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 English
GRspmantic

Poetry
 ènglish
GF{pmantic

(poetry
ETHOS, STRUCTURE, AND SYMBOL IN

COLERIDGE, WORDSWORTH, SHELLEY, AND KEATS

hy
Albert S. Çjirarà

U N I V E R S I T Y OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY & LOS ANGELES 1968
 University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
Cambridge University Press
London, England
Copyright © 1968, by
The Regents of the University of California
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-12348
Printed in the United States of America
 C O L E R I D G E and Wordsworth, Shelley and
Keats were all prodigal of abstract generalizations about na-
ture, knowledge, and art. Some twelve years ago, in L'Idée
romantique de la -poésie en Angleterre, I attempted to define
the theories of the English romantics by resorting primarily to
their letters, notebooks, treatises, and the explicit statements
made in their poems. Yet it is the poetry itself which best
expresses the romantics' desire to interpret and convey a uni-
fied intuition, reflecting their vital experience of the world
and of the puzzling processes of creation.
Every successful poem is an organic whole. When we con-
sider in isolation the eloquent passages where the romantics
strove to express their grandest intuitions, we singularly over-
simplify the processes of imaginative creation in their minds,
and we do far less than justice to their intellectual ability. By
lifting extracts out of their contexts, we are dangerously apt to
miss not only the searching seriousness but also the aching
perplexities which accompanied their efforts to reappraise the
nature of the universe and the secret springs of its living
oneness. And we overlook an ambiguity and an anguish
which account in considerable measure for their modern ap-
peal. The well-tried method of close analysis of individual
vi Preface
poems seems to be the procedure most likely to provide a firm
interpretative basis for any comparative generalizations about
the major romantic poets of England.
In order to lay the necessary conceptual foundation for the
ensuing analyses, the first chapter will provide a brief sum-
mary of those poets' theoretical thought on nature, knowledge,
and art: their ontology, their epistemology, their aesthetics.
But the main purpose of this book is to dissect the romantics'
poetry, in full awareness that great poetry is not abstract
statement although it may contain abstract statements, that it
is never the description of a world view but its embodiment,
never the application of an aesthetic code but its fountain-
head, and it is to this purpose that chapters 1 - 9 are devoted.
A good poem conveys a unique insight through a unique
form, and the shape is the key to the sense. I shall be very
much concerned with such questions as: W h a t light does the
structure of a poem, that is, the arrangement of its parts,
throw upon the relative function and significance of each of
its elements? W h a t light does it throw, therefore, on the poet's
outlook at the time of writing? H o w does any particular
cluster of sense perceptions grow into a symbol? W h y was it a
matter of necessity for the romantics, and especially for Cole-
ridge, to devise an original definition of the symbol? How far
does poetic practice agree with theoretical definition? W h a t
sort of correlation is there between structure and symbol on
the one hand, and the seminal insight which the poem is
intended to communicate on the other? Only through close
analysis of individual poems is it possible to provide cogent
replies to such questions, that is, to disentangle the above-
mentioned elements and at the same time to bring out their
reciprocal relation, which constitutes the unity of each
poem.
Although, ideally, the whole corpus of romantic poetry
ought to be studied in this minute way before a word of
generalization can be spoken, some selection is inevitable. T h e
choice I have made is based not on form but on meaning. For
 Preface vii
although form is undoubtedly essential to poetry inasmuch as
no work using language for its material can be a poem if it is
shapeless, it is not the least paradox of poetry that the mean-
ing is even more essential: no great poem ever resulted from
the sole pleasure of playing around meaninglessly with words
and sounds and images; a true poet writes because he wants to
convey something—a unique message which could not be
communicated in any other form than this or that particular
poem. The present selection, then, is based on the similarities
and the variations in the romantics' ethos, a conveniently
vague word which does not connote any rigid set of theoretical
principles, but suggests the loose configuration of general
attitudes, of hardly realized assumptions—about the nature
and function of the universe, about man and his proper place
in the scheme of things, what he is and what he ought to
be—which, more than any consciously elaborated system, con-
trol man's behavior, including the poet's behavior in the writ-
ing of poetry.
The works that I have chosen to discuss in this book fall
into two groups. Those in the first group may be termed
"poems of perplexity," for they exemplify in one way or an-
other the poet's puzzlement and/or anguish as he becomes
aware of the contradiction between his youthful idealism and
the hard realities of life. Jacques Barzun once observed that
the primary common source of inspiration for most romantic
poets was the Pascalian apprehension of "the contrast between
man's greatness and man's wretchedness; man's power and
man's misery," and the ensuing "search for a philosophy, a
religion, a faith, which transcend and unify the felt dishar-
mony." The romantic awareness of disharmony is nowhere
more perceptible than in the poems written at an age when
the lamp of youthful idealism is shattered, or at any rate
threatened, by the fearsome blows of reality.
Coleridge was twenty-five when he wrote his Reflections on
Having Left a Place of Retirement; Wordsworth, whose inner
growth seems to have proceeded at a slower pace, was
viii Preface
twenty-eight when he composed The Thorn; Shelley wrote
Alastor at twenty-four; Keats was twenty-one when he wrote
the Epistle to John Hamilton Reynolds, and he put the finish-
ing touch to Endymion a year later. All those poems, and, we
may add, The Eolian Harp and Tintern Abbey, spring from
souls in ferment. In the Preface to Endymion, Keats wrote
that "the imagination of a boy is healthy, and the mature
imagination of man is healthy; but there is a space of life
between, in which the soul is in ferment, the character unde-
cided, the way of life uncertain, the ambition thicksighted." It
is part of the purpose of this book to explore that "space
between."
The second group of poems may be called "poems of recon-
ciliation." In This Lime-tree Bower my Prison, in Resolution
and Independence, in the Ode to the West Wind, and in Ode
on a Grecian Urn, we can observe how enlarged experience
and deepened meditation enabled the romantic poets of Eng-
land to emerge from puzzlement, to overcome the temptation
of despair, and to reconcile the antinomies of expectation and
experience into a positive synthesis.
Unless I am mistaken, scholars dealing with romanticism as
a cultural phenomenon are in the habit of defining it by
contrast with other large cultural movements such as classi-
cism. This is as it should be, and I too have made use of such
comparisons, which are so convenient for bringing out the
peculiar identity of the romantic mind. But what struck me as
even more significant, and this is what I attempt to show in
the concluding chapter, is that English romantic poetry, in
spite of its intentional rebellion against the classical literary
tradition, has its place in the mainstream of the deeper tradi-
tion of Western wisdom, which ever strives for balanced
clear-sightedness, positive acceptance, and creative reconcili-
ation.
Every author likes to fancy, in the secrecy of his undivulged
expectations, that his book will revolutionize the scholarly
world. I can entertain no such fond hope, for my debts are
 Preface ix
heavy. In a number of specific cases, I have been able to
acknowledge my indebtedness to, and my departure from, the
interpretations of previous students of romanticism. On larger
and more general issues, after reading and imbibing hundreds
of essays and dozens of books on romanticism in the course of
the last twenty-five years, I must leave it to the reader to
decide what the original contribution of the book, if any, may
be.
 Acknowledgments

I A M VERY grateful for editorial permission to make

use, often in considerably altered form, of the following arti-
cles: "Coleridge, Keats and the Modern Mind," Essays in
Criticism, I ( 1 9 5 1 ) , 249-261; "Alastor, or the Spirit of Solips-
ism," Philological Quarterly, XXXIII (1954), 164-177; "On
the Logic of Romanticism," Essays in Criticism, VII (1957)»
262-273; "Keats and the Romantic Sehnsucht," University of
Toronto Quarterly, XXVIII (1959), 160-175; "Resolution
and Independence: Wordsworth's Coming of Age," English
Studies in Africa, III (i960), 8-20; "Clevedon Revisited:
Further Reflections on Coleridge's 'Reflections on Having
Left a Place of Retirement,' " Notes & Queries, New Series,
VII (i960), 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 (published by the Oxford University
Press); "The Systolic Rhythm: The Structure of Coleridge's
Conversation Poems," Essays in Criticism, X (i960),
307-319; "Counterfeiting Infinity: The Eolian Harp and the
Growth of Coleridge's Mind," Journal of English and Ger-
manic Philology, LX ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 411-422; "Romance and Real-
ity: Continuity and Growth in Keats's View of Art," Keats-
Shelley Journal, XI (1962), 17-29; "Symbolic Landscape in
Wordsworth's Tintern Ahbey," Publications de l'Université
de l'Etat à Elisabethville, IV (December, 1962), 21-30;
"Dark Passages: Exploring Tintern Abbey," Studies in Ro-
manticism, III (1963), 10-23; "Of Trees and Men: The
Unity of 'The Thorn,'" Essays in Criticism, XIV (1964),
237-255.
 (Contents

1 Souls in Ferment: Reality, Knowledge,

and Romantic Art 3
2 T h e Discordant Harp: T h e Structure
of Coleridge's Conversation Poems 20
3 Counterfeit Infinity: Coleridge
and the Symbol 40
4 Emblems of Misery: Wordsworth's
The Thorn 64
5 Dark Passages: Wordsworth's
Tintern Abbey 89
6 A Leading from Above: Wordsworth's
Resolution and Independence 118
7 T h e Hopeless Quest:
Shelley's Alastor 136
8 T h e Unextinguished Hearth:
Shelley's Ode to the West Wind 163
9 Greeting Uneasiness: Keats's
Endymion, Book IV 194
10 Truth is Beauty: Keats's Epistle to
John Hamilton Reynolds and Ode on a
Grecian Urn 215
11 Conclusion: T h e Proper Bound 237
Bibliography 265
Index 281
 w * hate poetry that has a
palpable design upon us.
John Keats
1 Souls m Ferment: REALITY,
KNOWLEDGE, AND ROMANTIC ART

] R . O M A N T I C poetry derived much of its revolu-

tionary character from an intense and outspoken dissatisfac-
tion with the dualistic world view which had prevailed during
the eighteenth century. T h e young Coleridge and the young
Wordsworth were persuaded that the established dichoto-
mies—between spirit and matter in ontological thought, be-
tween subject and object in the theory of knowledge, between
content and form in the sphere of art—were as unjustifiable
and harmful as was the petrified division of society into an
aristocratic ruling class and an oppressed majority; and once
they had both setded into a more sedate—or, perhaps, more
resigned—recognition of the limitations of the human mind
and of the inherent imperfections of human society, they were
stridently disavowed by Shelley, who, together with Keats,
resumed the fight and the quest which the Lake poets had
apparently relinquished. If one impulse can be singled out as
central to the romantic inspiration, it is the Sehnsucht, the
yearning toward the absolute, the aspiration to oneness and
wholeness and organic unity, the dream of perfection. T o
many, both before and since the romantic period, this impulse
has appeared juvenile. Nevertheless, it was the fountainhead
of the intellectual and poetic activity of the romantics, in
England as elsewhere. And it was taken seriously because its
4 Souls in Ferment
validity seemed to be guaranteed by visionary experiences
which all young romantic poets found crucial, since they
provided what appeared to them convincing evidence that
such yearning was by no means illusory or Utopian.
In these germinal experiences—such as those described in
The Eolian Harp and Tintern Abbey, not to mention The
Prelude, or those that are allegorically conveyed in Alastor or
Endymion—there were many individual variations. Each of
England's four major romantic poets was a man of strong
personal temperament. And of course, they belonged to two
generations, one of which reached manhood while the French
Revolution was in progress, and the other at the time of
Waterloo. The younger writers were bound to be influenced
by their elders and in some measure to react against them.
Nor is it immaterial that Shelley and Keats died at an early
age, which prevented them from developing as their predeces-
sors did. While Wordsworth and Coleridge reinstalled them-
selves—somewhat smugly, as many think—in the main cur-
rent of Christian tradition, Shelley and Keats did not live to
reach the stage when a man begins to feel humble enough to
seek the help and comfort of guidance from above. But in
spite of this diversity, they all participated in a similar Sehn-
sucht, and the quasi-mystical experiences that stirred their
imaginations had much in common.
It used to be said disparagingly that romantic poetry is
poetry of feeling. It is indeed suffused in emotion. But the
strong feelings which overwhelm the poet's soul, the joy, the
sense of glory, should rather be considered a psychological
consequence of the poetic experience, and the subjective proof
of its vital importance. The experience itself is not only emo-
tional; it is also, and indeed primarily, cognitive. It includes
sensory and intellectual elements; it brings the whole soul into
activity; as a result, it is rich in moral and metaphysical impli-
cations.
Basically the poetic experience is a form of knowledge. It is
not a strictly sensory form of knowledge, like that which often
 Souls in Ferment 5
inspires the Imagists, since through the particular and the
sensuous it aspires to reach to the universal. But it does not
reach the universal by way of abstractions, like the philosophi-
cal poetry of eighteenth-century neoclassicism. In fact, it is
felt as an intuition of cosmic unity: the sudden realization
that the universe is neither an unintelligible chaos, nor a
well-regulated mechanism, but a living organism, imbued
throughout with an idea which endows it with its unity, its
life, its harmony, its ultimate significance.

This was a staggering experience indeed, to which, until

then, only the religious mystics claimed to have been privi-
leged. Because of its intensity and scope, it demanded to be
expressed and to be interpreted, and it is to this twofold need
that the best romantic poetry owes much of its urgency and
depth. But because the insight it procured was so obviously
subjective, once the experience had receded the poet was left
alone to grapple with the crucial question: Was it a vision, or
a waking dream?—a query which, as I hope to show, is as
central to Wordsworth's Tintern Abbey as it is to Shelley's
Alastor.
Although many of the romantics' finest works are poems of
vatic assertion, underneath their overt design there runs a more
or less conscious, more or less perceptible trend of uncertainty
and anguish. It is true that when they tried to work out the
abstract, metaphysical implications of their visionary insight,
the young romantics resorted to a variety of philosophical
attitudes ranging from Coleridge's devout Unitarianism to
Shelley's rather ostentatious "atheism." But they had a com-
mon proclivity to translate it in spiritualistic terms; their first
impulse was to treat the sense of oneness it imparted as a
unity of substance, and it is in this sense that we may legiti-
mately speak of Wordsworth's "pantheism" or of Shelley's
"idealism." The fact remains, however, that this intuition of
oneness clashed not only with certain assumptions which they
were not always eager to shed, but also with the most compel-
6 Souls in Ferment
ling data of everyday experience. I shall argue that the struc-
ture of Coleridge's The Eolian Har-p, for example, is com-
manded by a sense of the contradiction between his personal
"mystical" insight and the dualistic outlook of orthodox Chris-
tianity, and that part of his purpose in elaborating his defini-
tion of the symbol was to find a satisfactory way out of this
dilemma. However, while this ontological preoccupation was
of the utmost importance to Coleridge, it would seem that the
problem which weighed most heavily on the minds of the
English romantics was connected with what Keats called "the
lore of good and ill."
In response to the Sehnsucht, the poetic experience appre-
hends the world as a sort of matter-spirit continuum. Unlike
some of their continental contemporaries, the romantic poets
of England did not remain content with the rather facile
forms of monism, with the amateurish pantheism and Neopla-
tonism, to which they were undoubtedly attracted, and which
consist chiefly in denying or in deifying the sensuous world.
Nature, they came to think, was a tertium quid born of the
meeting and interaction of two opposite forces: the chaotic
diversity of original matter and the unifying and organizing
(or, as Coleridge termed it, "esemplastic") power of an omni-
present, purposive Spirit. From such a conception of God's
pervasive, all-powerful, and loving action in the created uni-
verse, it was but a short step to the familiar notion that this
world is the best of all possible worlds. The intensity of the
romantics' ideal dream (or vision) made all the more acute
their perception not only of man's inhumanity to man, but
also of a kind of cosmic cruelty which seemed to revel unham-
pered in ruin and destruction. They were thus brought face to
face with the perennial problem of the purpose of evil and
suffering in a universe which is conceived as essentially mean-
ingful and benevolent. Coleridge, as I shall have occasion to
recall, adhered for a while to the usual theological casuistry
which claims that grief and evil have their hidden function in
the general scheme of things. But usually, the romantics were
 Souls in Ferment 7
not satisfied with such unconvincing, abstract, lifeless quib-
bling. Their perception of the discrepancy between the ideal
and the actual does not seem to have prompted them to any
sizable amount of systematic theorizing. But the anguished
puzzlement which it aroused imbues their early major works
with a poignancy and an ambiguity which account for much
of their appeal to the modern reader. It also endows them with
a dialectical quality which reverberates in their structure.
Poems like The Eolian Harp and Tintern Abbey, The Thorn
and Alastor, or the Epistle to John Hamilton Reynolds may
express the despair born from the impact of experience upon
innocence; they may illustrate the bafflement of the poet
when faced with the contradiction between traditional faith
and personal intuition; they may reflect the tragic recognition
that the dream of perfection could, after all, be mere delusion.
But they all manifest, in the thought and in the structure, the
oscillations of the poet's mind as he wavers between opposite
sets of equally compelling experiences, and desperately seeks
to integrate them into a coherent oudook not manufactured
by abstract sophistry, but felt in the blood.
It is a distinguishing feature of romanticism that its major
representatives did not shrink away from the philosophical
anxieties which, in most men, vanish as soon as the sclerosis of
adulthood sets in, and which—for that very reason, per-
haps—the previous century had seldom considered suitable
topics for recognized poetry. The doubt and the anguish in
their early poems—however unobtrusive and, at times, de-
liberately veiled—provided the psychological and intellectual
starting point for the process of reappraisal and reconciliation
out of which the romantic ethos was to grow as it gradually
emerged from the will, and the need, to come to terms with the
actual condition of man without betraying the ideal conveyed
through the visionary experience. Such poems as Resolution
and Independence, the Ode to the West Wind, and the Ode
on a Grecian Urn communicate an exceptional sense of
wholeness and assurance. They are endowed with an equi-
8 Souls in Ferment
poise both emotional and ethical, which derives from a mature
acceptance of man's limitations and from a strenuously ac-
quired ability to reconcile the divergent claims of the actual
and the ideal. Such poise, we may note, has always been the
very essence of Western wisdom.

There seems to be something inherently Hegelian in the

way the romantic mind functions. T o the mature thought of
the romantic poets, it will be remembered, living nature is the
product of the infinite Mind working upon unorganized mat-
ter to give visible shape to His ideas. In this perspective,
nature's "beauteous forms" appear to be neither an obstacle to
the mystical vision, nor the ultimate object of poetic vision.
Their harmony and their vitality are immediately felt as the
stamp of a higher force which remains transcendent.
T h e romantic theory of knowledge is built on a similar
triadic pattern. T h e romantic poets reject the doctrines of
rationalism, empiricism, and associationism, and claim that all
true knowledge is an act of genuine creation. Even at the
lowest level, perception is a tertium quid resulting from the
action of the mind on sensory data, that is, from a merging of
subjective and objective, in the course of which the percept
becomes integrated into the substance of the percipient's
mind. This is why Wordsworth often used such metaphorical
terms as "drink," "eat," "absorb," "nourish," and "feed" to
describe the relationship which genuine knowledge es-
tablishes between the thinking subject and the external
world. T o the romantic mind, cognition was of two kinds: the
dead and the vital. In the Biographia Literaria, Coleridge
explains how his reading of the mystics gave him "an indis-
tinct, yet stirring and working presentiment, that all the prod-
ucts of the mere reflective faculty partook of DEATH," and how
he became convinced that "the notional understanding itself
is but the shadowy abstraction of living and actual truth"; 1

1 S. T . Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, ed. J. Shawcross (Oxford,

1907), II, 98 and 168. Unless otherwise specified, references to the

Biographia Literaria are to this edition.
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