Week 1: Introduction to Advanced Linguistics

Overview of Linguistic Subfields

1. Syntax: Sentence Structure : Syntax studies how words combine to form phrases,
clauses, and sentences. It focuses on grammatical rules and sentence patterns.

Key Concepts:

 Word order (e.g., Subject-Verb-Object in English)

 Phrase structure rules
 Transformational grammar (e.g., active vs. passive voice)

Example:

 “The cat chased the mouse” vs. “The mouse was chased by the cat” — both are
syntactically correct but differ in structure.

2. Phonology: Sound Systems: Phonology examines how sounds function within

a language, including patterns, rules, and mental representations of sounds.

Key Concepts:

 Phonemes (distinctive sound units)

 Sound patterns (e.g., stress, intonation)
 Phonological rules (e.g., assimilation, vowel harmony)

Example:

 In English, the [p] in “pin” is aspirated, while in “spin” it is not — a phonological

distinction

3. Semantics: Meaning of Words and Sentences: Semantics explores the meaning

of words, phrases, and sentences independent of context.

Key Concepts:

 Lexical semantics (word meanings)

 Compositional semantics (sentence meaning)
 Ambiguity and polysemy

Example:

 “Bank” can mean a financial institution or the side of a river — semantic

ambiguity
 4. Pragmatics: Meaning in Context: Pragmatics studies how context influences the
interpretation of meaning in communication.

Key Concepts:

 Speech acts (e.g., requests, commands)

 Implicature (implied meaning)
 Deixis (contextual references like “here” or “you”)

Example:

 “Can you pass the salt?” is understood as a request, not a literal question about
ability

5. Sociolinguistics: Language and Society: Sociolinguistics investigates how

language varies and changes in social contexts, including identity, region, class,
and gender.

Key Concepts:

 Dialects and accents

 Code-switching
 Language and identity

Example:

 African American Vernacular English (AAVE) has distinct grammatical and

phonological features shaped by cultural and historical factors

6. Psycholinguistics: Language and the Mind: Psycholinguistics explores how

language is processed, acquired, and produced in the brain.

Key Concepts:

 Language acquisition
 Speech perception and production
 Cognitive processing of language

Example:

 Children often say “goed” instead of “went” — showing rule-based learning of

past tense forms.

7. Computational Linguistics: Language and Technology: Computational

linguistics applies algorithms and models to process and analyze language using
computers.
Key Concepts:

 Natural Language Processing (NLP)

 Machine translation
 Speech recognition

Example:

 Chatbots and virtual assistants use computational linguistics to understand and

respond to user queries.

The three foundational linguistic concepts

Language as a System

Definition: Language is considered a structured system composed of interrelated

components—sounds, words, meanings, and rules—that enable communication. It’s
governed by patterns and principles that speakers intuitively follow.

Key Features:

 Phonological system: Rules for sound combinations (e.g., English doesn’t allow
words to start with “ng”).
 Morphological system: Rules for word formation (e.g., adding “-ed” for past
tense).
 Syntactic system: Rules for sentence structure (e.g., Subject-Verb-Object order).
 Semantic system: Rules for meaning (e.g., “bark” can mean a dog’s sound or tree
covering).
 Pragmatic system: Rules for context-based meaning (e.g., “Can you open the
window?” as a request).

Example: In English, the sentence “She is running” follows phonological (pronunciation),

morphological (verb tense), syntactic (word order), and semantic (meaning) rules—
demonstrating language as a system.

Competence vs. Performance

Origin: Introduced by Noam Chomsky to distinguish between a speaker’s internal

knowledge of language and their actual use of it.

Concept Description Example

A speaker’s subconscious knowledge of Knowing that “He go to
Competence
grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. school” is ungrammatical.
Performance The actual use of language in speech or Saying “He go to school” due
 Concept Description Example
writing, influenced by external factors. to a slip or stress.

Key Differences:

 Competence is idealized and abstract; performance is observable and variable.

 Performance may include errors, hesitations, or memory lapses that don’t reflect
true competence.

Example: A native speaker might say “I goed to the store” when tired or distracted. This
is a performance error, not a reflection of their competence.

Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Grammar

Definition:

 Descriptive grammar explains how language is actually used by speakers.

 Prescriptive grammar dictates how language should be used according to
formal rules.

Type Focus Example

Descriptive Observes real-world usage Accepts “Ain’t” as part of some dialects.
Prescriptive Enforces standard rules Says “Ain’t” is incorrect in formal English.

Key Points:

 Descriptive grammar is used by linguists to study language scientifically.

 Prescriptive grammar is often taught in schools and used in formal writing.

Example: Descriptive grammar might note that many English speakers use double
negatives (“I don’t know nothing”) in casual speech, while prescriptive grammar would
mark it as incorrect.
Linguistics Quiz: Language as a System, Competence vs. Performance, Descriptive
vs. Prescriptive Grammar

1. What does "language as a system" primarily refer to?

A. Language is only used for writing
B. Language is governed by interconnected rules and patterns
C. Language is fixed and unchanging
D. Language is a random collection of words

2. Which of the following best illustrates linguistic competence?

A. Mispronouncing a word during a speech
B. Forgetting a word mid-sentence
C. Knowing that "goed" is not the correct past tense of "go"
D. Stuttering while answering a question

3. What is the main difference between competence and performance?

A. Competence is ideal knowledge; performance is actual usage
B. Competence is observable; performance is hidden
C. Competence is about writing; performance is about speaking
D. Competence is learned; performance is innate

4. Which statement reflects a prescriptive grammar rule?

A. Double negatives are common in some dialects
B. Many people say "ain’t" in casual speech
C. Language evolves over time
D. "Ain’t" should not be used in formal writing

5. What does descriptive grammar aim to do?

A. Teach formal writing skills
B. Correct people’s speech
C. Preserve traditional language rules
D. Explain how language is actually used

The three major theoretical foundations in linguistics: Structuralism,

Generativism, and Functionalism

Structuralism: Language as a System of Signs

Originator: Ferdinand de Saussure (early 20th century)

Core Idea: Language is a structured system of signs, where meaning arises from the
relationships between elements, not from the elements themselves.

Key Concepts:
  Langue vs. Parole:
o Langue = the abstract system of rules shared by a speech community
o Parole = actual speech acts or utterances
 Signifier and Signified:

o Signifier = the sound or written form of a word

o Signified = the concept it represents

 Synchronic vs. Diachronic Analysis:

o Synchronic = studying language at a specific point in time

o Diachronic = studying language change over time

Example: The word “tree” is a signifier; the mental image of a tree is the signified. The
relationship is arbitrary but systematic within the language.

Impact: Structuralism laid the groundwork for modern linguistics by emphasizing

internal structure over historical development

Generativism: Language as a Mental Grammar

Originator: Noam Chomsky (1950s)

Core Idea: Humans possess an innate, universal grammar that allows them to generate
an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of rules.

Key Concepts:

 Generative Grammar: A formal set of rules that can produce all grammatical
sentences in a language.
 Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure:

o Deep structure = underlying syntactic relationships

o Surface structure = actual spoken or written form

 Transformational Rules: Rules that convert deep structures into surface

structures.

Example:

 Deep structure: “John loves Mary.”

 Surface structure: “Mary is loved by John.”
Both convey the same meaning but differ in form.

Impact: Generativism revolutionized linguistics by focusing on the cognitive

mechanisms behind language acquisition and use.
Functionalism: Language as a Tool for Communication

Key Figures: Michael Halliday, Simon Dik, and others (1970s onward)

Core Idea: Language structure is shaped by its communicative functions—what

speakers need to express and how they interact socially.

Key Concepts:

 Function over Form: Grammar and syntax evolve to serve communicative needs.
 Contextual Meaning: Emphasis on how meaning is shaped by context, intention,
and interaction.
 Discourse and Pragmatics: Focus on real-life language use, including
conversation and narrative.

Example:

 The passive voice (“The cake was eaten”) might be used to avoid naming the
agent, which serves a social or rhetorical function.

Impact: Functionalism broadened linguistic analysis to include social, cognitive, and

pragmatic dimensions of language.

Here’s a comparison chart summarizing the three major linguistic theories:

Structuralism, Generativism, and Functionalism.

Feature Structuralism Generativism Functionalism

Ferdinand de Michael Halliday, Simon
Founder(s) Noam Chomsky
Saussure Dik
Language structure
Language is a system Language is governed
Core Idea reflects communicative
of signs by innate grammar
needs
Relationships
Mental grammar and Function and context of
Focus between linguistic
rule-based generation language use
units
Deep vs. Surface
Langue vs. Parole, Discourse, Pragmatics,
Key Concepts Structure, Universal
Signifier/Signified Contextual Meaning
Grammar
Synchronic analysis of Formal rule systems Analysis of real-life
Methodology
structure and transformations communication
View of Abstract system of Cognitive system for Adaptive tool for
 Feature Structuralism Generativism Functionalism
Grammar signs sentence generation interaction
“John loves Mary” vs.
“Tree” as a signifier of Passive voice used to
Example “Mary is loved by
concept shift focus
John”
Expanded scope to
Foundation of modern Revolutionized syntax
Impact include social and
linguistics and acquisition
pragmatic dimensions

the syntactic structure of a few complex sentences using phrase structure rules and
tree-based analysis.

Sentence 1: “Although she was tired, she finished her homework.”

Type: Complex sentence (subordinate clause + main clause)

Syntactic Breakdown:

 Main Clause: “she finished her homework”

o Subject (NP): “she”
o Verb Phrase (VP): “finished her homework”
 Verb: “finished”
 Object (NP): “her homework”
 Subordinate Clause: “Although she was tired”

o Subordinating conjunction: “Although”

o Subject (NP): “she”
o Verb Phrase (VP): “was tired”
 Verb: “was”
 Predicate adjective: “tired”

Structure:
[S [Subordinate Clause] [Main Clause]]
→ [S [SBAR Although she was tired] [S she finished her homework]]

Sentence 2: “The book that you gave me is fascinating.”

Type: Complex sentence with a relative clause

Syntactic Breakdown:

 Main Clause: “The book is fascinating”

 o Subject (NP): “The book”
o Verb Phrase (VP): “is fascinating”
 Verb: “is”
 Predicate adjective: “fascinating”

 Relative Clause: “that you gave me”

o Relative pronoun: “that”

o Subject (NP): “you”
o Verb Phrase (VP): “gave me”
 Verb: “gave”
 Indirect object: “me”
 (Direct object is implied: “that” = “the book”)

Structure:
[S [NP The book [CP that you gave me]] [VP is fascinating]]

Sentence 3: “If it rains tomorrow, the picnic will be canceled.”

Type: Conditional complex sentence

Syntactic Breakdown:

 Conditional Clause: “If it rains tomorrow”

o Subordinating conjunction: “If”

o Subject (NP): “it”
o Verb Phrase (VP): “rains tomorrow”
 Verb: “rains”
 Adverbial modifier: “tomorrow”

 Main Clause: “the picnic will be canceled”

o Subject (NP): “the picnic”

o Verb Phrase (VP): “will be canceled”
 Modal: “will”
 Passive verb phrase: “be canceled”