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Cinema in the
Digital Age
REVISED EDITION

Nicholas Rombes
CINEMA IN THE
D I G I TA L A G E
CINEMA IN THE
DIGITAL AGE
REVISED EDITION

NICHOLAS ROMBES

London & New York

 A Wallflower Book
Published by
Columbia University Press
Publishers Since 1893
New York Chichester, West Sussex
cup.columbia.edu

Copyright © 2017 Columbia University Press

All rights reserved

Wallflower Press® is a registered trademark of

Columbia University Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Rombes, Nicholas author.
Title: Cinema in the digital age / Nicholas Rombes.
Description: Revised edition. | New York : Columbia University Press, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017015923 | ISBN 978-0-231-16754-3 (cloth : alk. paper) |
ISBN 978-0-231-16755-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 978-0-231-85118-3 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Motion pictures—Philosophy. | Motion pictures—Technological
innovations. | Digital cinematography.
Classification: LCC PN1995 .R6425 2017 | DDC 791.4301—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017015923

Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent

and durable acid-free paper.

Printed in the United States of America

Cover design: Lisa Hamm

Cover image: Provided by Photofest.
Film still from The Celebration, 1998.
 Assuredly, then, this world is a lie.
—Herman Melville, Pierre, 1852

“The Importance of Doing Things Badly.”

—Essay by I. A. Williams, 1923

By exchanging digital signals, zeros and ones, these

life forms were able to manipulate more and more
information. As a result, their survival rate went up.
It was unmistakable: they’d acquired language.
—Koji Suzuki, Loop, 1998

Mistakism.
—term used by Harmony Korine, 2001

I pressed Pause and enlarged the image again.

—Bret Easton Ellis, Lunar Park, 2005
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments xi
Preface to the Revised Edition xiii
Preface xix

1 Accelerationism 1

2 The Adorno Paradox 4

3 Against Method 6

4 Analog/Digital Splice 9

5 Blood, Simple 13

6 Boredom and Analog Nostalgia 16

7 The Digital Spectacular 19

8 Disposable Aesthetics 22

9 DV Humanism 25

10 Filmless Films 34

11 Frame Dragging 38
 v iiiC O N T E N T S

12 The Ideology of the Long Take 43

13 Image/Text 47

14 Incompleteness 50

15 Interfaces 52

16 iPod Experiment 57

17 Ironic Mode 59

18 Looking at Yourself Looking 65

19 The Lost Underground 70

20 Love in the Time of Fragments 73

21 Media as Its Own Theory 76

22 Mobile Viewing 84

23 Moving Space in the Frame, and a Note on Film Theory 86

24 Natural Time 89

25 Nonlinear 95

26 Paranormal Activity 2 97

27 Pausing 104

28 Punk 110

29 Realism 113

30 Real Time 117

31 The Real You 122

32 The Reality Industrial Complex 125

33 Remainders 128
 C ON T EN T Six

34 Sampling 136

35 Secondary Becomes Primary 139

36 Self-Deconstructing Narratives 142

37 Shaky Camera 148

38 Shoot! 151

39 Simultaneous Cinema 153

40 Small Screens 166

41 Target Video 169

42 Time, Memory 172

43 Time-Shifting 175

44 Tmesis: Skimming and Skipping 180

45 Undirected Films 182

46 Viewer Participation 194

47 Virtual Humanism: Part 1 196

48 Virtual Humanism: Part 2 204

49 Visible Language, Spring 1977 213

50 Interpreting Film Images Through Randomized

Constraint: The Blue Velvet Project 215

Filmography 223
Bibliography 227
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I A M G R AT EF U Lto many people at the University of Detroit Mercy—

faculty, students, and administrators—whose support and intellectual
curiosity have made the writing of this book possible. I am especially for-
tunate for my colleagues in the Department of English, as well as Ste-
phen Manning in political science, who have helped in various ways. Our
many conversations over the years have helped to shape and test the ideas
in this book. Dean Charles Marske, of the College of Liberal Arts and
Education, was supportive of this project from the beginning. The stu-
dents in my film classes have always been open to detecting the nearly
invisible boundaries of ideology, and I am thankful for their presence in my
life. This project was partially supported by funding from the Mellon Funds
for Humanistic Studies, University of Detroit Mercy, for which I am
grateful.
There are several people whose writing has meant a lot to me over the
years, including Marcel O’Gorman, Nadine Boljkovac, and Scott Mac-
aulay. At Two Dollar Radio, Eric and Eliza-Wood Obenauf and Mike
Shiflet were my collaborators on The Removals, a film that allowed me to
test out some of the theories in this book. I am grateful to Wallflower
Press, especially Yoram Allon and Jacqueline Downs, who brought the
first edition of this book to life. And for this revised edition I have been
 x iiA C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

fortunate to work with a wonderful team at Columbia University Press,

including Philip Leventhal, Miriam Grossman, and Anita O’Brien.
Most of all, I am grateful for the blessings of my family. My children,
Maddy and Niko. And to my wife, Lisa: you are my beautiful mystery.
 PREFACE TO
THE REVISED EDITION

experience to return to one’s own work years later with the

I T ’ S A H U MB L IN G

intention of revising, expanding, and updating it. The years that have fol-
lowed the publication in 2009 of Cinema in the Digital Age have seen enor-
mous changes—perhaps even revolutionary—not only in the way movies
are made, projected and screened, and distributed but in the way they are
imagined. For a generation who has come of age in the digital era, the
notion of what a film is is radically different from those of previous genera-
tions for whom movies, despite changes in film technology and the advent
of television, were created in fundamentally the same way as they had been
since the early twentieth century. In a sense, all books tell two stories. On
one level, books are about what they are ostensibly “about,” whatever sub-
ject that might be. But on another, latent level, books are also haunted by
the cultural residue that accumulates in them during the historical time
period in which they are composed.
In revising Cinema in the Digital Age I was at first tempted to edit out or
reduce the presence of films in that—when the book was written in 2007–
2009—seemed to be the most salient, exciting, and forward-looking ex-
amples of the changes that were sweeping cinema. Films such as Time Code,
The Celebration, Gummo, Ten, and Russian Ark all seemed to speak in imme-
diate ways to the digital revolution in cinema. Worried that they somehow
dated the book, I talked to fellow teachers, theorists, and filmmakers who
 x i vP R E FA C E T O T H E R E V I S E D E D I T I O N

suggested that, quite the opposite, these and other foundational films from
the millennial era of the late 1990s and early 2000s were important to keep
in the book, as they haunted it with the ghost of material history and speak
to the exciting, heady times in which it was written. While some of the
discussions of these films remain largely intact, I have expanded the range
of those covered to include others that were made after 2009, especially
those that capture and revise the experimental promise of the millennial
films, such as Paranormal Activity and its follow-ups.
In a sense, the “digital era” is already receding in the rearview of history.
What new pathways it will evolve into are unknown, but it most likely
will involve acceleration. If the paradigm shift that happened in the decades
surrounding the new millennium was centered on the analog drift into dig-
ital, then the postdigital era might not signal so much a new paradigm as
an acceleration. Faster cameras, faster editing software, faster compression
rates. Speed, and more speed. Digital cinema becomes a space for relentlessly
accelerating movement. In his essay “More on Accelerationism,” Steven Sha-
viro writes: “In the world today, there is already enough accumulated wealth,
and sufficiently advanced technology, for every human being to lead a life of
leisure and self-cultivation. As William Gibson famously said, ‘The future is
already here—it’s just not very evenly distributed.’ ”
The logic and architecture of the Web favors movement and accelera-
tion, as reflected in its most generic terms: timelines, torrents, updates,
downloads, clicks. “Browsing” and “browser” seem like anachronisms now.
The Slow Movement and the resurgent interest in Slow Cinema suggest a
mild pushback—perhaps nostalgic, perhaps avant-garde—against the speed
and standardization of cultural life.
In The Administration of Fear (2012, 37), philosopher Paul Virilio links
the increase in speed with a decline of lateral vision: “This continual in-
crease in speed has led to the development of a megaloscopy which has
caused a real infirmity because it reduced the field of vision. The faster we
go, the more we look ahead in anticipation and lose our lateral vision.
Screens are like windshields in a car: with increased speed, we lose the
sense of lateralization.”
 P RE FA C E T O T HE RE V ISE D E DI T IONx v

The logic of speed accounts, on the one hand, for fast-cut films like
those in the Bourne series, whose average shot lengths (ASL) have been
shown to be just one or two seconds. (According to the Cinemetrics Data-
base, the ASL in The Bourne Ultimatum is 1 second; the ASL in The Bourne
Supremacy is 1.1 seconds.) But whether films have gotten progressively
“faster” is really, in isolation, a dry academic question. It stands to reason
that a high-speed culture will produce more than its fair share of high-
speed films, films edited in ways that reflect accelerated life. A more
fruitful angle might be consider how data—metric-driven thinking—has
opened up new pathways of film criticism, a notion explored very early by
Lev Manovich, and then later by David Bordwell, Laura Mulvey, and others.
What in the late 1990s and early 2000s seemed like esoteric and abstractly
theoretical concerns have become mainstreamed, as data-driven, statis-
tics-oriented thinking has found its way into the study of cinema itself, not
only in terms of average shot length studies but also in the Bechdel test,
supercuts of films, and, in a larger sense, the rankings and lists of film-
related content, as in “the 29 best James Bond quips, ranked.”
For students of film, this opens up tremendous possibilities for film
critique. The question needs no longer be what does a film mean? but rather
how does a film mean? While discussions of specific film techniques—long
takes, shot/reverse-shot editing, mise-en-scène, jump cuts, dissolves—have
always been part of film criticism, arguments suggesting that the medium
was, in fact, the message required an imaginative leap that could be ele-
gant in its own way. One need look no further than Robert Ray’s A Certain
Tendency of the Hollywood Cinema, 1930–1980 or Jean-Luc Comolli and
Jean Paul Narboni’s Cinema/Ideology/Criticism and their various discus-
sions of how the techniques of realism are, in fact, instruments of ideology.
Without the easy access of capturing still frames or freezing clips in class
(impossible to do via analog projection), teaching—and to a lesser extent
writing—depended on the sheer elegance of the written word. So although
film theory has been freed from the tyranny of language, perhaps it has
lost something as well. Using a “supercut” of every available Spike Lee
film to illustrate his use of, say, the tracking shot, while certainly efficient
 x v iP R E FA C E T O T H E R E V I S E D E D I T I O N

and perhaps even dramatic, displaces the deep historical, technological

contexts of this particular film technique.
The most significant expansions to the book revolve around the enor-
mous challenges and opportunities the digital revolution has presented to
film theory itself. One of the book’s central concerns involves the relation-
ship between the slackening of, for lack of a better term, ideological critique
film theory and the emergence of “meta” culturally, but especially in film. The
increasing self-awareness and open parading of that self-awareness in media
in general and film in particular (explored in more detail in the “Secondary
Becomes Primary” and “Self-deconstructing Narratives” sections) meant
that, by the 1990s, it was common for mainstream films to deconstruct their
own previously invisible narrative and social codes. Whereas in 1992 Carol
Clover’s “final girl” (introduced in Clover’s Princeton University Press book
Men, Women, and Chainsaws) circulated in the heady realm of film theory
and gender studies, by 1996 it would emerge as a central plot point in a film
made for teenagers, Wes Craven’s Scream. And by 2011 self-theorizing mov-
ies had become so common that Roger Ebert, in his review of The Cabin in
the Woods, could ask, “Is this film itself an act of criticism?”
Corresponding with the absorption of deconstruction into films them-
selves was the waning of the myriad poststructuralist approaches to film,
which, broadly, sought to deconstruct the ideological valences of film
through approaches that drew on Marxist, feminist, psychoanalytical, and
semiotic traditions. My own sense is that the resurgence of formalist, de-
scriptive criticism at the same time that the “unmasking,” cultural studies
model waned was not entirely unrelated, and that as students raised on
movies and other “meta” media that unmasked, displayed, and playfully
critiqued themselves entered into film and media studies classes, profes-
sors were confronted with a new sort of audience. The traditional assump-
tions that undergraduate college students in a film class, for instance, were
ideologically “naïve” and needed to be taught how to “see through” movies
to grasp their hidden (i.e., reactionary) tendencies was complicated by the
fact that many of them had already learned to do this not only from the
content of movies themselves but from the prevalence of films and televi-
 P RE FA C E T O T HE RE V ISE D E DI T IONx vii

sion shows across multiple platforms, which further eroded the mystifying
aura of film.
And, of course, the place where film theory happens has changed. The
spreading of theory from the rarefied pages of academic journals and books
to the internet mirrored the self-deconstructing aura of film itself, for now
the very process of writing about film—in all its rough, experimental glo-
ries and failures—became freely available in something approximating
real time. What digital-era film theory illuminates has less to do with film
itself than with how film is thought and written about. Film theory as a
creative act: this may very well be its greatest legacy. In the tradition of
Andre Bazin, Susan Sontag, and Roland Barthes—who wrote about film
in ways that confounded and didn’t fit neatly into the emerging “critical”
versus “creative” writing camps—many digital-era film theorists exploit
randomness, chance, and interruption, which mirrors the architecture of
the Web itself.
Ours is an age of pleasure deferred. We want our movies to last forever,
and so they do, living on not in the traditional way of remakes or sequels
but rather in the permanent state of remixing that is the prime character-
istic of digital media. It is a sort of permanent impermanence, as cinema-
graphs (which composite a film’s video frames into animated GIF files
such that only a select part of the action on the frames appears to move)
and less subtle animated GIFs proliferate on Tumblr and other sites. In a
sense, the shifting, transient spaces where movies are now watched hark
back to the early days of cinema before they had found their architectural
home. According to William Paul (2016, 96), “Perhaps because movies
first successfully appeared in architectural spaces not specifically designed
for them, there seems to have been a sense that just about anything could
be pressed into service as a movie theater. . . . The movie palace, which
would finally become the dominant form for first-run exhibition, did not
emerge as an inevitable development.” And so too with our postdigital
age, movies continue to migrate. Freed from the seductive confines of the
movie theater, films are dispersed, for now, across time and space, existing
like all other information: in the cloud.
 PREFACE

AT T H E H EA R Tof the perfect digital image—coded by its clean binaries—is

a secret desire for mistakes, for randomness, for what Dick Hebdige might
call “little disasters.” It is no coincidence that the Dogme 95 movement—
with its preference for disorder, for shaky, degraded images, for imperfec-
tion—emerged at the dawn of the digital era, an era that promised precisely
the opposite: clarity, high definition, a sort of hyperclarified reality. The
digital image threatens the fragility of the traditional logic of the image.
Projection itself is disappearing; the old source of motion pictures as the
light shot through a moving film was itself a sort of realism. Everyone knew
what a projectionist did. They understood the source of the images. The
shift from analog to digital has occurred on two related levels: a symbolic
one and a literal one. Literally, the differences between analog and digital
are complicated; frequently the word “digital” is used as a kind of shorthand
for a certain stance, a certain look betrayed by the image. But Leo Entick-
nap provides a good, basic definition of the terms:

An easy way to imagine how analogue recording works is to think of it

as an analogy: images or sounds are represented, or analogised, as con-
tinuously variable physical quantities which can be read and written by
a machine which converts them to and from visible images and audible
sounds. . . .
 x xP R E FA C E

Digital media does not record a direct representation of a continuous

process of chance. Instead, it represents that process as information, or
data. . . . That information takes the form of numbers, hence the word
“digital.” . . .
Representing recorded images and sounds digitally has one crucial ad-
vantage from which several others flow: digital data can be copied with
100 per cent accuracy, whereas an analogue recording cannot. (2005, 203)

Symbolically, the pristine, perfect, one-to-one replication promised by

the digital haunts movies from the digital era (whether shot on digital
cameras or not) such as Fight Club and Doppelgänger, which concern char-
acters haunted by themselves or their virtual others. Tyler’s/Jack’s line in
Fight Club—“Everything is a copy, of a copy, of a copy”—spoken as he is
making photocopies, is a secret recognition of the wonder and terror of the
digital. As Enticknap notes, “because the image or sound recording is rep-
resented as a series of numbers, it is only necessary to copy those numbers
(the data) accurately . . . in order to reproduce a ‘clone’ or perfect reproduc-
tion of the original, totally free of any imperfections” (204).
In the digital era, the loop has become an indicator for the way informa-
tion is stored, reproduced, and recirculated with no generation loss. Digital
media—ranging from music to video—can be copied with no weakening
of the sound or image in a sort of reproducibility that, unlike human re-
production (at least for now), does not introduce errors or mistakes into the
code. In Steven Hall’s novel The Raw Shark Texts (2007, 203), a character—
Mycroft Ward—devises a method of immortality that allows his single
self to inhabit more than one body. As part of the code that he writes to
achieve this, he inserts an increased desire for self-preservation that results
in unintended consequences: when, once a week, Ward “synchronises” both
his bodies, this preservation urge is looped back into his body:

Every week, the system would deliver the preservation urge into Ward,
who, with this urge in him increased, would amend the system accord-
ingly, just slightly, in line with what he now thought to be a wise and
suitable survival precaution. The now increased urge would feed back
 P RE FA C Ex xi

into him again the following week, making him increase its presence in
the system again. Once it had begun, there was no way to stop the loop
from gathering momentum. As the weeks passed, Ward became a slave
to his own machine.

One of the main claims of this book is that, haunted by the specter of
perfection, there is a tendency in digital media—and cinema especially—
to reassert imperfection, flaws, an aura of human mistakes to counterbal-
ance the logic of perfection that pervades the digital. It is no accident that
the radical shrinking of the screen—down to a mere 2.5 inches with the
video iPod—serves as a reminder of the screen’s frailty, its smallness, its
subjugation to human beings who can toss it casually on the couch or on a
car seat. But it is not just on the small screen. What theorists miss in their
laments about the cold reproducibility of the digital code is its degraded
representation of reality, its habit of rendering cinematic images in a shaky,
pixilated way. As Amy Taubin has noted regarding David Lynch’s film
Inland Empire, the “PD-150 [a low-end digital camera] produces images
that look like nothing but video. The visuals in Inland Empire look as if
they’re decomposing before your eyes” (2007, 57). This decomposition is
akin to death, and it is the prospect of death that reminds you that you are
living. There is something intimate and human in these decomposed im-
ages, something of a human signature within a technology that ostensibly
offers perfect reproduction and that is, to return to Enticknap, “totally free
of any imperfections.”
The shift from analog to digital became a widely discussed topic in the
1990s, with public figures like George Lucas and Roger Ebert, respec-
tively, championing and declaiming the new technologies that were emerg-
ing not only in DV cameras but in the very projection of film itself, with
talk of digital theaters that don’t project film at all but rather digital infor-
mation. Indeed, the very term “film” remains as a sign of the uncertain
transformation from analog to digital. This book uses terms like “films” and
“movies” even when describing “movies” that are not shot on film, in part
because no matter what technologies are used in the making, editing, and
projection of film, they are still haunted by the history and logic of cinema.
 x x iiP R E FA C E

This is not to say that the narrative and aesthetic dimensions of film—or
any medium—are not shaped by the very technology and apparatus that
gives them material form, but rather that change happens gradually and
not always rationally. In any case, our language is always on one level a pro-
jection of our desires, in this case of my desire to keep in sight the profound
ways that “film” haunts the digital even in the face of rapid transformations.
As novelist William Gibson once noted: “Digital video reminds me of a new
platform wrapped in the language and mythology of an old platform. . . . We
call movies ‘film,’ but the celluloid’s drying up” (1999, 2).
The key texts for digital cinema are not only movies but books as
well. It is in them that the digital imagination was born and still thrives.
It is to Japan—the symbolic, if not literal, birthplace of the analog—
that we must turn for the clearest and most poetic articulation of the
deeply alluring and unsettling threshold between digital and analog.
The novel Ring by Koji Suzuki, first published in Japan as Ringu in 1991,
is a sustained and dark exploration of the viral nature of biological and
image reproduction disguised as a horror novel. Although the Japanese
film version (Ringu, 1998) and the American version (The Ring, 2002)
differ in significant ways, they both remain true to the basic plot of the
novel, which centers on a mysterious videotape that, once watched, re-
sults in the death of the viewer within days unless that viewer makes a
copy of the tape and passes it on to others to watch. The dread of reproduc-
tion haunts the novel. Here is the narrator near the end of the book, con-
fronted with the choice of dying or saving himself by forcing his wife and
child to watch the tape:

He couldn’t help but wonder. What effect is this going to have? With my
wife’s copy and my daughter’s copy, this virus is going to be set free in two
directions—how’s it going to spread from there? He could imagine people
making copies and passing them on to people who’d already seen it be-
fore, trying to keep the thing contained within a limited circle so that it
wouldn’t spread. But that would be going against the virus’s will to re-
produce. There was no way of knowing yet how that function was incor-
porated into the video. (2003, 283; emphasis in original)
 P RE FA C Ex xiii

We could compare this to a passage in Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Lullaby

about a children’s song that is lethal to anyone who hears it spoken:

The culling song would be a plague unique to the Information Age.

Imagine a world where people shun the television, the radio, movies,
the Internet, magazines and newspapers. People have to wear earplugs
the way they wear condoms and rubber gloves. . . . Imagine a plague you
catch through your ears. (2002, 41)

It is not, perhaps, the idea of replication that frightens today (after all,
reproduction lies at the essence of who and how we are) but rather that we
are continually haunted by images because they are so easily archived and
dispersed. Surely there is no escape from the tyranny of images now. They
literally do not go away, or disintegrate on duplication. Efforts to disen-
gage ourselves from them are met with accusations of bad faith or, worse,
nostalgia. David Thomas—of the Cleveland proto-punk rock bands
Rocket from the Tombs and Pere Ubu—has said the problem with music
on the internet is not only that it is disembodied but that it is no longer
fragile: “The problem I have with [music on the internet] is the lack of the
object. I think the object is very important. . . . Because the object, the
fragility of the object lends weight to the art contained within it” (Anon.
2005c, 2). If the original was gauged against the degradation of second-
and third- and fourth-generation copies (and so on) of the analog, then the
digital leaves no obvious traces or clues about how far removed it is from
the original. In Kazuo Ishiguro’s Never Let Me Go, a novel about people
who are raised to serve, ultimately, as living organ donors for their coun-
terparts, Kathy the narrator discusses the desire for the donors (not clones
exactly, but humans created to provide harvested organs for their doubles)
to meet their “possibles”: “Since each of us was copied at some point from
a normal person, there must be, for each of us, somewhere out there, a
model getting on with his or her life. This meant, at least in theory, you’d
be able to find the person you were modeled from” (2005, 139). The inter-
play between models and originals becomes a sort of shell game; at some
point what does it matter, since they are both the same anyway?
 x x i vP R E FA C E

As optics teaches us, sometimes we need to look not directly at an ob-

ject but rather slightly askance at it for it to register fully in our vision—in
this case, diverting our glance from digital cinema itself to a trilogy of
books that are concerned (even obsessed) with the digital shift. The afore-
mentioned Ring, along with Spiral (1995) and Loop (1998) by Koji Suzuki,
constitute a trilogy that explores links between the reproduction of images
on a videotape and the reproduction of a deadly virus in human beings. At
the heart of these novels is a larger, darker philosophical question that also
haunts Cinema in the Digital Age: does the mass reproduction of the same
images threaten to exterminate diversity, in the same way that the mass re-
production of a single virus might threaten to exterminate the diversity of
life on earth? Suzuki uses the horror genre to look at questions that haunt
our digital era. How can one determine, the novels wonder, the difference
between what is “real” and what is “abstract” in our age of pristine digital
reproduction? For instance, one thread of the novels concerns deciphering
the images on a mysterious tape that prompts its viewers to die seven days
after viewing it. The tape is so disturbing because the sources of many of
its images are impossible to trace; they seem to have no original. In Spiral,
we are reminded how Ryuji—a character from Ring—attempted to cate-
gorize the tape’s images: “For example, the volcanic eruption and the man’s
face were clearly things that had really been seen, while the firefly-like
light in the darkness at the beginning of the tape looked like something
conjured up by the mind—like something out of a dream. So Ryuji called
the two groups ‘real’ and ‘abstract,’ for comparison’s sake” (2003, 122). These
distinctions between realism and abstract, or avant-garde, are the founda-
tions on which film itself has been divided. But in the digital era, such cate-
gories are confounded, as so-called reality (for example, a shot of a forest, a
speeding car, or even a human face) can now be rendered artificially so that
all vestiges of the real disappear, leaving only the appearance of reality. In-
deed, a child today in a movie theater is more likely to lean over and ask her
father, Are they real? regarding leaves blowing in the wind rather than re-
garding some spectacular special effect. Reality is today’s special effect.
In the trilogy’s final novel Loop—published in Japan a year prior to the
release of The Matrix—we learn that possibly everything that has happened
 P RE FA C Ex x v

in the prior two books occurred within a virtual reality loop created by
scientists to test theories of evolution. In the virtual world of the loop—a
world that mirrors our own—we see that the deadly virus being advanced
by the videotape has indeed spread and is now being transmitted by some-
thing else: a book called Ring: “Ring would be a book, then a movie, a video
game, an Internet site—it would saturate the world through every branch
of the media,” we learn (2006b, 191). The virus has become the first book in
the trilogy, and then its movie adaptations. If readers are familiar with a
novel or a film called Ring, does that mean they are themselves trapped in
the loop, or have the works jumped from the loop into the “real world”?
Similarly, the work of Japanese artist Nagi Noda—especially in her video
for the pop star Yuki’s song “Sentimental Journey”—speaks to the beauty of
imperfection in the digital era, when technologies push ever-forward into
realms of greater and greater high definition and perfection. The film is
one long take (approximately three minutes) that follows Yuki through a
series of events. Yuki, however, never moves: what we see instead are dozens
of live body doubles (and a few mannequins), each one frozen in position.
Rather than relying on CGI, Noda used real people. We see them try-
ing to hold perfectly still as the camera slowly tracks past them from left to
right, in the manner of manga. But inevitably they blink or sway slightly.
And it is heartbreakingly human. In fact, it is almost thrilling to see this
unfold, and we are shocked that in this digital era of flawless special effects
there are “mistakes” in the video—that the people are real and not digitally
reproduced. “It was shot all in-camera, in one big shot,” Noda has said.
“Computers can create nice images, but if you are using [CGI] you must de-
cide on all of the details in advance. I really like to work in more of a live
fashion, shooting in my eyes and treating the whole scene as an experiment”
(Hunter 2005, 44). The video tells a story, as well as a story about the story.
That is, through a sort of “slow” technique (the deliberate, steady tracking of
the camera) and through the “mistakes” of the blinking, moving versions of
Yuki, we see not only the story the video is telling but a story about how the
film was made.
To suggest that popular, genre-driven books like the Ring trilogy offer
a form of media theory more potent and provocative than many film and
 x x v iP R E FA C E

The beauty of imperfection; real time in

F I G U R E 0 .1
Nagi Noda’s Sentimental Journey video

media theory books written today is, perhaps, obvious. As writers like Ste-
phen Johnson have noted, popular television shows like 24 or The Sopranos
offered complex narrative webs that involve “multiple threading” (see 2005,
65–72) and that make demands on an active, rather than passive, audience.
And a series like R. Kelly’s hip-hop soap opera Trapped in the Closet (the
first twelve parts debuted in 2005, with ten further installments showing
on IFC.com beginning in August 2007) scrambles the expectations (is it
serious, ironic, self-mocking, or all these?) of viewers. The series features
playful and complicated narrative shifts; music and pop culture writers
like Kelefa Sanneh have noted the drift from first-person narration in the
early episodes to third-person in later episodes (see 2007, 2). That the show
asks viewers to think about narration—the shifts are obvious and call at-
tention to themselves—is itself a form of theory.
 P RE FA C Ex x vii

If media tends to theorize itself today—and that is a central premise of

this book—then what is the role of the critic, of the academic? One strategy
might be to come at the topic indirectly, from odd and unexpected angles,
through a variety of objects and texts—some filmic and some not—whose
characteristics speak to our new era, where theory comes not from the
academics but from the very objects of academic critique. Using this ap-
proach, the work of graphic novelist Chris Ware might serve as an illus-
tration of the same cultural logic that informs increasingly complex DVD
menus and database narratives generally.
Ware’s diagrammatic approach—flat, shadowless, expanded-time flow-
chart dissections of narrative movement—has many influences, as Ware
has acknowledged, especially from the fields of music and architecture.
But I think his diagrammatic approach is also influenced by digital
interfaces, which allow for the freezing of information for purposes of
navigation. Like Ware’s diagrams, DVD scene or chapter selection menus
operate as a mixture of text and image that allows the viewer some choice
in navigation and also invites a more active readerly role. In Ware’s illus-
tration, one moment—the hitting on the head with a mallet—is sur-
rounded by boxes and circles that provide various levels of context. In one,
for instance, a dotted line connects the action to a square in a timeline
showing that the mouse was in the middle of his life when he wielded the
hammer, which leads to yet another timeline that shows the action happen-
ing during the middle part of the earth’s lifespan, somewhere in between
its creation and its destruction. It is a sort of vast archive of moments in
time. We know there is a narrative there, but we are not sure how to follow
it or what it means.
The benefit of such an approach is that it allows for a less predictable,
even chance-based form of research, one that acknowledges the mistakist
elements of digital cinema, and one that turns film scholarship away from
the unfortunate social sciences model that still dominates it today. For, as
this book argues, part of the allure of digital video lies not in its perfection
but in its imperfection. “The quality [of DV] is pretty terrible,” David
Lynch said in 2006, in advance of the release of Inland Empire, “but I like
 x x v iiiP R E FA C E

that. It reminds me of the early days of 35mm, when there wasn’t so much
information in the frame or emulsion. But the human being is a beautiful
creature; you act and react, and the medium starts talking to you. So I love
working in digital video. High-def is a little bit too [much] information for
me” (Thill 2006, 4). If there is one idea that binds this book together, then
hopefully it is this: that in the ruptures and gaps that have opened up as
cinema transitions from the traditional analog apparatus to the digital,
there has been an unexpected resurgence of humanism—with all its mis-
takes, imperfections, and flaws—that acts as a sort of countermeasure to
the numerical clarity and disembodiment of the digital code. I am acutely
aware of the tendency—still dominant, I would say—in cultural and cin-
ema studies to debunk every new innovation as just another tool to be co-
opted by the dominant forces. While I am sensitive and in many ways
sympathetic to such readings, I must confess that at the end of the day, my
thinking has been deeply influenced by writers such as André Bazin, who
maintained a critical distance from the films and styles he wrote about
even as he recognized and opened himself up to the risk of falling under
their deeper, almost magical power.
The “faux-Grindhouse” features by Quentin Tarantino and Robert Ro-
driguez from 2007 are perhaps the clearest and most tortured mainstream
expression of the conflicted shift from film (literal film) to digital. The
movies, released theatrically in the United States as a double feature (Ro-
driguez directed the zombie film Planet Terror; Tarantino directed the
road-killer movie Death Proof ) that also included fake trailers, were a
widely commented on (though financially disappointing) homage to the
1970s B-cult grindhouse movies that were shown in notoriously imperfect
conditions. The films included a host of built-in “mistakes,” such as
scratches, unmotivated cuts, blurs, distracting sounds, and announcements
about missing reels. Rather than simply a cynical, postmodern publicity
stunt (or perhaps in addition to that), the films are, as Rob Vaux has sug-
gested, an “understated experiment in cinematic theory” (2007, 2). Planet
Terror was shot on digital video, while Death Proof was shot on film. Para-
doxically, while Rodriguez used digital effects to make his digital film
look like it was celluloid-based, the final, elaborate stunt sequence in Death
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Tyrone 7196 Bartalloa M H 7190 Pataa Javier 7190 Bona John 7211
Barr R B 72U Laundry A Dry ( Equipomt Co 7212 C T C Put* Co 7213
JackJyn Srwing Factory 722D Reumoo Bluaa Corp 73S3 HttoUT M H
7226 MohaoM) M T 7220 Btachen Guide 7232 Gay Graphica A
Typaaattmg 72r Carter M C 7240 Stanley T M 7246 Berry L A 7390
Chang M A 7251 NewaE] E M 72MOiah A Amedum 7526 Hughea J J
7530 Silverbarg Ivut J 7532 Rtchard A H 7636 Davia Gloria 7636
Atkinaoo Laura 7642 Wicklow S W 7S47 De Grtat D L 7648 Juenette
Lynn 7660 Capitol Victorian Furniture 7660 Van Patten J H 7660
Pacific Draperiaa 7660 A A A Oil F 7660 Union Of BataavUle 7661
San Franoaco Phyncal 7663 Uhlir J A 7656 Tanaka F Y 7562 Lace S E
7663 Long James 7566 Brmner Michl 7668 Elner M G 7574 MartiD
Jean 7582 Cooke C 7667 &nith Emaat 7580 Manabe Noriko 7610
HauplB Arrruataad 7618 Sapp laaiah 7619 Bergana R 7620 Varncaa
M G 7622 Spink Corp 7634 Uttar M W Mn 7628 Scaborough Chaa
7638 PraodiviUc Edw 7633 L«un J A 7639 Zamora E A 7641 TOP 26-
The Ongiaal Pool 7S46 JohnaoD E L 7660 Wilahire Bedding Co Inc
7662 Saint Chartaa Grammar School 7664 Ganfen Path Floritt The
7666 Cohen Jcahua 7660 RadJbaucT F J 7680 Safeway Stores Inc
7663 Damage B 7664 SchaJToit V A Mn 7666 R>dea For Bay Araa
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County Fire DeptTrainiriK Div 8000 City Fire Piwenbon Bureau 8000
City Fire Dept (H 8090 Bolioger Shirley A 8002 Sherwin J R 8096
Croaaman MarahaU Design A Print Production Co 8100 Sentinel 8104
Molei Dorothy 8106 Mills Edw 8110 Canady Fannie Mn 8116 Dardei)
Fiorina 8118 Civic View Apartments 8122 Murphy Charte 8123
Herman D L 812S Weinatem N E 8132 Mc MilUn J C 8134 Dahlin F E
8138 Raglin Edw 8140 Dominguet Romulo 8144 Bruce Jim Laundry
8146 Wong King 8149 Thompaon David B160 Greyhound Food
Maoagsment 8)61 Wanda E A 8)66 Ladaam* PWer 8167 Arrher D A
Mra 8)67 Archer Charlaa 8)60 Lombardo J P 816) Burka Monica 8)62
Mukahay C J 8165 San Prandaca Moving Company 8166 Jackson
Waaley 8187 Kanaen Laura 8168 Caatagna Rogar 8170 Seoaca HoUl
8173 OXaary B A Mn 8174 Faahioo Furniture Mfg Co 8176 Aadetaoa
J C 8176 Judnk Joaaph 8)78 Yapai Lu* 8180 Wolf Wm 8181 NelaoD
M F 8)87 WtgTield Jack 6)87 Aagaard R M 8)97 Orenioger H M Mn
8)99 Robtas Raphael 6300 Choisaer Kanay 6303 Xtra 8499
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Angnve M 8513 Kane Evelyn 8615 Peck Larry 8618 Caniialea R A
8622 Sylvan Mark 8538 Simmooa Tiny 8630 Young* Lome 8631 Ruit
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8539 HanxBDO M 8548 Harper Staph 8649 Oaboni Michl 8566 Foaier
Phillip 8667 Clegg Jamea 8668 Bayaide Electrical Diatnbuiora Inc
8668 Baynda Electrical Dutributors (Whae) 8S60 Bridges Courtis
6683 Mock Ed Dance Studio 8586 Kaatan Spencer 8687 Mc Donald
Patricia 8688 Edringtoo Stanley 8693 Leak Mark 8696 Lara Eliae
8696 Janaen L 8603 Hamilton Mike 8606 Nold M K 8606 Brown
Jordan 8611 Cargo Incorporated 8616 International Sourcea 8616
Judith's Juk«a 8618 Sheppard Gloria 8626 Ciuati B F 8626 Caaimir
Lauretta 8627 Clark Syrun 8627 CUrk Eddie 8629 Shelbourae Jamaa
8644 Duncan K J 8666 Karpirukl M K 8667 Roosevelt Bar A
Reatauranl 8667 Rooaevelt Cafe 8661 Chunn D W 8662 New York
Tim» Tlic 8664 Jonea Manuel 8665 Soam J F 8668 Labyria Auto
Repair 8673 Channon V P 8676 Read Joaeph Jr 8677 Schmidt C F
8680 Lucero Jim 8681 Smith P B 8686 Hotel Paradiao 8680 Yocum
Julie 8692 Barragan S M 8693 Schain Olga 8706 VIsiUng Nuraa
AaaociaUon Of San FranciBca 7>»o 0717 Boemer Wm 6723 U S Air
Force Racrulting Center 8730 FStch John 8742 Labat A 8760
Petaraon Atkoa 8760 Ord Dry Cleaning 8760 Ordanana J P •761
Raphael Lincoln 0T60 Anet A C 8772 Giacomani Walter 6TT3
Yoorhaea R B 8774 Ketchum Rick 6775 ahm^ock Michl 8777 War
Bablaa 8780 Nelson J L. 876) Rumaey D M 8783 Goosalvea Janios
8787 Shikuma Yaauko Mn 8780 Aaron Brottara Art Marta 8790 Kinar
Richd 8793 Frederick Bruce S794 StehUn E M 8796 Grimeaey Joyce
8807 laenberf Tablaa Inc 8808 Menendei J C 8809 Flocker E K 8813
Feiles H S 8816 Karch Guatav 8820 Peps Cola Bottling Co 8831
Renaissance Gardaa* 8631 Li Min Book Co 8831 R A S Trading Co
Inc 8831 Pats Studio 8831 Braaa InU 883) King Arrtta M Co 8831
Haul Papier 8831 U TicTMU De Heiica Ice 8831 M W Periacope 8831
Oakhill 8831 Folk Art Omamenta 883) King K Co The 8631 Studio
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88S3 Mc Donald E M 8869 Martinet A J 8872 Chicoioe Gail 8874
Brawn L 8876 GibbooB Chip 8862 Klein Jack 8868 Tnpp Jeffrey 8896
Mathioa J A 8906 Nielaen J L 8910 Kline D K 8911 Mc Knight W M
8913 Leonard J S 8914 Peacock Norman 8916 Oxley B T 8916
Autrand C B Mn 89)7 Green Jewel 88)8 Green Gwro 89)9 Sullivan
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Scott 8966 Mujphy C J 8972 Gomel Gregory 8976 Schwenger A G
8980 Pacific General Merchandisng 8981 Williama Kim 8966 Savage
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9089 Eureka Valley Chib 9093 Dudley's 9097 Rov* Super Shell
Station 9151 Uwr«nc« HoUl 9154 Eureka Vallcv Market 9176
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Without Reaervsboo 9611 Caapan Henry Painting A Decorating 9516
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Waah 9630 Hontmcyer Conatnictioo Co loc 9632 Grecnough E J 9639
Siacey* Cocktail Lounge 9641 Bunch Vineka 9652 Rainbow CIstUe
Co 9663 Jack In 'Hie Boi 9672 Sioo American Buddhist Asaociation
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9696 Jan* Kiddie Korwr 9696 Balmer C A 9699 Bunkhouse Hotel
(Annex) 9609 Bunk Houae Hotel The 9700 Monte Chnato Sonal Club
Inc 9702 Goklen Pnjdurta Co 9704 Hoal IntemaUonal Inc 9710
Audelo O G 9712 Fannie* Beauty Salon 9714 Kargabrr K^nia 9720
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9736 United Brotherhood Lodge 9760 U-Savp Discount Fumiturr
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9787 Tafoya Henry 9799 Galloway Zalda 9000 Haatinga Law
Bookstore 9621 Harriaon Louiaa Mra 9822 Zimmerman O P Mra 9627
Sincere Cafe 9646 Ward M H Mra 9660 Cafetin Sociia 9866 Km
Fnedrich 9873 Chlsholm Arth 9876 Paniagua S J 9677 Domingo
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Fnedlander J G 0262 BeU Jama* 0256 Schulu Larry 0269 E Troutus
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0293 James David Inc 0296 Del Rosano Noe 0300 Borden S 0303
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