0″ E longitude (Fig. 1). This area
slope gradients on bulk density, soil organic carbon
faces significant challenges, including soil erosion,
(%) and soil organic carbon stock (Mg ha-1) in the
low soil productivity, and intensive cultivation.
Bona Dibero agricultural landscape. The findings
Since 2012, efforts have been made to address
may provide valuable scientific information for
advancing literature, aiding government and non- these issues by implementing climate-smart

governmental organizations, informing policy agriculture (CSA) practices aimed at reducing soil
makers, and assisting local communities in making erosion and preventing soil fertility depletion. The
effective decisions to mitigate environmental and data used for mapping were accessed from USGS
ecological challenges in the area. Glovis website (http://glovis.usgs.gov/).

Fig. 1. Map of the study area

Fig. 2. Mean monthly rainfall and temperature of the study area

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The study area is classified as midland agro- A total of 27 composite soil samples were collected
ecologically, with a long-term average annual from three slope positions and three management
precipitation of 1107 mm (Bufebo et al., 2021). The types (three CSA interventions and one control) at
rainfall pattern is bimodal, consisting of the Meher a soil depth of 0–30 cm, with five representative
and Belg seasons. The Meher season, which is the samples from each landscape position and CSA
main rainy period, lasts from June to September, type. Additionally, undisturbed soil samples were
while the Belg season extends from February to May. collected using a core sampler from each CSA type
The lowest temperatures in the study area occur in under upper, middle, and lower slope positions to
June, with a long-term mean annual temperature of determine soil bulk density. Disturbed soil samples
17.2°C (Fig. 2). were placed in polythene bags, and undisturbed
samples in steel core samplers, labeled as per the
Moderate to deep soils are found on slant slopes, Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Method Manual
while shallow soils are present on steeper slopes. The (Burt, 2014), and taken for laboratory testing. Soil
study area is densely populated, leading to the samples were analyzed for coarse fragments, bulk
cultivation of steep slopes, which exacerbates soil density (BD) and organic carbon (OC) at the soil
erosion. To mitigate soil erosion and nutrient fertility laboratory of Wachemo University.
depletion, a combination of climate-smart
agricultural (CSA) practices has been implemented. The coarse fragments were determined after clumps
These practices include physical soil and water were broken by hands, crushing, grinding, drying,
conservation structures, along with biological and sieving until the sample pass through a 2 mm
measures such as Desho grass (Pennisetum sieve. Thereafter, the coarse fragments (>2 mm) were
pedicellatum) for bund stabilization, crop-residue weighed and their fractions were calculated as
incorporation, crop rotation, intercropping, and described in (Zhag et al., 2008).
restricted or zero grazing systems (cut-and-carry
system). The presence of CSA practices in the Bona ୘୭୲ୟ୪ ୵ୣ୧୥୦୲ି୵ୣ୧୥୦୲ ୤୰ୟୡ୲୧୭୬ழଶ୫୫
Coarse fraction = ( ) ∗ 100-(1)
୘୭୲ୟ୪ ୵ୣ୧୥୲
Dibero agricultural landscape was the reason for
selecting this area for the study. Wheat crop was
Bulk density was measured from undisturbed
grown on farm field selected for this study.
samples using core ring samplers of known volume.
The samples were dried for 12 hours at 105°C and
Soil sampling and analysis
weighed. Bulk density (BD) (g cm⁻³) was calculated as
Based on reconnaissance survey information, the study
the dry soil weight divided by the soil volume, as
area’s slope was classified into three gradients: upper
shown in Equation (1):
(>30%), middle (15–30%), and lower (0–15%). The CSA
interventions were implemented: (i) for 2 years, (ii) for 5
ୈ୰୷ ୵ୣ୧୥୦୲ ୭୤ ୱ୭୧୪
years, (iii) for 9 years, and (iv) land without CSA Bulk density = ------------------------- (2)
୚୭୪୳୫ୣ ୭୤ ୱ୭୧୪

practices (control fields), all under upper, middle, and

lower slope positions. Soils, being integral parts of slope The volume of the soil in the core sampler was
positions, are influenced differently by geomorphic and calculated as follows:
hydrologic processes (Brunner et al., 2004). Soil v= ℎ ∗ ߎ ‫ݎ‬2 ---------------------------------------------- (3)
samples were collected from a depth of 0-30 cm, the
most biologically active part of the soil profile, from Where (V) is the volume of the soil in the core
January to February 2022. Each sampling point was sampler in cm³, (h) is the height of the core sampler
georeferenced using GPS, and slope gradients were in cm, and (r) is the radius of the core sampler in cm
measured with clinometers. (Pearson et al., 2005).

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Before analyzing soil organic carbon (SOC) in the climate smart agricultural practices (CSA). The soils
laboratory, the soil samples were air-dried, crushed, and in farm fields without CSA practices had a high
passed through a 2 mm sieve to remove debris and average value of sand content (22.33%) (Table 1). In
roots. Total carbon concentrations were determined by contrast, the soils at five years of (CSA) practices were
dry combustion at 1100°C. SOC was estimated using the intermediate (19.33%), and those with nine years of
(Walkley and Black, 1934) wet digestion method, a CSA practices had the lowest average sand content of
widely used procedure (Pearson et al., 2005). 15.50%. This finding suggests that the amount of sand
in the soil decreases as the duration of CSA practices
In this method, 60–86% of SOC is oxidized, so a increases. The soils in farm field without CSA
correction factor of 1.32 was applied to obtain practices (Control) had a low average value of silt
accurate SOC values (De Vos et al., 2007). This content (34%) while those with nine years of CSA
analysis was performed on both original samples and practices had the highest average silt content of
those treated with 6M HCl to remove carbonate 38.17% (Table 1). This indicates that the silt content
carbon. The results represent the carbon in organic increases with the duration of CSA practices. Similarly,
matter remaining in the soil after HCl treatment. SOC the soils in farm fields without CSA practices (Control)
stocks (Mg ha⁻¹) were calculated by multiplying the had a low average clay content of 43.67%, while those
SOC concentration (%) by bulk density (g cm⁻³) and with nine years of CSA practices had the highest average
the depth of the sampled soil (30 cm) (Eq. (2)). The clay content of 46.33% (Table 1).
formula used was:
Table 1. Soil texture as affected by climate smart
SOCS= BD*D*SOC (%) * (1-CF)* 0.1---------------- (4) agriculture practices in cultivated lands
CSA Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay ( % )
Where SOCS (Mg ha⁻¹) is the soil organic carbon Control 22.33 34 43.67
2years 20.83 34.3 44.69
stock, BD (g cm⁻³) is bulk density, D (cm) is soil
5years 19.33 35.5 44.83
depth, and SOC (%) is the soil organic carbon 9years 15.5 38.17 46.33
Mean square 30.681 3.556 11.681
concentration, CF is the volumetric coarse fragment
F-value 3.498 0.359 2.16
content and 0.1 is conversion factor changes lab Sig. 0.075 0.555 0.156
reported value (mgcm2) to the preferred (mg ha-1).
This suggests that the clay content increases with the

Statistical analysis duration of CSA practices. The overall clay content in

Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to the area, in order of management types, was as

analyze differences in mean soil parameter values follows: plots with nine years of CSA practices (46.33)

among slope gradients and CSA interventions. A > plots with five years of CSA practices (44.83) >

Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) analysis was plots with two years of CSA practices (44.67) > plots

conducted to determine the effect of independent without any treatment (control) (43.67) (Table 1).

factors on the response variable. Treatment means This indicates that the clay content increases with the

were compared using the Least Significant Difference age of establishment, possibly due to the reduced

(LSD) at a 0.05 significance level (Gomez and Gomez, erosion of fine soil particles under fields with CSA

1984). SPSS Statistics version 26 was used for practices. Former research report in different areas of

ANOVA and GLMs. the world agrees with our findings. For instance, a
research conducted to evaluate the effects of soil and
Results and discussion water conservation practices on soil quality indicators
Effects of climate-smart agricultural practices in the catchment Gojeb River in Ethiopia. Dagnachew
The result of the study displays that there was no et al. (2020) showed that farmlands with soil and
significant variation in sand, silt, and clay among the water conservation practices had relatively enhanced

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soil physical properties such as clay and silt fractions bulk density (g cm⁻³) were found in soils without CSA
compared with farmlands without soil and water practices (control). The distribution of soil bulk
conservation practices. Generally, the data analysis density among different CSA practices and the control
revealed that the particle size distribution was field was as follows: control (1.61 g cm⁻³) > 5 years
dominantly clay textural class which suggesting that (1.37 g cm⁻³) > 9 years (1.24 g cm⁻³), indicating that
Climate Smart Agricultural practices (CSA) do not bulk density decreases with longer CSA
alter the soil texture that indicates the soil inherent implementation. The LSD test indicated that CSA
properties such as particle distribution can be practices with duration of 9 years had significantly
affected by long-term soil management. This result lower bulk density than the control (Table 3). The
accords with the finding of Solomon et al. (2017) who lower bulk density in CSA practices with 9 years of
reported non-significant difference in texture due to implementation could be attributed to higher organic
soil and water conservation management practices. matter content and reduced soil erosion. Similar
findings were reported by Solomon et al. (2017) and
Bulk density showed significant variation with CSA Worku (2017), who observed lower bulk density in
practices (P<0.001) (Table 2). High mean values of conserved farms.

Table 2. ANOVA for BD, SOC% and SOCs as affected by CSA practices
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
BD (g/cm3) * CSA Between groups (Combined) 0.677 3 0.226 22.709 0.000
Within groups 0.318 32 0.01
Total 0.995 35
SOC (%) * CSA Between groups (Combined) 1.741 3 0.58 29.968 0.000
Within groups 0.62 32 0.019
Total 2.36 35
SOCs * CSA Between groups (Combined) 365.161 3 121.72 46.22 0.000
Within groups 84.272 32 2.634
Total 449.434 35
CSA is the Climate Smart Agriculture; df is the degree of freedom.

Table 3. Effects of CSA Practices on BD, SOC% and SOCs (Mg ha 1) (mean ± SE)
CSA Bd (g/cm3) SOC (%) SOCs (Mg ha 1)
Control 1.61±0.036a 1.31±0.029a 19.41±0.663a
2 years 1.49±0.027b 1.51±0.018b 23.24±0.334b
5 Years 1.37±0.031c 1.68±0.023c 25.27±0.382c
9 Years 1.24±0.037d 1.91±0.083d 27.72±0.687d
Total 1.43±0.028 1.60±0.043 24.16±0.597
Means in the same column followed by the similar letters are not significantly different at (p = 0.05) and SE is
Std. Error of Mean.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) percentage showed SOC compared to the control, 2 years, and 5 years of
significant variation with CSA practices (P<0.001) implementation. The high SOC in the nine-year CSA
(Table 1). The highest mean SOC (%) was found in practices can be attributed to the increased organic
soils with nine years of CSA implementation. The matter. This finding aligns with Tanto and
distribution of SOC (%) among different CSA Laekemariam (2019), who reported higher SOC in
durations and the control field was as follows: control conserved land compared to non-conserved sites.
(1.31%) < 2 years (1.51%) < 5 years (1.68%) < 9 years
(1.91%) (Table 2), indicating that SOC increases with SOC stock (Mg ha⁻¹) also showed significant variation
longer CSA implementation. The Least Significant with CSA practices (P<0.001) (Table 2). The highest
Difference (LSD) test also showed that nine years of mean SOC stock was found in soils with nine years of
CSA implementation resulted in significantly higher CSA implementation. The distribution of SOC stock

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(Mg ha⁻¹) among different CSA durations and the The lower bulk density in the lower slope gradient
control field was: 9 years (27.72 Mg ha⁻¹) > 5 years suggests higher organic carbon content. A decreasing
(25.27 Mg ha⁻¹) > 2 years (23.24 Mg ha⁻¹) > control trend in bulk density was observed from the upper to
(19.41 Mg ha⁻¹) (Table 3), indicating that SOC stock the lower slope gradient. The least significant
increases with longer CSA implementation. The LSD difference test confirmed that the upper slope
test also indicated that nine years of CSA gradient had significantly higher bulk density than
implementation resulted in significantly higher SOC the lower slope gradient. This could be due to the
stock compared to the control, 2 years, and 5 years of accumulation and decomposition of crop residues
implementation. The high SOC stock in the nine-year after harvest. These findings are consistent with
CSA practices can be attributed to the increased Bufebo et al. (2021), who reported significantly
organic matter. greater bulk density in the upper landscape position
at Shenkolla watershed. The bulk density was found
Effects of slope gradients to be lower in soils under CSA practices for nine years
Bulk density and lower slope gradient, indicating a higher
Bulk density showed significant variation with slope potential for organic carbon accumulation. The
gradient (p<0.001) (Table 3). The mean bulk density decrease in bulk density with increase the duration of
values were highest in the upper slope gradient (1.54), CSA practices and lower slope suggests that organic
followed by the middle slope gradient (1.42), and matter accumulation and decomposition are
lowest in the lower slope gradient (1.32) (Table 5). influencing soil structure.

Table 4. ANOVA for BD, SOC% and SOCs as affected by Slope gradient (SLG)
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
BD (g/cm3) * SLG Between groups (Combined) 0.29 2 0.145 6.781 0.003
Within groups 0.705 33 0.021
Total 0.995 35
SOC (%) * SLG Between groups (Combined) 0.401 2 0.2 3.376 0.046
Within groups 1.959 33 0.059
Total 2.36 35
SOCs * SLG Between groups (Combined) 51.127 2 25.563 2.118 0.136
Within groups 398.307 33 12.07
Total 449.434 35
SLG is the Slope gradient; df is the degree of freedom.

Table 5. Mean and standard error of BD, SOC% and SOC stock along slope gradient
SLG BD (g/cm3) SOC (%) SOCs (Mg ha 1)
Lower slope 1.32±0.045 a 1.75±0.093 a 25.70±1.015
Middle slope 1.42±0.038b 1.57±0.054b 23.98±0.990
Upper slope 1.54±0.041c 1.39±0.056c 22.80±1.003
Total 1.43±0.168 1.60±0.259 24.16±3.583
Means within a column followed by same letters in superscripts are not significantly different from each
other at P= 0:05.

Soil organic carbon (%) indicates more organic matter. The trend showed
Soil organic carbon (%) also varied significantly with decreasing soil organic carbon from the lower to the
slope gradient (p=0.046) (Table 3). The mean values upper slope gradient. The least significant difference
were lowest in the upper slope gradient (1.39%), test indicated significantly higher soil organic carbon
higher in the middle slope gradient (1.57%), and in the lower slope gradient. This might be due to the
highest in the lower slope gradient (1.75%) (Table 5). accumulation and decomposition of crop residues and
Higher soil organic carbon in the lower slope gradient reduced erosion. These results align with Bufebo et al.

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(2021) but differ from Esubalew et al. (2019), who in soils from land without CSA practices (control),
found no variation in carbon along the altitude likely due to poor management that impairs the soil’s
gradient in Alemsaga forest, South Gondar, North ability to resist erosion. These findings align with
Western Ethiopia. The carbon content decreases with Mullen et al. (1999) and Cao et al. (2017), who
increasing steepness of slope, similar to findings in reported that changes in land cover over the past 15
the Danaba Community Forest, likely due to the decades have driven the deterioration of soil organic
accumulation and decomposition of litter in the carbon. Similarly, Bayat (2011) found that the effects
topsoil. The carbon content was higher in soils under of slope on carbon stocks in Banja Forest were
CSA practices for nine years and lower slope minimal and insignificant across all carbon pools.
gradients, indicating a significant potential for Nega (2014) also reported slight variations among
organic carbon stock accumulation. These findings slope classes in Danaba Community Forest, Ethiopia.
highlight the importance of long-term CSA practices Soils under CSA practices for nine years were found
in improving soil health and carbon sequestration. to be effective reservoirs of carbon stock in the
cultivated landscape of Bona Dibero. This highlights
Soil organic carbon stock (Mg ha⁻¹) the potential of CSA practices to enhance climate
Soil organic carbon stock did not show significant change mitigation in the study area. Therefore, it is
variation with slope gradient (p=0.136) (Table 4). The crucial to enhance the capacity for climate change
mean values were lowest in the upper slope position adaptation and mitigation through the
(22.80 Mg ha⁻¹), higher in the middle slope position implementation of climate-smart practices.
(23.98 Mg ha⁻¹), and highest in the lower slope
position (25.70 Mg ha⁻¹) (Table 5). Higher soil Interaction effects of CSA and slope gradients (SLG)
organic carbon stock in the lower slope gradient on SOCs
indicates more organic matter. The trend showed Climate-smart agricultural practices (CSA) and slope
decreasing soil organic carbon stock from the lower to gradients (SLG) demonstrated a significant
the upper slope gradient. This might be due to the interaction effect on soil bulk density (p = 0.000).
accumulation and decomposition of crop residues. Additionally, the interaction effects of these fixed
These findings are consistent with Bufebo et al. factors (CSA and SLG) significantly influenced SOC
(2021) but differ from Esubalew et al. (2019), who percentage (p = 0.002). The study also revealed a
found no variation in carbon stock along the altitude significant difference in the mean value of soil carbon
gradient in Alemsaga forest. Additionally, soil erosion stock (Mg ha⁻¹) due to the interaction effects of CSA
increases with slope steepness, leading to the removal practices and slope gradients (CSA*SLG) (P = 0.023)
of soil organic carbon and other nutrients, resulting (Table 6).
in a decline in soil organic carbon stock. Similar
findings have been reported globally (Bolstad and Correlation between BD (g cm⁻³), SOC (%), and
Vose, 2001). However, Hamere et al. (2015) found no SOCS (Mg ha⁻¹)
relationship between soil organic carbon stock and The Pearson correlation results indicated a strong,
slope in Southwest Ethiopia. significant negative correlation between SOC (%) and
bulk density (BD) (g cm⁻³) (r = -0.629**) (Table 7).
Overall, soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) increases Similarly, soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) (Mg ha⁻¹)
with the duration of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) showed a strong negative correlation with bulk density
practices and decreases with the steepness of the (g cm⁻³) (r = -.488****). These correlations suggest that
slope. This study indicates that SOCS is sensitive to higher bulk density is associated with lower soil organic
slope gradient, with higher mean values observed at carbon. This finding aligns with Achalu et al. (2012),
lower slope gradients, though the variation is not who reported that organic carbon reduces bulk density
significant. The lowest mean SOCS values were found by positively influencing soil aggregation.

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Table 6. Interaction Effects of CSA and SLG on soil carbon stock

Variation source Soil properties Mean square F Sig.
CSA *SLG BD (cm3) 0.214 42.05 0.000
CSA *SLG SOC (%) 2.262 8.414 0.002
CSA* SLG SOCS 1954.746 4.412 0.023
CSA: climate smart agricultural practices; SLG: slope gradient; SOC: soil organic carbon; SOCS: soil organic
carbon stock.

Table 7. Correlation between BD (gcm-3), SOC (%) and SOCS (mg ha-1)
Bd (g/cm3) SOC (%) SOCS (mg ha-1)
BD (g/cm3) Pearson correlation 1
SOC (%) Pearson correlation -.629** 1
SOCS (mg ha-1) Pearson correlation -.488** .974** 1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

General trends of SOCS (mg ha-1) Conclusion

When we see the overall trends of soil organic The study results indicated that climate-smart
carbon stock, it increases as the duration of climate agricultural (CSA) practices and the interaction
smart agricultural practices increases and when between CSA practices and slope gradients
steepness of slope decreases. Generally, this study (CSA*SLG) significantly influenced soil organic
shows that soil carbon stock is sensitive to slope carbon stock (SOCS). The highest mean values of
gradient showing high mean value of SOCs at lower SOCS were observed in areas with lower slope
slope gradient with no significant variation. Lowest gradients and nine years of CSA implementation,
mean values of SOCs were observed in soils from while the lowest values were found in upper slope
land without CSA practice (control). The reason for positions and land without CSA practices. The
this might be connected with the poor management study also demonstrated that SOCS increased with
that disturbs the soil’s ability to resist erosion. The the duration of CSA implementation. The mean
finding of this study is in agreement with (Mullen et SOCS values followed the trend: upper slope <
al., 1999; Cao et al., 2017) who reported that over middle slope < lower slope. A similar trend was
the last 15 decades, the deterioration of soil organic observed for soil organic carbon content. Among
carbon could be driven by change in land cover. the slope gradients, the upper slope gradient
Similarly, the result of this study agrees with the differed the most, recording relatively low mean
findings of (Bayat, 2011) who explained that the value of SOCS. The lowest mean SOCS values were
effects of slope on Banja Forest carbon stocks were found in land without CSA practices and upper
very small and the relations were insignificant for all slope gradients, likely due to crop residue removal
carbon pools. Moreover, the finding of this study and soil erosion. Overall, land without CSA
agrees with the report of (Nega, 2014) with a slightly practices and upper slope gradients negatively
small variation among slope classes at Danaba influenced SOCS. Conversely, SOCS was positively
Community Forest in Ethiopia. Soil under climate influenced by CSA practices and lower slope
smart practices with duration of 9 years was found gradients. Soil under climate smart practices with
to be a good reservoir of carbon stock in the duration of 9 years was found to be a good
cultivated landscape of Bona Dibero. This indicates reservoir of carbon stock in the cultivated. This
the potential of the soil management (CSA) practices indicates the potential of the soil management
to improve climate change mitigation in the study (CSA) practices contributing to greenhouse gas
area. Enhancing the capacity of climate change reduction and climate change mitigation.
adaptation and mitigation actions should be done Therefore, implementing CSA practices that
using climate smart practices. maintain adequate SOCS levels and enhance soil

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 J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2025

fertility and productivity is essential for optimizing Brunner AC, Park SJ, Ruecker GR, Dikau R,
climate change adaptation and mitigation. Further Vlek PLC. 2004. Catenary soil development
research should focus on soil quality parameters influencing erosion susceptibility along hillslope in
and sustainable land management. Uganda. CATENA 58(1), 1–22.

Acknowledgments Bufebo B, Elias E, Agegnehu G. 2021. Effects of

We want to thank Wachemo University for providing landscape positions on soil physicochemical
financial support. We also acknowledge development properties at Shenkolla Watershed, South Central
agents of Bona Dibero who facilitated field work Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research 10(1).
during data collection. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-021-00222-8.

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