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 Interactive Storytelling Techniques for 21st Century Fiction
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Andrew Glassner

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
AN A K PETERS BOOK
 Ad astra per aspera
(Through difficulties, to the stars)

To Steven Drucker
 Contents

Preface ix

I Introduction 1
1 People, Stories, and Games 3

II Story Structure 35
2 Character 39
3 Plot 53
4 Story Technique 93

III Game Structure 125

5 Game Experience 127
6 Rules and Scoring 153
7 Gameplay 167
vii
  Interactive Storytelling 

IV Merging Stories and Games 197

8 Structures 199
9 Branching and Hypertext 239
10 Common Pitfalls 259
11 First Steps 291

V Story Environments 327

12 Story Environments 329
13 Designing for Participation 397
14 Experiments 419
Bibliography 471
Index 507

viii
 Preface

E verybody loves a great story, and everybody loves a great game. It

seems natural to bring these two very human activities together to
create something new that is different from either, but artistically
engaging and a lot of fun.

The Quest
History has shown us that finding this new art form is surprisingly difficult.
A few plays and staged entertainments involve the audience to some degree,
and there are games in which players take on character roles and act them
out. But these are niche activities, and haven’t caught on in the mainstream
to anywhere near the same degree as movies, books, or professional or
amateur sports.
The quest to find a way to combine storytelling and gaming has all
the qualities of a great story or game: there’s a noble goal to be acheived,
difficulties to be overcome through understanding and insight, and success
to be won by the careful use of skill, planning, and execution.
This quest took on new life in the last years of the 20th century, when
video games moved beyond bouncing a white square back and forth, and
started to incorporate realistic environments, and then well-written stories
and characters [39]. As computers and consoles improved technically, video
games became more visually interesting, their sound and music improved
dramatically, and new interaction techniques appeared. As designers sought
to make their games deeper and more engaging, they naturally started to
incorporate stories and characters into their work.

ix
  Interactive Storytelling 

I wrote this book because I want to play really great games that are
blended with really great stories. I hope that this book will help hasten the
day of their arrival.

Who This Book Is For

This book is for everyone who’s involved in creating and developing games
that have story qualities. Everyone from the lead designer to a software
engineer, from the person who lays out the instruction manual to the
composer creating the soundtrack, has a hand in shaping the final product.
The more they all share common ideas and vocabulary, the easier it is for
them all to share the same vision of the product, and work together towards
that vision.
This isn’t a theory book. I don’t review or critique various theories
of narrative, or abstract principles of human competition. Rather, this is
the nuts-and-bolts material that I think needs to be a part of the creative
toolkits of everyone working on projects that combine both games and
stories.
For example, suppose that we’re creating a new space exploration game,
and the art director asks you, as one of the staff artists, to create a ‘‘scary
alien.’’ Sure, you could draw something that could scare the shoes off
a zombie, but it might or might not fit in with the rest of the game.
As a wise and thoughtful artist, you’d come back to the team planning
the game and ask them questions about the purpose of this alien, what
feelings it should evoke, how the main character is going to react to it
and why, how it moves the story forward, and so on. If our hero is
afraid of slimy things, then we might make the first few aliens smooth
and dry on the outside, so we can hit him with a sudden blast of slim-
iness later on for emotional impact. Is the hero smart? If so, this alien
might be scary indeed, yet have a subtle but fatal weakness that the hero
only uncovers by using his brains. So although we can design an alien
that simply accomplishes the task of looking scary, but how much better
if that alien, and the hero’s response to it, tells us something about the
hero and his world.
If you’re the software engineer writing the artificial intelligence for how
this alien behaves, this all applies to you as well. The same goes for the
composer, the 3D modeler, the lighting designer, the engineer designing
the motion of the camera, and everyone else on the project.
If you work on any aspect of games that have stories and characters, or
you plan to work on them, this book is for you.

x
  Preface 

The Big Picture

This book is organized into four parts.
In Part I, I discuss the classical structure of stories. The goal is to lay
down a solid groundwork of the basic ideas and vocabulary that form the
core of the storyteller’s craft.
In Part II, I talk about the varieties of games, and those qualities of an
experience that make it feel more like a game than like something else.
In Part III, I compare the structures discussed in the first two parts. One
of the interesting things that will emerge from this discussion is that the
qualities that make good stories and games are fundamentally contradictory
in several important ways. Each of those contradictions is a potential
problem, which we need to consciously address in our designs.
In Part IV, I bring these pieces together, and introduce the idea of
Story Environments. These are places where players come together in a
shared social experience created by game builders and storytellers. Some
other directions for bringing together stories and games are sketched out
in a series of experiments, so that we can discover what people will enjoy
the most in this new medium.

Stories and Games

I play a lot of games. I’ve played most of the video games mentioned in
this book, usually to completion. As much as I enjoy playing, I’ve been
frustrated by seeing many bad designs appear time and again.
Game designers are in a bind today. If they design a game that uses
storytelling ideas in a new and creative way, odds are that the game will fail
commercially, artistically, or both. Relying on today’s clumsy and clunky
techniques results in a poor storytelling experience. To make matters worse,
there’s rarely enough time or budget available to develop something new.
Designers can turn to ideas from theoreticians who have published pa-
pers and books on new forms of storytelling, based on everything from
literary deconstruction to post-modern analysis. But although many of
these ideas are intellectually fascinating, they’re abstract and theoretical:
they talk about interesting possibilities, but they don’t describe stories that
people actually want.
We know what kinds of stories people want, and they don’t require a
new theory of story. Billions of people have been telling each other stories
for millennia, and millions have done it professionally. Every possible form
of story structure and storytelling technique has been explored, probably

xi
  Interactive Storytelling 

many times over, by people who were passionate, creative, and skilled. The
result has been the type of stories that we are familiar with today. In the
Western tradition, modern readers can read Ovid (either in the original
Latin or in translation), and although the language may be challenging, the
structure of his stories is familiar and easy to follow. From fairy tales to
Beowulf, from the Bible to the plays of Shakespeare, most of the stories we
know and remember have similar structures and forms.
There’s a simple reason for this consistency: the dominant, time-honored
form of story structure works. If some other form worked better, or other
forms worked as well, we’d see them around in profusion today. But the
marketplace of stories, from television to film, from novels to magazines,
is almost entirely populated by structures that are familiar to us: one or
more engaging characters is engaged in a struggle to achieve a goal, and
works towards that goal. Even simple character studies are propelled by
this structure, though the goals can be internal, and psychologically subtle.
Games, on the other hand, have much less unifying structure. The
solitaire card game of Klondike has little in common with chess or tennis
except that they are bound by a series of rules. A backgammon player and
a soccer player are engaged in radically different activities. Of course, there
are unifying ideas (and I’ll discuss them in this book), but the diversity of
game structures is broad and constantly expanding.
Most games have no story qualities in them. We can relate last night’s
poker game in story form, but the game itself isn’t a narrative. In fact, very
few games incorporate much in the way of story, and there’s no reason
they should. From soccer to Scrabble, we play for the pleasure of the game,
spending social time with friends, and refining and demonstrating our skills
and abilities. This is all true of video games as well, and games from Tetris
to TextTwist are great fun with no story.
But clearly many designers are reaching out to put more story and
characterization into their games. Characters are becoming financially im-
portant to game studios; Lara Croft has made the transition from Tomb
Raider video games to the movie screen. We can see characters develop
from one game to the next. For example, the character of Jak in Jak and
Daxster: The Precursor Legacy reveals a new aspect to his personality in
the sequel Jak II, and the bond between the title characters in Ratchet and
Clank matures in the sequel Ratchet and Clank 2: Going Commando.
My interest in this book will be in the types of games that further this
trend of including story into active gameplay experiences. I have nothing
against games that don’t have stories; in this direction; I play lots of them
and enjoy them. But they won’t get much of our attention here, except
as examples.

xii
  Preface 

The goal of melding the two very different experiences of storytelling

and gaming will be our companion throughout this book. We’ll start with
the basics of both fields, and then talk about how we can bring them
together.

A Couple of Notes on Style

As everyone who has tried to write in a gender-neutral way has realized,
English is a very inconvenient language for avoiding gender bias. Omitting
any gender makes for awkward sentences, and constantly using phrases
like ‘‘he or she’’ and ‘‘his or her’’ quickly becomes repetitive. I also find
that switching between ‘‘he’’ and ‘‘she,’’ and using new constructions like
‘‘s/he,’’ are both jarring. So in this book I will use, without prejudice, the
historical convention of the masculine pronoun.
I’ve broken the bibliography into several sections, grouped by the type
of entry. The only reference numbers that appear in the body of the
book are those in the first section of the bibliography, which covers mostly
works of non-fiction. Games, novels, television shows, and movies are
identified in the text with italics, and they have corresponding entries in
the bibliography, arranged alphabetically by medium.

Acknowledgements
Throughout the writing of this book, I’ve relied on friends, family, and
colleagues for encouragement, feedback, and focus. It gives me great plea-
sure to thank Eric Braun and Wendy Siegel, Steven Drucker, Glenn Entis,
Bruce Glassner and Lisa DeGisi, Eric Haines, Christopher Rosenfelder and
Becky Brendlin, Sterling Van Wagenen, and Curtis Wong for discussions,
encouragement, and support. Thank you to Klaus and Alice Peters and the
entire staff at A K Peters for their help and support.

xiii
 Part I
Introduction
  1
People, Stories,
and Games

S
tories are an important part of our lives. Our media tell us stories
every day, in movies, the nightly news, and even advertisements.
Some of our stories are very personal: ‘‘the story of our life’’ isn’t just
a metaphor, but something we actually tell to ourselves and other people
to give shape and meaning to who we are.
Every one of us tells stories every day. These aren’t of the formally
scripted and produced variety, but the kind that we make up as we go: we
tell what we’ve done, and how other people responded. We’re all natural
storytellers and story audiences.
Authors who study the craft are able to raise storytelling from this
informality to a more universal level, where their stories have meaning to
large numbers of people. Stories as old as Hamlet and as recent as Star Wars
have captured the imaginations of millions of people all over the world.
For many of us, there’s something appealing about the idea of being
able to not just watch great stories, but to actually be in them: to step
into their world and become participants. We’d love to be there with Sam
Spade as he searches for the black bird in The Maltese Falcon, help Indiana
Jones save the day in Raiders of the Lost Ark, or just float down the river
with Huck and Jim in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

3
  Interactive Storytelling 

Probably the best-known example of this idea is the holodeck, introduced

in 1990 on the TV show Star Trek: The Next Generation. The holodeck
is an imaginary room that is capable of simulating any environment and
everything inside it, including other people. You can run or walk anywhere
to your heart’s content, eat and drink, and even get into fistfights, all with
perfect simulated reality, without ever leaving the room. The idea of such
technology has been around since at least 1950, when Ray Bradbury wrote
a short story called ‘‘The Veldt’’[305]. In this story children played in their
‘‘nursery,’’ which could envelop them in any environment.
But neither Star Trek nor ‘‘The Veldt’’ told us how such environments
would actually support stories. Instead, we watched (or read) authored
stories that showed authored characters participating in their simulated
worlds. What if these characters were removed, and we took their place?
Would our adventures be as interesting as theirs?
Suppose that someday we are able to develop such a device and use it to
become fully immersed in a story. Will our time spent there be enjoyable?
Will it be rewarding? And, of course, there’s the big question:
Will it be fun?
In this chapter I’ll discuss some of the big issues that come up when we
think about becoming part of a story. I’ll return to many of these topics
later in the book.

It’s All About People

People have told one another an untold number of stories, and there are
an untold number yet to come. Yet throughout all cultures and eras, there
is something in common to them all.
Great stories are about people.
Sometimes the people look like bugs (Antz), savannah animals (The Lion
King), or even old cartoons (Who Framed Roger Rabbit?), but behind their
appearances the characters are always people. The main character in the
children’s book The Missing Piece is a simple line drawing of a circle with
a dot for an eye and a missing pie wedge for a mouth, but that circle is
still recognizably a person ‘‘inside.’’ Science-fiction and monster stories like
Alien or Jurassic Park are usually more about the people who must deal with
the bizarre and dangerous creatures than about the creatures themselves.
When we enter into the world of a story, we may find ourselves in
a world where teleportation is an everyday activity, dogs have colonized

4
  1. People, Stories, and Games 

Mars, and politicians tell the truth, among other improbabilities. Exploring
unusual worlds will be a lot of fun, but it won’t be unlike exploring an
unfamiliar city or taking a hike in a new park. Just as with those activities,
most people will find it more fun to explore interactive story worlds with
friends than do it alone. And though the spaceships in those worlds may be
fun to fly, the monsters exhilarating to battle, and the mysteries a challenge
to unravel, it will ultimately be the other people we share it with who will
make our experience meaningful.
It will be a long time before any computer simulation of a person will
be anywhere nearly as interesting as a real person. Computers today simply
don’t have much range of expression, knowledge, or common sense, nor the
command of language and the mix of unpredictability and coherency that
we recognize in other living people. So as we think about the imaginary
worlds we might enter, we should keep our eye on the fact that it’s the
other real people we’ll meet there who will make us want to go back again.

Foundations
The central theme of this book is that we’ll find a way to combine partic-
ipation and storytelling by looking at stories and games and learning from
the history of both subjects. I’ll also refer to some commercial and artistic
works that have tried to merge stories and games, and see what we can
learn from them. The goal is to find out both what has worked and what
has not. That way we can continue to try new things, exploring the best
ideas and not repeating mistakes.
We’ll also look at what people like about these activities. Historically,
people have enjoyed professionally-written stories as audience members,
rather than as participants. In contrast to this quiet absorption and imag-
inative engagement, we usually play games actively with friends or watch
professionals play them in tournaments. The difference between these pas-
sive and active roles will prove to be a significant challenge when looking
at how to bring stories and games together, but it’s not insurmountable.

Looking at Stories
As I said earlier, we’re all fine informal storytellers. But casual stories are
different from those created by professionals who have studied the craft.

5
  Interactive Storytelling 

There’s an old anecdote that goes like this:

Suppose you’re talking to a group of 8-year-old children. If you

ask them, ‘‘Who here is an artist?’’ you’ll probably find that
they all raise their hands. If you ask, ‘‘Who can play piano?’’ or
‘‘Who is a dancer?’’ again most of them will raise their hands.
Now ask the same questions of a group of 15-year-olds, and
you’ll get a very different result. When you ask them, ‘‘Who
here is an artist?’’ you’ll find that almost none of the teenagers
raise their hands; maybe only one or two brave souls will dare.

The typical interpretation of this story is that we drain creativity and

spirit out of our children as they grow, replacing their youthful enthusiasm
with disillusion and self-limiting boundaries. I’m sure that some children
are indeed belittled and made to feel uncreative as they grow up, but I
don’t think that’s the norm.
Rather, I think what this anecdote tells us is that as we grow up we
develop an appreciation for skill and ability. Most of us have probably
picked up a guitar at some point, or sat in front of a piano and tried to
noodle around a bit. We compared the results with the music we hear
every day, and we realized that those who have studied and practiced have
indeed developed a specialized ability. If an 8-year-old says he’s a piano
player, he probably means he can sit down and amuse himself at the piano
for a while. When a 15-year-old who’s never played piano seriously says
he’s not a piano player, it’s because he’s heard professional jazz and rock
pianists and has discovered for himself that he doesn’t have their skills.
With study and practice, he could learn to be a piano player. But until
then, he willingly reserves the title ‘‘pianist’’ for those who have developed
the skills.
Similarly, most of the casual stories we tell to each other work well as
part of informal conversations with people we know, but they probably
wouldn’t work as well if they were transcribed and turned directly into a
novel, television show, or movie, and had to compete for attention with
professionally authored stories. In Part I we’ll look at the structure of stories
and see some of the tools used by authors to create stories that have a wide
and lasting appeal.

6
  1. People, Stories, and Games 

Looking at Games
Regardless of how we finally do it, when we ‘‘enter a story’’ we’ll be volun-
tarily entering a shared, structured environment. We already share struc-
tured environments all the time, from the roads we drive on to the restau-
rants we eat in. The rules and conventions of these environments help us
get along with other people, and for the most part the structure of our so-
ciety enables us to make our own decisions and choices without interfering
with the lives of other people.
But if we’re inside a story, then getting enmeshed in other people’s lives
is going to be pretty important. And these interactions themselves are key,
because they’re the elements that make up the story.
What we seek is some kind of structured environment where people
know the rules and understand not just what their options are (and what
options are disallowed), but also what they’re trying to achieve.
Happily, we have thousands of years of experience with precisely this
kind of thing: games. Games are as much a part of human life as stories.
Every culture and every era has had its games, some played in private by
one or more people, and some played in public before crowds of spectators.
Some games are fads that catch fire and then fade away, and some last for
centuries or millennia.
One of the most appealing things about games is that they are incredibly
diverse: there are word games, physical games, mental games, action games,
and an endless array of other types. In Part II we’ll look at the structure
of games, and what most games have in common with each other.

Economics
Designing entertainment of any kind is hard, but when we start designing
interactive activities involving computers and networks, things get very
complicated very fast. A lot of companies and a lot of people lost their way
in the first half of the 1800s trying to find the Northwest Passage, and the
same thing is happening in the pursuit of a mixture of online interaction
and storytelling.
I think that, despite the lack of results, this idea is still appealing to
people for a few different reasons. First, there’s simply the gut feeling that
it could be fun. For some of us, the idea of getting ‘‘inside’’ a story just
has an innate appeal. Second, it feels like something that’s just too natural

7
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