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 Partial Differential
Equations

Lawrence C. Evans
Partial Differential
Equations
SECOND EDITION
This page is intentionally left blank.
Partial Differential
Equations
SECOND EDITION

Lawrence C. Evans
Department of Mathematics
University of California, Berkeley

Graduate Studies
in Mathematics
Volume 19

| <~»:\8 American Mathematical Society

\esZ" Providence, Rhode Island
 Editorial Board
James E. Humphreys (Chair)
David J. Saltman
David Sattinger
Julius L. Shaneson

2010 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 35-XX; Secondary 49-XX, 47Hxx.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.ams.org/bookpages/gsm-19

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Evans, Lawrence C., 1949—
Partial differential equations / Lawrence C. Evans. — 2nd ed.
p. cm. — (Graduate studies in mathematics ; v. 19)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8218-4974-3 (alk. paper)
1. Differential equations, Partial. I. Title.
QA377.E95 2010
515’ .353-dce22 2009044716

Copying and reprinting. Individual readers of this publication, and nonprofit libraries
acting for them, are permitted to make fair use of the material, such as to copy a chapter for use
in teaching or research. Permission is granted to quote brief passages from this publication in
reviews, provided the customary acknowledgment of the source is given.
Republication, systematic copying, or multiple reproduction of any material in this publication
is permitted only under license from the American Mathematical Society. Requests for such
permission should be addressed to the Acquisitions Department, American Mathematical Society,
201 Charles Street, Providence, Rhode Island 02904-2294 USA. Requests can also be made by
e-mail to reprint-permission@ams. org.

First Edition © 1998 by the American Mathematical Society. All rights reserved.
Reprinted with corrections 1999, 2002
Second Edition © 2010 by the American Mathematical Society. All rights reserved.
The American Mathematical Society retains all rights
except those granted to the United States Government.
Printed in the United States of America.
© The paper used in this book is acid-free and falls within the guidelines
established to ensure permanence and durability.
Visit the AMS home page at http://www. ams. org/
10987654321 15 14 13 12 11 10
I dedicate this book to the memory of my parents,

LAWRENCE S. EVANS and LOUISE J. EVANS.

This page is intentionally left blank.
CONTENTS

Preface to second edition .......................... xvii

Preface to first edition .....................000000. xix

1. Introduction ......... 0... 0.00. eee 1

1.1. Partial differential equations ..................... 1
1.2. Examples ..........
20... 020. ee eee eee 3
1.2.1. Single partial differential equations ............ 3
1.2.2. Systems of partial differential equations ........ 6
1.3. Strategies for studying PDE ...................... 6
1.3.1. Well-posed problems, classical solutions .:...... 7
1.3.2. Weak solutions and regularity ................ 7
1.3.3. Typical difficulties ......................... 9
1.4. Overview ....... 0... eens 9
1.5. Problems ............
0.0 e eee eee eens 12
1.6. References ..........
0.0.2 cece eee eee ete 13

PART I: REPRESENTATION FORMULAS

FOR SOLUTIONS

2. Four Important Linear PDE ..................... 17

2.1. Transport equation ...............2..-.
0.0 eee eee 18
2.1.1. Initial-value problem ...................... 18
2.1.2. Nonhomogeneous problem .................. 19
2.2. Laplace’s equation .................20000
2c eee 20

vill
Viii CONTENTS

2.2.1. Fundamental solution ...................4. 21

2.2.2. Mean-value formulas ...................... 25
2.2.3. Properties of harmonic functions ............. 26
2.2.4. Green’s function ..............00020
eee eee 33
2.2.5. Energy methods .................--.-22005- 41
2.3. Heat equation ...........
2... 00. eee 44
2.3.1. Fundamental solution ..................... 45
2.3.2. Mean-value formula ....................... 51
2.3.3. Properties of solutions ..................... 55
2.3.4. Energy methods ................-.20000
eee 62
2.4. Wave equation ............. 0... 65
2.4.1. Solution by spherical means ................ 67
2.4.2. Nonhomogeneous problem .................. 80
2.4.3. Energy methods ...................2200055 82
2.5. Problems ........ 0.0.0.0... ccc eens 84
2.6. References .......... 0.0.00: eeee 90
3. Nonlinear First-Order PDE....................... 91
3.1. Complete integrals, envelopes .................205. 92
3.1.1. Complete integrals ....................-.0.. 92
3.1.2. New solutions from envelopes ............... 94
3.2. Characteristics .............. 000s 96
3.2.1. Derivation of characteristic ODE ............. 96
3.2.2. Examples ............0
00.00 ce eee ee eee 99
3.2.3. Boundary conditions ..................... 102
3.2.4. Local solution ................0002200000- 105
3.2.5. Applications ...................-
20 eee 109
3.3. Introduction to Hamilton-Jacobi equations ........ 114
3.3.1. Calculus of variations, Hamilton’s ODE ...... 115
3.3.2. Legendre transform, Hopf—Lax formula ....... 120
3.3.3. Weak solutions, uniqueness ................ 128
3.4. Introduction to conservation laws ............... 135
3.4.1. Shocks, entropy condition ................. 136
3.4.2. Lax—Oleinik formula ..................... 143
3.4.3. Weak solutions, uniqueness ................ 148
CONTENTS

3.4.4. Riemann’s problem ...................4.. 153

3.4.5. Long time behavior ...................... 156
3.5. Problems .................
0c eee eee eee eee 161
3.6. References ............ 0.000: 165
4. Other Ways to Represent Solutions .............. 167
4.1. Separation of variables ...............0.--
0-00 167
4.1.1. Examples .........................0000. 168
4.1.2. Application: Turing instability ............. 172
4.2. Similarity solutions ..................0000-
005. 176
4.2.1. Plane and traveling waves, solitons .......... 176
4.2.2. Similarity under scaling ................... 185
4.3. Transform methods ...................000
000 ee 187
4.3.1. Fourier transform ...................----. 187
4.3.2. Radon transform ..............-..---005- 196
4.3.3. Laplace transform ..............---
000 e- 203
4.4. Converting nonlinear into linear PDE ............ 206
4.4.1. Cole-Hopf transformation ................. 206
4.4.2. Potential functions ....................... 208
4.4.3. Hodograph and Legendre transforms ......... 209
4.5. AsymptoticS ........ 0.0... cece eee eee 211
4.5.1. Singular perturbations .................... 211
4.5.2. Laplace’s method ...................-000. 216
4.5.3. Geometric optics, stationary phase .......... 218
4.5.4. Homogenization ....................-004. 229
4.6. Power series ..........
00... eee eee eee eee 232
4.6.1. Noncharacteristic surfaces ................. 232
4.6.2. Real analytic functions ................... 237
4.6.3. Cauchy—Kovalevskaya Theorem ............. 239
4.7. Problems ............
0... e eee eee 244
4.8. References .........
0.00.0 c cece eee eee eee eee 249

PART II: THEORY FOR LINEAR PARTIAL

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

5. Sobolev Spaces ...............

0.00: e eee eee eee 253
5.1. Holder spaces .........
0.0.0.0. cee eee eee 254
x CONTENTS

5.2. Sobolev spaceS ............

00. ce eee eee ee eee 255
5.2.1. Weak derivatives ..................00004. 255
5.2.2. Definition of Sobolev spaces ............... 258
5.2.3. Elementary properties ...................-. 261
5.3. Approximation ...........
0.0.0.2 eee eee eee 264
5.3.1. Interior approximation by smooth functions ... 264
5.3.2. Approximation by smooth functions ......... 265
5.3.3. Global approximation by smooth functions .... 266
5.4. Extensions .........
0.0.0.0. cc eee eee 268
5.0. TYaceS 2... eee eee 271
5.6. Sobolev inequalities ...................--0000. 275
5.6.1. Gagliardo—Nirenberg—Sobolev inequality ...... 276
5.6.2. Morrey’s inequality .................2005. 280
5.6.3. General Sobolev inequalities ............... 284
5.7. CompactnesS ........ 0...
eee eee 286
5.8. Additional topics ..............0 0.000 289
5.8.1. Poincaré’s inequalities .................... 289
5.8.2. Difference quotients ...................0-- 291
5.8.3. Differentiability ae. ...........2.2.00-0006- 295
5.8.4. Hardy’s inequality ...................00.. 296
5.8.5. Fourier transform methods ................ 297
5.9. Other spaces of functions ..................005. 299
5.9.1. The space H~! 1.0.0.0...
eee 299
5.9.2. Spaces involving time ...................-- 301
5.10. Problems ...........
0.0... cece eee eee 305
5.11. References ........ 0... cece eeeeens 309
6. Second-Order Elliptic Equations ................. 311
6.1. Definitions ........ 0.0.0... 02 ee eee 311
6.1.1. Elliptic equations .....................0.4. 311
6.1.2. Weak solutions .................022.0000% 313
6.2. Existence of weak solutions .................... 315
6.2.1. Lax-Milgram Theorem ................... 315
6.2.2. Energy estimates ...................0000. 317
6.2.3. Fredholm alternative ..................... 320
CONTENTS xi

6.3. Regularity .............

0.2... cee ee
6.3.1. Interior regularity ........................
6.3.2. Boundary regularity ......................
6.4. Maximum principles ...................---000s
6.4.1. Weak maximum principle .................
6.4.2. Strong maximum principle .................
6.4.3. Harnack’s inequality ..................04.
6.5. Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions ..................
6.5.1. Eigenvalues of symmetric elliptic operators ....
6.5.2. Eigenvalues of nonsymmetric elliptic operators .
6.6. Problems .............
00. cece eee eee eens
6.7. References ..........
2... cece eee eee eee eee
7. Linear Evolution Equations .....................
7.1. Second-order parabolic equations ................
7.1.1. Definitions ........ 0.0.0.0... eee eee
7.1.2. Existence of weak solutions ................
7.1.3. Regularity 2.0.2.2...
.. 0.2 eee eee eee eee eee
7.1.4. Maximum principles ......................
7.2. Second-order hyperbolic equations ...............
7.2.1. Definitions ........
0.0... eee ee
7.2.2. Existence of weak solutions ................
7.2.3. Regularity 2.0.0...
0... eee eee eee eee ees
7.2.4. Propagation of disturbances ...............
7.2.5. Equations in two variables .................
7.3. Hyperbolic systems of first-order equations ........
7.3.1. Definitions ..........
0... eee eee eee eee
7.3.2. Symmetric hyperbolic systems ..............
7.3.3. Systems with constant coefficients ...........
7.4. Semigroup theory .................-
eee eee eee
7.4.1. Definitions, elementary properties ...........
7.4.2. Generating contraction semigroups ..........
7.4.3. Applications ...............
2. eee eee
7.5. Problems .............
0c eee eee eee eee ee eens
7.6. References ............
0.00 eee cece ee eens
xii CONTENTS

PART III: THEORY FOR NONLINEAR PARTIAL

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

8. The Calculus of Variations ...................... 453

8.1. Introduction .......... 0.0... eee 453
8.1.1. Basic ideas .............
20.2000 002s 453
8.1.2. First variation, Euler-Lagrange equation ..... 454
8.1.3. Second variation ...............2002-0000- 458
8.1.4. Systems ...... 20.20.00. cece eee 459
8.2. Existence of minimizers .....................4.. 465
8.2.1. Coercivity, lower semicontinuity ............ 465
8.2.2. Convexity ........
2.0... cee ee eee 467
8.2.3. Weak solutions of Euler-Lagrange equation ... 472
8.2.4. Systems ....... 0...ee eee 475
8.2.5. Local minimizers ................-.--00-- 480
8.3. Regularity ........ 0.0.0.0... eee eee 482
8.3.1. Second derivative estimates ................ 483
8.3.2. Remarks on higher regularity .............. 486
8.4. Constraints ...... 0... 0... eee eee 488
8.4.1. Nonlinear eigenvalue problems .............. 488
8.4.2. Unilateral constraints, variational inequalities . 492
8.4.3. Harmonic maps ..................---000- 495
8.4.4. Incompressibility ....................005. 497
8.5. Critical points ....... 20... 0. cee eee 501
8.5.1. Mountain Pass Theorem .................. 501
8.5.2. Application to semilinear elliptic PDE ....... 507
8.6. Invariance, Noether’s Theorem .................. 511
8.6.1. Invariant variational problems .............. 512
8.6.2. Noether’s Theorem ...................4.. 513
8.7. Problems ........ 0.0.0.0... ccc eee eee 520
8.8. References ........... 00.00. 525
9. Nonvariational Techniques ...................... 527
9.1. Monotonicity methods ....................-4.. 527
9.2. Fixed point methods ...................0-0-0055 533
9.2.1. Banach’s Fixed Point Theorem ............. 534
CONTENTS xiii

9.2.2. Schauder’s, Schaefer’s Fixed Point Theorems ..

9.3. Method of subsolutions and supersolutions ........
9.4. Nonexistence of solutions ...................05.
9.4.1. Blow-up ............ eee eee eee
9.4.2. Derrick—Pohozaev identity .................
9.5. Geometric properties of solutions ................
9.5.1. Star-shaped level sets .................0005.
9.5.2. Radial symmetry ..................000055
9.6. Gradient flows ........... 0.0.00.
9.6.1. Convex functions on Hilbert spaces ..........
9.6.2. Subdifferentials and nonlinear semigroups
9.6.3. Applications .............. 0.0.0.
9.7. Problems ...........
0.0.00. eee eee eee
9.8. References ..........0.
0... cece cee ees
10. Hamilton—Jacobi Equations ....................
10.1. Introduction, viscosity solutions ................
10.1.1. Definitions ............. 0.0.00...
10.1.2. Consistency .............
00. eee eee eee ee
10.2. Uniqueness ...............-
00 e eee ee eee
10.3. Control theory, dynamic programming ...........
10.3.1. Introduction to optimal control theory ......
10.3.2. Dynamic programming ...................
10.3.3. Hamilton—Jacobi-Bellman equation .........
10.3.4. Hopf—Lax formula revisited ...............
10.4. Problems .............
0... cece eens
10.5. References .........
0.0... eee eee eee
11. Systems of Conservation Laws .................
11.1. Introduction .........
0... cc eee eee eee eee
11.1.1. Integral solutions .......................
11.1.2. Traveling waves, hyperbolic systems ........
11.2. Riemann’s problem ..................-20e
eee
11.2.1. Simple waves ...............0
0c eee eee
11.2.2. Rarefaction waves ...........
2.000 eee eee
11.2.3. Shock waves, contact discontinuities ........
xiv CONTENTS

11.2.4. Local solution of Riemann’s problem ........ 632

11.3. Systems of two conservation laws ..............- 635
11.3.1. Riemann invariants ..................... 635
11.3.2. Nonexistence of smooth solutions .......... 639
11.4. Entropy criteria ... 2.2...
2 eee eee 641
11.4.1. Vanishing viscosity, traveling waves ......... 642
11.4.2. Entropy/entropy-flux pairs ............... 646
11.4.3. Uniqueness for scalar conservation laws ..... 649
11.5. Problems .............
0... ccc eee eee 654
11.6. References ...........
0... cece eee eee ees 657
12. Nonlinear Wave Equations ..................... 659
12.1. Introduction ........... 0... eee 659
12.1.1. Conservation of energy ................... 660
12.1.2. Finite propagation speed ................. 660
12.2. Existence of solutions ..............--.020005- 663
12.2.1. Lipschitz nonlinearities .................. 663
12.2.2. Short time existence ..............-.00005 666
12.3. Semilinear wave equations .................05. 670
12.3.1. Sign conditions ................2...-00-5- 670
12.3.2. Three space dimensions .................. 674
12.3.3. Subcritical power nonlinearities ............ 676
12.4. Critical power nonlinearity .................... 679
12.5. Nonexistence of solutions .................005- 686
12.5.1. Nonexistence for negative energy ........... 687
12.5.2. Nonexistence for small initial data ......... 689
12.6. Problems ............
0.0 eens 691
12.7. References ..........
0... cee ees 696

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Notation ...............
0... .0220 eee 697
A.1. Notation for matrices .............00
00 eee eens 697
A.2. Geometric notation ......... 00.0. eee 698
A.3. Notation for functions ...............0-0
eee eee 699
A.4. Vector-valued functions ...............000
eee 703
A.5. Notation for estimates ....................000- 703
CONTENTS XV

A.6. Some comments about notation ................ 704

Appendix B: Inequalities .......................... 705
B.1. Convex functions ............ 0... ee eee 705
B.2. Useful inequalities ...................222.0005 706
Appendix C: Calculus ............................. 710
C.1. Boundaries ................
0. cee eee eee eee eee 710
C.2. Gauss-Green Theorem ............--.000
eee eue 711
C.3. Polar coordinates, coarea formula ............... 712
C.4. Moving regions ..............-
0c eee eee eee eee 713
C.5. Convolution and smoothing .................... 713
C.6. Inverse Function Theorem ..................--. 716
C.7. Implicit Function Theorem .................... 717
C.8. Uniform convergence ..............---20-0-0
00: 718
Appendix D: Functional Analysis .................. 719
D.1. Banach spaces ............
2... eee eee eee eee 719
D.2. Hilbert spaces ..........
cece eee eee tees 720
D.3. Bounded linear operators ..................004. 721
D.4. Weak convergence ..............-
eee eee eee ees 723
D.5. Compact operators, Fredholm theory ............ 724
D.6. Symmetric operators .............
0... e eee 728
Appendix E: Measure Theory ..................... 729
E.1. Lebesgue measure ..............
0.0000 eee eee 729
E.2. Measurable functions and integration ............ 730
E.3. Convergence theorems for integrals .............. 731
E.4. Differentiation ................
0. eee eee ee eee 732
E.5. Banach space-valued functions .................. 733

Bibliography ..........
00... cece eee eee tte 735
This page is intentionally left blank.
Preface to the second
edition

Let me thank everyone who over the past decade has provided me with
suggestions and corrections for improving the first edition of this book. I
am extraordinarily grateful. Although I have not always followed these many
pieces of advice and criticism, I have thought carefully about them all. So
many people have helped me out that it is unfortunately no longer feasible to
list all their names. I have also received extraordinary help from everyone at
the AMS, especially Sergei Gelfand, Stephen Moye and Arlene O’Sean. The
NSF has generously supported my research during the writing of both the
original edition of the book and this revision. I will continue to maintain
lists of errors on my homepage, accessible through the math.berkeley.edu
website.
When you write a big book on a big subject, the temptation is to include
everything. A critic famously once imagined Tolstoy during the writing of
War and Peace: “The book is long, but even if it were twice as long, if
it were three times as long, there would always be scenes that have been
omitted, and these Tolstoy, waking up in the middle of the night, must have
regretted. There must have been a night when it occurred to him that he
had not included a yacht race...”(G. Moore, Avowals).
This image notwithstanding, I have tried to pack into this second edition
as many fascinating new topics in partial differential equations (PDE) as I
could manage, most notably in the new Chapter 12 on nonlinear wave equa-
tions. There are new sections on Noether’s Theorem and on local minimizers
in the calculus of variations, on the Radon transform, on Turing instabili-
ties for reaction-diffusion systems, etc. I have rewritten and expanded the
a

XVii
XViil PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

previous discussions on blow-up of solutions, on group and phase velocities,

and on several further subjects. I have also updated and greatly increased
citations to books in the bibliography and have moved references to research
articles to within the text. There are countless further minor modifications
in notation and wording. Most importantly, I have added about 80 new
exercises, most quite interesting and some rather elaborate. There are now
over 200 in total.
And there is a yacht race among the problems for Chapter 10.

LCE
January, 2010
Berkeley
Preface to the first
edition

I present in this book a wide-ranging survey of many important topics in

the theory of partial differential equations (PDE), with particular emphasis
on various modern approaches. I have made a huge number of editorial
decisions about what to keep and what to toss out, and can only claim
that this selection seems to me about right. I of course include the usual
formulas for solutions of the usual linear PDE, but also devote large amounts
of exposition to energy methods within Sobolev spaces, to the calculus of
variations, to conservation laws, etc.

My general working principles in the writing have been these:

a. PDE theory is (mostly) not restricted to two independent vari-

ables. Many texts describe PDE as if functions of the two variables (z, y)
or (z,t) were all that matter. This emphasis seems to me misleading, as
modern discoveries concerning many types of equations, both linear and
nonlinear, have allowed for the rigorous treatment of these in any number
of dimensions. I also find it unsatisfactory to “classify” partial differential
equations: this is possible in two variables, but creates the false impression
that there is some kind of general and useful classification scheme available
in general.

b. Many interesting equations are nonlinear. My view is that overall

we know too much about linear PDE and too little about nonlinear PDE. I
have accordingly introduced nonlinear concepts early in the text and have
tried hard to emphasize everywhere nonlinear analogues of the linear theory.

xix
xX PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

c. Understanding generalized solutions is fundamental. Many of the

partial differential equations we study, especially nonlinear first-order equa-
tions, do not in general possess smooth solutions. It is therefore essential to
devise some kind of proper notion of generalized or weak solution. This is
an important but subtle undertaking, and much of the hardest material in
this book concerns the uniqueness of appropriately defined weak solutions.

d. PDE theory is not a branch of functional analysis. Whereas

certain classes of equations can profitably be viewed as generating abstract
operators between Banach spaces, the insistence on an overly abstract view-
point, and consequent ignoring of deep calculus and measure theoretic esti-
mates, is ultimately limiting.

e. Notation is a nightmare. I have really tried to introduce consistent

notation, which works for all the important classes of equations studied.
This attempt is sometimes at variance with notational conventions within a
given subarea.

f. Good theory is (almost) as useful as exact formulas. I incorporate

this principle into the overall organization of the text, which is subdivided
into three parts, roughly mimicking the historical development of PDE the-
ory itself. Part I concerns the search for explicit formulas for solutions, and
Part II the abandoning of this quest in favor of general theory asserting
the existence and other properties of solutions for linear equations. Part III
is the mostly modern endeavor of fashioning general theory for important
classes of nonlinear PDE.

Let me also explicitly comment here that I intend the development

within each section to be rigorous and complete (exceptions being the frankly
heuristic treatment of asymptotics in §4.5 and an occasional reference to a
research paper). This means that even locally within each chapter the topics
do not necessarily progress logically from “easy” to “hard” concepts. There
are many difficult proofs and computations early on, but as compensation
many easier ideas later. The student should certainly omit on first reading
some of the more arcane proofs.
I wish next to emphasize that this is a textbook, and not a reference
book. I have tried everywhere to present the essential ideas in the clearest
possible settings, and therefore have almost never established sharp versions
of any of the theorems. Research articles and advanced monographs, many
of them listed in the Bibliography, provide such precision and generality.
My goal has rather been to explain, as best I can, the many fundamental
ideas of the subject within fairly simple contexts.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xxi

I have greatly profited from the comments and thoughtful suggestions

of many of my colleagues, friends and students, in particular: S. Antman,
J. Bang, X. Chen, A. Chorin, M. Christ, J. Cima, P. Colella, J. Cooper,
M. Crandall, B. Driver, M. Feldman, M. Fitzpatrick, R. Gariepy, J. Gold-
stein, D. Gomes, O. Hald, W. Han, W. Hrusa, T. Ilmanen, I. Ishii, I. Israel,
R. Jerrard, C. Jones, B. Kawohl, S. Koike, J. Lewis, T.-P. Liu, H. Lopes,
J. McLaughlin, K. Miller, J. Morford, J. Neu, M. Portilheiro, J. Ralston,
F. Rezakhanlou, W. Schlag, D. Serre, P. Souganidis, J. Strain, W. Strauss,
M. Struwe, R. Temam, B. Tvedt, J.-L. Vazquez, M. Weinstein, P. Wolfe,
and Y. Zheng.
I especially thank Tai-Ping Liu for many years ago writing out for me
the first draft of what is now Chapter 11.
I am extremely grateful for the suggestions and lists of mistakes from
earlier drafts of this book sent to me by many readers, and I encourage others
to send me their comments, at evansQmath.berkeley.edu. I have come to
realize that I must be more than slightly mad to try to write a book of
this length and complexity, but I am not yet crazy enough to think that I
have made no mistakes. I will therefore maintain a listing of errors
which come to light, and will make this accessible through the
math.berkeley.edu homepage.

Faye Yeager at UC Berkeley has done a really magnificent job typing

and updating these notes, and Jaya Nagendra heroically typed an earlier
version at the University of Maryland. My deepest thanks to both.

I have been supported by the NSF during much of the writing, most
recently under grant DMS-9424342.

LCE
August, 1997
Berkeley
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