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 Robert F. Moss

The University of Alabama Press M Tuscaloosa

 Copyright © 2010
The University of Alabama Press
Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-0380
All rights reserved

The recipes in this book are intended to be followed

as written by the author. Results will vary.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Typeface: Adobe Caslon Pro

Designer: Michele Myatt Quinn

∞
The paper on which this book is printed meets the minimum
requirements of American National Standard for Information
Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,
ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moss, Robert F.
Barbecue : the history of an American institution / Robert F. Moss.
   p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8173-1718-8 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Barbecue
cooking—United States. 2. Barbecue cooking—History—United
States. I. Title.
TX840.B3M687 2010
641.7′6—dc22
2010005683
For my father
 5
Ac k n ow led g m en t s ix

Introduction 1

1 M Barbecue in Colonial America 5

2 M Barbecue and the Early Republic 24

3 M The Barbecue Comes of Age 54

4 M Barbecue and the Civil War 82

5 M Barbecue, Reconstruction, and the Gilded Age 98

6 M The Rise of Barbecue Restaurants 126

7 M Barbecue Finds the Backyard 177

8 M The Golden Age of Barbecue 194

9 M The Decline and Rebirth of American Barbecue 217

Notes 243

R ef er en c e s 265

I n d ex 269
 Acknowledgments

This project began almost ten years ago when I went to the University of South Caro-
lina library to read about the history of barbecue. I discovered, to my surprise, that not
only had no one written a full book on the subject but there really wasn’t much histori-
cal research published on barbecue at all. For several years I haphazardly collected old
newspaper stories and diary entries about barbecue and slowly began piecing together
the story. This research eventually evolved into a book. During that time, I had two
children, changed jobs three times, and moved cities and houses three times, too.
As with any project with this long a gestation, there are dozens of people who helped
along the way, and I am sure I will forget more than a few of those who deserve thanks.
John Shelton Reed shared valuable research, encouragement, and much-needed advice
as I was finishing this book and trying to figure out how to get it published. I owe him
and Dale Vosberg Reed a big blowout at Hominy Grill. Jeff Allen and John T. Edge
read chapters from the manuscript, and their comments helped make it better.
By the time I’d gotten seriously underway on this project, Robert W. Trogdon had
already been exiled to the barbecueless backwoods of Ohio, but he and I ate a lot of
mustard-sauced pork together in Columbia, South Carolina, and he helped fuel my
early passion for the subject.
The Interlibrary Loan Staff at the Charleston County Public Library were invaluable
in helping me complete my work far from the walls of a research library, and Ray Quiel
of San Bernardino, California, was very generous in providing material on the early
­McDonald’s restaurants back before they gave up barbecue in favor of hamburgers.
The whole team at The University of Alabama Press has done a remarkable job of
taking an unwieldy manuscript and turning it into a finished book, and I thank them
all for their efforts.
 x H acknowledgments

And, lastly, I owe a tremendous debt to my wife, Jennifer, who has always been
my strongest supporter and has patiently endured countless side trips down country
roads seeking out obscure barbecue joints in the days before GPS. I’m not contesting
her claim that this whole project was just a big ruse to allow me to eat barbecue every
weekend in the name of “research,” but at least I have a book to show for it.

Mount Pleasant, South Carolina

December 2009
 Introduction

A
meri­cans love barbecue. They love to eat it, argue about it, and even read
about it. Dozens of titles on the subject are published each year, covering
­every imaginable aspect of the topic: recipes, grilling tips, restaurant guides,
instructions for constructing barbecue pits, and exotic variants such as Mongolian bar-
becue and Indian tandoor cooking. But, for a dish on which so much ink has been
spilled, remarkably little has been written about the history of barbecue in the United
States.
Most barbecue books focus on recipes or contemporary restaurants and show little
more than a passing interest in the origins of their subject. Very little has been written
about barbecue before 1900, and the small amount of information presented has typi-
cally been vague and speculative. One of the best cultural histories of southern cookery,
John Egerton’s Southern Food: At Home, On the Road, In History (1987), has an entire
chapter about barbecue, but this chapter treats the history of southern barbecue before
1900 in only two paragraphs, one of which summarizes the etymology of the word. Bob
Garner’s North Carolina Barbecue: Flavored by Time (1996) offers an excellent account
of the origins of North Carolina barbecue restaurants in the early twentieth century, but
it provides just two pages of material on barbecue before 1900, and most of that dis-
cussion is largely conjecture. John Shelton Reed and Dale Vosberg Reed’s recent Holy
Smoke: The Big Book of North Carolina Barbecue (2008) offers by far the most detailed and
reliable history of barbecue published thus far, though their account is limited to the
context of a single state and is part of a larger work on all aspects of barbecue in North
Carolina.
These are the best books; most ignore the history of barbecue altogether and focus
only on the dish as it is known today. One reason why the full story has not been told is
 2 H introduction

that the details are not easily found. Barbecue men have not left their personal papers to
archives. The first recipes for pit-­cooked barbecue did not appear in print until after the
Civil War; the first books devoted to the subject were not published until the 1940s.
The history of barbecue before 1900 can be found only as fragments scattered lightly
through newspapers, letters, private journals, and travel narratives. Reconstructing this
history requires sifting through reams of material to find the few disparate scraps and
arranging them into a coherent story.
The results are well worth the effort, for the story of barbecue is far more than just
the way people came to roast whole pigs or beef briskets over open pits. It is the story
of a vital institution in Ameri­can life. While roasting meat over a fire is universal, the
specific term “barbecue” originated among the various Native Ameri­can tribes in the
Caribbean and along the eastern coast of North America, and it was adopted from
them by English colonists in the seventeenth century. The word was used through­
out the Ameri­can colonies to refer to both the cooking technique and the social event,
but the institution took root most firmly in Virginia and became an essential part of
Tidewater plantation culture. From there it spread southward through the Carolinas
and into Georgia and across the Appalachians into Tennessee and Kentucky, following
the main pattern of southern settlement. In the early nineteenth century, the barbecue
tradition moved westward with Ameri­can settlers across the Gulf states and into Texas,
and later through the Southwest all the way to the Pacific Coast.
Barbecue has always been more than just something to eat. For three centuries it has
been a vital part of Ameri­can social and political life, particularly in the South and the
West. Entire communities would come together at barbecues for celebration, recrea-
tion, and the expression of common values. In the early years of the Republic, Fourth
of July barbecues were not just a time to celebrate the nation’s independence but also a
means of reinforcing the democratic values of the community. The tradition has evolved
over time, following the larger evolution of Ameri­can society. In colonial days, barbe-
cues were rough, rowdy festivals accompanied—like much of frontier life—by drunk-
enness and fistfights. In the early nineteenth century, the reform movements that trans-
formed Ameri­can society—most notably the temperance movement—also changed
the character of barbecues. The events became more staid and ritualized, evolving into
 introduction H 3

respectable affairs that bound communities together. They also became an essential part
of the political life of the nation, as events staged by politicians to woo potential voters
and as expressions of community support for leaders and causes. For decades, barbecues
were the traditional way to honor local politicians for their service, and they played a
prominent role in the sectionalist controversies that led to the Civil War. Such events
rallied support for secession, honored troops as they were sent off to battle, and survived
the war as the standard form of large-­scale civic celebration in the South and West.
Before the Civil War and after, barbecue was a tradition shared by white and black
Ameri­cans alike, and the issues of race are intertwined with the food’s history. African
Ameri­can slaves were usually the pitmasters and cooks for the large barbecues hosted
and attended by whites, and thus played a formative role in developing the techniques
and recipes of southern barbecue. Barbecues were a common form of recreation for
slaves, too, as events they staged and created for themselves and as a form of paternal-
istic entertainment granted by slave owners as a means of reward and control. After
Emancipation, barbecue continued to play a key role in the lives of African Ameri­cans,
serving as the center of a wide range of community celebrations and becoming a core
part of African Ameri­can foodways.
One of the most significant changes in barbecue culture occurred around the turn
of the twentieth century, when it became a product of commerce. Before the 1890s,
barbecue was almost never sold but instead given away at public festivals, which gen-
erally were hosted by organizations or prominent citizens and open to all members of
the community. This began to change when itinerant barbecue men started selling their
services for events such as school commencements and other celebrations. These cooks
would set up tents on special occasions such as the Fourth of July, Labor Day, and court
days in county seats and on street corners in cities. The tents evolved into more perma-
nent structures, and the modern barbecue restaurant was born.
The restaurant trade helped create today’s distinctive regional variations of barbecue.
Cooks settled on a few types of meat based on local tastes and availability. In the South-
east, pork was the standard, but goat and mutton were common in Kentucky, and
in Texas and the West beef reigned supreme. Regional variations became more pro-
nounced over the decades, with cooking styles, sauces, and side dishes becoming dis-
 4 H introduction

tinctive to each region. Business was boosted by the rise of the automobile, and bar-
becue stands became an iconic feature of the roadside not just in the South but across
the country. Some—but not many—of these establishments survive today as legendary
barbecue restaurants, such as Sprayberry’s in Newnan, Georgia, and McClard’s in Hot
Springs, Arkansas. Most did not last, their slow-­cooking methods and diverse regional
variations ill suited to the standardized demands of the fast-­food industry.
But, the very qualities that prevented barbecue from becoming a fast-­food staple are
what make it a classic Ameri­can dish today. No one travels from town to town sampling
cheeseburgers, and no one has heated debates over which state serves the best chicken
fingers. A newspaper article on tomatoes or fried chicken is unlikely to generate much
controversy, but one on barbecue is almost guaranteed to provoke dozens of angry let-
ters to the editor. Something about barbecue brings out the passion in both cooks and
eaters. Few Ameri­can dishes can boast of the sheer variety of barbecue, whose ingre-
dients and cooking styles can differ completely in restaurants separated by only a few
hundred miles and therefore create strong geographic preferences and loyalties. Bar-
becue as an event remains an important form of celebration and gathering, be it for re-
unions, campaign fundraisers, or outdoor festivals, and barbecue as a dish is enjoying a
remarkable resurgence in popularity throughout the country.
Most of all, barbecue has shown an enduring power to bring people together. From
the very beginning, barbecues were powerful social magnets, drawing people from a
wide range of classes and geographic backgrounds. Because of this, it has played an im-
portant role in three centuries of Ameri­can history, reflecting and influencing the di-
rection of an evolving society. As Ameri­cans founded their nation, defined their civic
values, expanded democracy, built canals and railroads, and threw themselves westward,
barbecue was there. It helped cast the country apart during the Civil War, then bring
it back together again in the years of reconciliation that followed. The same forces that
shaped the larger contours of Ameri­can life influenced barbecue, too, and over time the
institution evolved to reflect the country’s progression from a rural, agricultural society
to an industrialized, commercial world power. To trace the story of barbecue is to trace
the very thread of Ameri­can history.
This is that story.
 M M

5
Barbecue in Colonial America

S
ometime around 1706, a group of English colonists in Peckham, Jamaica, gath-
ered for a most un-­British feast. Drunk on rum, they built a rack of sticks and
started a fire beneath it. Once the fire had burned down to coals, they laid long
wooden spits across the range then hoisted three whole pigs on top. As the pigs roasted,
the cook basted them with a combination of green Virginia pepper and Madeira wine,
using a fox’s tail tied to a long stick. After many hours of cooking, the pigs were re-
moved from the fire, laid on a log, and divided into quarters with an ax. They were then
distributed to the gathered revelers, who delighted in the “Incomparable Food, fit for
the Table of a Sagamoor.”
The details of this feast were captured by Edward Ward in his pamphlet The Barba­
cue Feast: or, the three pigs of Peckham, broiled under an apple-­tree, which was published in
London in 1707. Roasting meat over flames was nothing new to Englishmen, but the
event Ward witnessed was something different—and something definitely not British.
The feast, he explains, was staged because the colonists had “their English appetites so
deprav’d and vitiated” by rum that they craved “a Litter of Pigs nicely cook’d after the
West Indian manner.” The hogs were cooked whole “with their Heads, Tails, Pettitoes,
and Hoofs on . . . according to the Indian Fashion.” 1
This Caribbean feast was quite similar to today’s community barbecues in Georgia
or North Carolina: whole hogs cooked slowly over a pit of coals and basted with a spicy
 6 H chapter 1

sauce. From its earliest days barbecue was not just a type of food or a cooking tech-
nique but also a social event. The colonists’ feast was a community affair that included
“the best Part of the town of Peckham.” It began long before the food was served, for
the cooking itself was part of the experience. The citizens watched with great interest
as the range was constructed and the fire stoked, and once the pigs were laid upon the
spits, the crowd gathered around, “expressing as much Joy in the Looks and Actions, as
a Gang of wild Canibals who, when they have taken a Stranger, first dance round him,
and afterwards devour him.” Like many of the barbecue writers who would follow him,
Ward liked to exaggerate, but his descriptions capture the ritualistic nature of barbecue,
rituals that were fast becoming ingrained in the culture of the British colonies and, later,
would play a defining role in the social life of the United States.

In the broadest sense, barbecue simply means the act of cooking anything over a fire,
be it hamburgers, shrimp kebabs, or corn on the cob. For most Ameri­cans, though, the
word has a more precise definition. It is, for starters, a particular type of food, and one
that varies greatly from one part of the country to another. When an eastern North
Carolinian says, “Let’s go get some barbecue,” he is referring to finely chopped bits of
smoked pork mixed with a spicy, vinegar-­based sauce. A Texan saying the same thing
usually means sliced beef brisket, while someone from Memphis may be talking about
a basket of pork ribs. Varied as these definitions are, there are a few common qualities
to what Ameri­cans call barbecue: meat cooked slowly over wood coals and (usually)
served with a sweet or spicy sauce.
But, barbecue is more than just something to eat. It is also a social event—the occa-
sion when barbecue is cooked and served. This may be something small and informal—
a handful of friends grilling out in the backyard for a Saturday-­night barbecue. Or, it
might be a major production. When a southern church holds a barbecue, it sets up rows
of folding tables on the grounds and lets people park their cars on the grass once they
overflow the parking lot. In many parts of the country, it is a standard way to celebrate
a wedding, kick off a political campaign, or pass the hat for a charitable cause. If you
want to get a lot of people together, a barbecue is the way to do it. And it has been this
way for a long time.
 The Derivation of the Word

The word barbecue comes from the Taino Indians in the Caribbean,
where it was the name for a frame of green sticks that was used both as
a sleeping platform and for smoking or drying meat. Initially, the word
had the dual meaning of a physical piece of equipment and a method
of cooking. The English version first appeared in print in Edmund Hick­
eringill’s travel narrative Jamaica Viewed (1661), which described the
hunting of animals as, “Some are slain, And their flesh forthwith Bar­
bacu’d and eat.” Though initially encountered on Caribbean islands
such as Jamaica, Western explorers recorded the word (often spelled
“bor­becue” or “barbecu”) and the technique being used by Indians
ranging from New England to Guiana in South America.
By the end of the seventeenth century the word barbecue was no
longer limited to travel narratives but had moved into the common us­
age as a synonym for roasting or grilling, even outside the context of
food. In Aphra Behn’s play The Widow Ranter (1690) a riotous crowd
seizes a rebel and demands,“Let’s barbicu this fat Rogue.” Cotton Mather
used the term to describe the burning deaths of Native Ameri­cans in
Massachusetts: “When they came to see the bodies of so many of their
countrymen terribly barbikew’d.” Although barbecue would continue
to be used in Europe in the general sense of roast, it was in the Ameri­
can colonies that it truly took hold and acquired a range of specific
meanings.
Though barbecue’s origins are well established by lexicographers,
there have been many more fanciful derivations proposed. The most
 8 H chapter

common of these is that the word comes from the French barbe-­a-­
queue, or beard-­to-­tail, referring to the cooking of whole hogs over the
pit. This explanation has been around almost two centuries, appearing
in print as early as 1829, and it is frequently listed in general reference
works as a legitimate alternative derivation to the Indian origins. (The
editors of the Oxford English Dictionary dismiss barbe-­a-­queue as “an
absurd conjecture suggested merely by the sound of the word.”) Other
often-­repeated stories are that the word originated from a restaurant
offering whiskey, beer, and pool along with its roasted pork (bar-­beer-­
cue) and from a rancher with the initials B.Q. who branded his cattle
with the two letters topped by a bar, or Bar-­B-­Q Ranch. But, the word
barbecue is clearly much older than such explanations would a
­ llow.

Source: The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University
Press. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/00181778.
 barbecue in colonial america H 9

Native Americans barbecuing fish

in North Carolina, from a 1590
­engraving by Theodor de Bry. The
image is from the German edi-
tion of Thomas Harriot’s Brief and
True Report of the New Found Land
of Virginia. De Bry’s engraving was
based on a watercolor of the scene
by ­English artist John White, who
sailed with Richard Grenville in 1588
to explore the coast of present-day
North Carolina. (Courtesy Library
of Congress, Prints & Photographs
Division.)

Barbecue in the Ameri­can Colonies

The word barbecue originated in the Caribbean, but the cooking technique itself was
widespread along the eastern coast of North America. In The History of Virginia (1705),
Robert Beverley notes about the local tribes, “They have two ways of broiling, vis. one
by laying the Meat itself upon the coals, the other by laying it upon sticks raised upon
forks at some distance above the live coals, which heats more gently, and dries up the
gravy; this they, and we also from them, call barbecuing.” 2 The same technique was used
in the Carolinas. John Brickell’s Natural History of North-­Carolina (1737) indicates that
the Native Ameri­cans in this area, like those in the Caribbean, used barbecue racks for
dual purposes. The first was to dry meat for preservation: “They commonly barbecu or
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