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•
•
 •
-
 CONTENTS
A QUARTO BOOK 6 Introduction

First edition for North America published in 2004 10 ANCIENT

by Barron's Educational xries, Inc. 14 lhales of Miletos
15 Pythagoras of Samos
Copyright CI 2004 Quarto Inc.
16 K'ung fu-zi (Confucius)
AU rights reserved. 17 OVERVIEW: Chinese philosophy
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by 18 Lao-zi (Lao-tzu)
photostat. microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or 19 Heraclitus of Ephesus
incorporated into any information retrieval system,
20 Parmenides of Elea
electronic or mechanical, without the written permission
of the copyright owner. 21 leno of Elea
22 Mo-zi (Mo-tzu)
All inquiries should be oddressed to: 23 Socrates
Barron's Educational Series, Inc. 24 Plato
250 Wireless Boulevard
26 Aristotle
Hauppauge, NY 11788
28 OVERVIEW: Human nature
http://www.barronseduc.com 29 Meng-zi (Mencius)
30 lena of Kition
International Standard Book Number 0-7641-2791-8 31 Epicurus of Samos
library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2003110643
32 Han Fei-zi
QUAR.FPS 33 Wang Chong
34 OVERVIEW: Skepticism
Conceived, designed, and produced by 35 Sextus Empiricus
Quarto Publishing pic 36 Nagarjuna
The Old Brewery
37 Plotinus
6 Blundell Street
london N7 9BH 38 Augustine of Hippo
40 OVERVIEW: Women in philosophy
Project Editor Paula McMahon 41 Hypatia
Senior Art Editor Penny Cobb
Copy Editor Carol Baker
Designer Julie Francis
42 MEDIEVAL
Picture researcher Claudia Tate 46 Boethius
Photographer Paul Forester 47 Adi Sarhkara
Illustrators Kuo Kang Chen, Coral Mula 48 AbO-'llisufya'qOb ibn IshOq al-Kindi
Proof reader Jo Fisher 49 John Scotus Erigena
Indexer Geraldine Beare
50 AbO Nasr Hamid Muhammad ibn al-Farakh
Art Director Moira Clinch al-Rlrabi
Publisher Piers Spenct 52 AbO Ali ai-Hussain ibn Abdalldh ibn Sirn
54 Anselm of Canterbury
Manufactured by Universal Graphics, Singapore 56 OVERVIEW: Indion philosophy
Printed by Midas Printing International limited, China
57 Ramanuja
987654321 58 AbO Muhammed ibn Muhammed at-lusi
al-Gliazlr
59 OVERVIEW: Philosophy ond religion
60 Pierre Abelard
62 Ibn Rushd abu al-Wali'd Muhammad ibn 130 William James
Rushd 132 Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche
64 Zhu Xi 133 Francis Herbert Bradley
66 Moses ben Maimon 134 Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege
68 Roger Bacon
70 Thomas Aquinas 136 lWENTIETH CENTURY
72 William of Ockham 140 Edmund Gustav Albert Husser!
74 John Duns 5cotus 142 John Dewey
75 Nicolas Kryfts 144 Bertrand Arthur William Russell
76 Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli 146 Sir Allameh Muhammed Iqbal
77 Francisco Suarez 147 Sarvepal1i Radhakrishnan
148 ludwig Wittgenstein
78 EARLY MODERN 150 Martin Heidegger
82 Sir Francis Bacon 151 Rudolf Carnap
84 Thomas Hobbes 152 Feng You Ian (Fung Yu-Ian)
86 Marin Mersenne 153 Jean-Paul Sartre
87 Pierre Gassendi 154 Sir Karl Raimund Popper
88 Rene Descartes 156 Willard Van Orman Quine
90 Antoine Arnauld 158 Sir Alfred Jules Ayer
91 OVERVIEW: Mind and body 159 Richard Mervyn Hare
92 Wang fu-zi 160 Donald Herbert Davidson
93 Lady Anne Finch Conway 162 Sir Peter Frederick Strawson
94 Baruch Spinoza 164 Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe
96 John locke 165 John Bordley Rawls
98 Nicolas Malebranche 166 Thomas Samuel Kuhn
100 Gottfried Wilhelm leibniz 167 OVERVIEW: Philosophy of science
102 George Berkeley 168 Sir Michael Anthony Eardley Dummett
103 Anthony William Amo 170 Hilary Putnam
104 Baron de Montesquieu 172 OVERVIEW: African philosophy
106 OVERVIEW: Common sense 173 Kwasi Wiredu
107 Thomas Reid 174 David Wiggins
108 David Hume 175 Thomas Nagel
110 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 176 Saul Aaron Kripke
112 Immanuel Kant 178 David Kellogg lewis
114 Jeremy Bentham 180 Susan Haack
115 Mary Wollstonecraft 181 OVERVIEW: Moral philosophy
182 Peter Singer
116 NINETEENTH CENTURY
120 George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 184 Suggested reading
122 John Stuart Mill 186 Glossary
124 50ren Aabye Kierkegaarn 188 Index
126 Karl Heinrich Marx 192 Credits
128 The Honorable Victoria, lady Welby-Gregory
129 Charles Sanders Peirce
6

INTRODUCTION empirical and the nonempirical: what we now think of as

the ph-r.;ical sciences gradually took on identities of their
The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek., meaning "love own, becoming ph-r.;ics. chemistry, and biology. Disciplines
of wisdom: As is usually the case with etymology, though, such as psychology and sociology split off later, often in a
that doesn't get us very far. Even leaving aside the tricky deliberate attempt to move them into the empirical,
question of what "wisdom" means, simply loving it doesn't scientific arena.
seem either very useful or much like what philosophers rart of the problem of defining philosophy, then, is that
actually do. Perhaps we could interpret it as meaning it's everything that's left-and unsurprisingly, it's impossible
something more: like the attempt to gain knowledge and to give a neat definition that includes and excludes
understanding. But how does philosophy differ from other everything that should be included and excluded. The best
human activities that have the same purpose? approach is to look at some examples of what goes on in
The question is complicated by the fact that the scope of philosophy. We can start by asking what the difference is
philosophy has changed over the centuries. For a very long between, for example, the philosophy of religion and the
time it induded almost every intellectual endeavor, from psychology or sociology of religion. The psychologist is
theology to physics. from psychology to logic. This lasted typically concerned with the role that religion and religious
until the end of the medieval period, when the situation practices and beliefs play in the individual psyche, as well
began to fragment The first split was between theology and as the role of psychological phenomena in the nature and
philosophy; though preceded by a number of writers who development of religion. Similarly, the sociologist is typically
had laid the groundwork, Descartes marks the beginning of concerned with the role of religion and religious practices
the new age. He makes use of the notion of god, and even in society, and with religions as social structures. Neither is
offers two arguments for god's existence, but he does so in concerned with the truth of religious claims, or with
the service of his attempt to provide secure foundations for whether religious beliefs and practices make sense; that's
human knowledge. The second split was between the the concern of philosophy.
This distinction sheds some light on the nature of
philosophy, but we need more detail. let's take a question
from the philosophy of religion. What, for example, is the
relationship between morality and god (or the gods)? In his
dialogue Euthyphro, Pl at o poses a problem to the believer
that has been debated by philosophers and theologians ever
sinct-a problem known as the Euthyphro dilemma: are
pious things pious because the gods love them, or do the
gods love them because they're pious? The same dilemma
can be raised for morality, in terms of monotheism: are
moral actions good because god commands them, or does
god command them because they're good?

A/~xond"o IS (Offrn d~sc"btd a~ fhe worla's tim grwt (Tnfrr of Iwrnong.

rhr lIbrary hOUlrd >wO,1Is by fhe grralt5t fhmktl'5 of thr oncirnt world. It
was ot Ihe lIbrary that Euclid di~covtrfillhe ,ults of gtomtlry, Ptoltmy
wratr rhr Almogtst, Erat051htnts mrasurM Iht diomtltr of tht forth, and
An:himrclrs mvtntrd tht scrrw· shofWd wort' pump Iholls still os~ lodoy.
Works by Plato, Socrott~, and many OfMI'5 we~ destroyrd by the ti~
which mzrcl 1110 thr ground,
 INTRODUCTION 7
Throughout history. philosophy
h05 sought to 05S~5S ond ~)fploin
basic c:onr:tpts such os mom/ity
ond goo, rmd to ono~~ th~
rrlotiQllshlps ~Iw~n fh~m,

Neither horn of this

dilemma is very attractive
to the believer. If god's
commands create morality,
(this is known as Divine
Command Theory), then
he could have commanded
very differently-for
1 ---
example, that murder is
good and charity evil-and our moral values would have the centuries. though the questions and approaches often
been reversed; if on the other hand, god commanded that have. These four fundamental areas are common to every
murder is evil because it is evil, then morality is independent philosophical tradition, though different traditions at
of god's will, so he hasn't created everything (and is subject different times have emphasized some and neglected others.
to morality Just like the rest of us). Responses indude
acct'pting or trying to minimize the problems associated Metaphysics is the hardest category to explain, partly
with one horn or the other, arguing for a combined because of the origins of the term. In the traditional
approach in which some moral values are created and some ordering of Aristotle's works. the Metaphysics was the
not, and rejecting the link between morality and god. book that came after the Physics (~meto to phusikd':
We're not concerned here with what different religions ~after the Physics"); thus metaphysics concerned the topics
have said about what is moral and what isn't, nor with what dealt with in that book-primarily the nature of being,
they've said about god's commands, or his relationship with substance, causation, and the existence of god. Aristotle
mOrdlity. We're working at a hiqher level of abstraction, himself referred to such fundamental issues as First
examining the basic concepts of morality and god, and Philosophy. The main category of metaphysics is ontology;
analyzing and assessing their relationship. Philosophy is a this concerns the question of how many fundamentally
way of carrying out this sort of examination rigorously, distinct sorts of entity there are (material bodies, minds,
dispassionately, and disinterestedly. Just as science is a numbers, and so onl. Other metaphysical questions concern
determined effort to overcome human subjectivity in the the nature of causation, possibility and necessity, and the
investigation of the empirical aspects of the world, so nature of space and time.
philosophy is the effort to do the same thing in the The twentieth century saw a number of movements
investigation of the nonempirical. Its subject matter indudes hostile to metaphysics. such as logical positivism, though
our concepts. methods. and assumptions. so that philosophy they all make unexamined metaphysical assumptions (such
investigates not only its own distinctive subject matter, such as that everything that exists is observable). However,
as the nature of the mind and consciousness. morality, logic, writers such as Strawson, Kripke, and lewis have brought
and so on, but also other disciplines such as the sciences. metaphysics back into the mainstream philosophical arena.
history, mathematics, and others. Some people misuse the word "metaphysicar to refer
to things like ghosts. magic. and the like; this makes little
THE MAIN DIVISIONS sense. ~Material substance" is as much a metaphysical
Traditionally philosophy has been divided into a small notion as "immaterial substance"; that everything that
number of core areas; this hasn't really changed much over exists is physical is as much a metaphysical claim as that
8 INTRODUCTION
ChriSlioun Huygens rmd Solomon Cost~r udmiring
Ih~ir first ~ndulum dock. S{'/~nct' 15 rootw in
philosophy: Ind~~d. mony phllo5ophefl engoged
m both philosophical arid SeienlifK mquiry 05
they}{)ughl ta eJl.plam Ihe world_ /I wu~ In fact,
Mrflrnne who suqg~st('(1 the use of 0 ~ndulum
0\ 0 liming devi(T 10 Huyg~ns.

related in such a way that to affirm the former

and deny the laHer is to contradict yourself. In
a valid inductive argument (one that moves
from a set of singular premises to a general
conclusion) this isn't the case, and exactly what
such arguments do is an important question
for the philosophy of science, epistemology,
and philosophical logic. A sound argument of
either type is a valid argument whose premises
are true. In formol (or mathematical or
symbolic) logic. whose first great propounder
was Frege (building on the work of the
there are nonphysical things such as minds. Indeed, the mathematicians George Boole and Augustus de Morgan),
concept of the world is itself a metaphysical concept, not logical structures are put in symboliC form, and the scope
a scientific one. of logic is much greater.
Philosophical logic (or the philosophy of logic) started as
Epistemo logy deals with the notions of knowledge and an investigation of the conctpt5., terms, and methods of
belief. The main questions concern the nature of knowledge logic, but expanded in scope during the twentieth century,
(how, for example. is it to be distinguished from mere true partly as a response to the developments in formal logic,
belief?), the possibility of knowledge in general, and the but partly to fill the gap left by the (temporary) discarding
possibility of specific kinds of knowledge (such as of metaphysics. A typical example of this is the question of
knowledge of the past, knowledge through the senses. or existence: in metaphysics one might ask whether existence
knowledge derrved from mductive reasonmg). is a genuine property, whereas in phi l~phicallogic one
•
One of the main disagreements has traditionally been would ask whether ~exists" is a predicate.
between what are called Rationalists and Empiricists. The
two extreme positions are that genuine knowledge (as Moral Phil osoph y is. for many nonphilosophers.
opposed to merely true beliefs) can come only through our philosophy's central concern-and, indeed, the
use of reason, not through the senses (plato in his investigation of the nature of morality and of how we
dialogues Meno and Republic provides an example of this should live our lives has been a key concern of philosophers
position), and that genuine knowledge can come only in all traditions. II has also, however, been seen as being
through our use of the senses (the logical positivists, such outside the core of phIlosophy, because il relies upon more
as the early Carnap and the early Ayer, come closest to fundamental theories in metaphysics and epistemology. The
this). In fact. most philosophers lie somewhere between two main divisions of moral philosophy {see Overview page
the two extremes. 181 for a more detailed account} are Metaethics and
Normative Ethics.
l ogic is the science of valid reasoning and argument; it Metaethics dFals with the most basic questions of
concerns the relationships between propositions, ideas, or morality, such as whether moral values are objective,
beliefs. The first great logician was Aristotle. In a valid whether moral statements can be true or false, and the
deductive argument. the premises and the conclusion are relationship between morality and the concept of free will.
 INTRODUCTION 9

Normative ethics typically deals with more practical The philosophers are presented chronologically, by
questions, such as whether abortion, suicide, and euthanasia year of birth. However, philosophy isn't-despite its
are intrinSically wrong, wrong in certain circumstances. or popular image-a solitary pursuit; it develops through
never wrong. In the twentieth century specialized areas dialogue, through the interchange of ideas. and especially
grew up around the application of moral thinking to specific through responses to criticism. It's in trying to meet and
areas of human activity-for example medical ethics, overcome the objections of other philosophers that much
business ethics, and environmental ethics. important development occurs. Thus lists of those who
influenced and who were influenced by each philosopher
THIS BOOK have betn included.
It should now be clear that philosophy (like the sciences) is There are many philosophers-especially in the modern
a process, not a product-a way of thinking and arguing period-who are as deserving of entry as the 100 listed
about a certain kind of subject matter, not a set of beliefs. here-and if this book had been longer, or written by
Strictly speaking, in fact. there's no such thing as a another philosopher, or at a different time, it would have
philosophical belief, because what counts isn't where you included some or all of the following: Protagoras of Abdera,
get to but how you get there; the key is to have good Strato of lampsacus. Philo, Abraham ben David Hallevi ibn
reasons for your belie~ in the form of arguments for your Daud, Madhva, levi ben Gershom, Julien Offroy de la
position and defenses against criticisms. Someone might Mettrie, Sir William Hamilton, Auguste Comte, Herbert
hold that nothing exists apart from matter and its Spencer, Henry Sidgwick, Ernst Mach, Alexius von Meinong,
arrangements. This may be because she's thought about it, Henri Bergson, Pierre Duhem, Alfred North Whitehead,
examined the arguments for and against, and come down John McTaggart,
(albeit with an open mind) on one side of the debate. She Nishida Kitaro,
may subscribe to a particular belief because that's what Moritz Schlick,
she's been told, or it's what all her friends think, or it's what Otto Neurath,
sounds intellectual and daring in the cafeteria. Only the L Susan Stebbing,
first case counts as philosophy. C. D. Broad, Gilbert
This imposes a number of constraints on what follows. Ryle, J. L Austin,
Most importantly, there have been many people throughout J. L Mackie, Philippa
history who have produced important systems of beliefs. Foot. J. J. C. Smart,
Many are often referred to as philosophers, but they David Armstrong,
haven't let us know the reasoning that got them to their Bernard Williams,
condusions-Gautama Buddha and Jesus, for example, fall Ronald Dworkin,
more or less into that category. This book generally covers Kwame Gyekye, Alvin
thinkers who pass on not only their conclusions but their Piantinga, John
reasoning, too. Occasionally exceptions have been made for Searle, Robert Nozick,
thinkers whose arguments have been lost, but who have had John McDowell, and
a significant effect on the philosophical tradition, or those Kwame Anthony Appiah.
who haven't presented their reasoning but whose followers
have been prompted to supply relevant arguments and
counterarguments. This explains the inclusion ofThales of Philosophy IS a way of thinkIng. It IS
~rnni with h(lving 900<1 I\"(lsons
Miktos and lao-zi, for example. for )'Our bcli~ f5 ond not (looUI th~
~lid5 th{'m5~lves,
The origins of philosophy are hard to
pinpoint; its development was gradual,
a slow change in the way that people
thought. Things are complicated by
the fact that there are different ways
of defining philosophy, of
distinguishing it from non-philosophy.
We might look for the record of a
certain way of arguing, but then we'd
have to omit thinkers who clearly did
think in such ways, but who omitted
to write anything except their
conclusions. We'd also have to omit
writers whose works have formed the

, l.
625 B.C.E,
55' B,C.E, ,1 ,
5lO B.C.E.
subject matter for generations of
philosophical thinkers. I
•
Tha~ of Miletos, for example, left no writings, but
is a significant figure because of the way that he -
•

thought, and the sorts of explanation that he

thought wert satisfactory. K'ung tu-zi, on the other
hand, left us the Analects. but we do not know the
structure of his thought, or the sorts of argument ,
J

that he used to reach and defend his views. What •

makes him significant are the views themselves, and ;
t
the way that fu ture generations of th in k e~ ,• •
•
ph ilosophized abou t what he said. f t
•
 11

1125 B.C.E. Zhau dynasty in China

776 S.C.E. First Olympiad in GItt«'

508 B.C.E. Democratic constitution in Athe~

490 S.C.E. Battle of Marathon

ANCIENT

B.C.E. C.E.
480 B.C.E. The Buddha dies. Batlil'S of Thermopyl<e; and Salamis

461 S.C.E. Accession of Pericles in Athens

447 S.C.E. Parthenon begun

431 B.C.E. Outbreak of Peloponnesian War

404 S.C.E. Athens surrenders to Sparta

403 S.C.E. Slart of Period of Warring States in China

338 B.C.E. Philip II of Macedon defeats Gr{'('k City-states

428 B.C.E.
336 B.C.E. Philip II <lSSJssinated; accession of Alexander the Great

334 B.C.E. Alexander invades Persia

332 S.C.E. Alexander occupies Egypt

326 B.C.E.
470 B.U. Alexander conquers the Punjab

• -.
323 S.C.E. Alexander dies; breakup of his emplft

322 S.C.E. Demosthenes dlt'S

I
321 S.C.E. Maurya dynasty unifies northern India

- 275 aC.E. Rome dominate<> all of Italy

•
27] a.C.E • ACttS5ion of Asoka in India

•
 12 ANCIENT

221 B.C.E. Oin dyn;!~ty in China

EAST AND WEST
The tradition'i of ~ast and Wrst differ in other ways
213 B.C.E. Purgc of non-Legalis, Chinl~' phllo'>Ophy by
[mperor 5hi HI lngdi too. Just as it is a fair generalization to 53y that the
Chinese were uninterested in science but made
212 S.C.E. Arc mcdt-s dies
great technological advances. so we can say that
206 8.C.E. [arlin Har dynJ~ty in Cnina they were largely uninterested in abstract
philosophical thought as it is understood in the
160 B.C.E. Ju(1; .. M; Jb. J~ die..
West, preferring practical matters of politics and

73 B.LE. ThIrd slave r('volt, undl'r Spartacus ethics. One of the main things that distinguishes
Thalt3 from the Babylonians and Egyptians is his
55-54 B.C.E. Julius Cat....lr's two t')(peditions to Britain interest in astronomy and math for their own
sakes, not for the purely practical purposes of
49 B.C.E. C<Jcsaf t'f())\C~ the Rubicon
calendar reform or ziggurat and pyramid building.
44 B.C.E. Cat"S<lr a~sa~5inatt:d The defining feature of Western philosophy was set

42 B.CE.
/
6 S.C.E. Birth of ksus {?)

9 CE. Xin dynasty in China

17 C.E. Ivy dies

18 C.E.
•

25 LE. later H;m dyn)stv n eh-

29 C.E. 371 BoC.Eo 334 BoC.Eo

43 CE. Rom;m u)V,Jsion of Bril;Jin
during this period: the search for truth through
questioning and argument. The defining feature of
60 LE. Revolt of Boudi(,GI (Bo'H.lil'r~l
Eastern thought was also set: the search for the
79 CE. D~ furti In 0 Phmpc:ii md Htrculaneu 11 best way to live (individually and socially). When
we talk about philosophy in these different
122 C.L H; .Iri 1n'5 W; b'!~un
traditions, then, we're using rather different

220 C.E. H; , 1yn Iy {' ld ; Prfl:xl of Disur on b 1Ul,> definitions of the word-or, at least, emphasizing
very different aspects of the concept
J06 C.E. tOI '31 Ii 1\' h UrC,11 proclaimeo c. ,ptrc

Of ('ourse it's always possible to describe things so

320 C.E. Gupt,J dynasty unitt'S Intll
as to bring them closer together (or to move them
o
410 C.E. S.Jrk of Roml' by Alarl\' lnr GOlh further apart). For example, we might point out
 Alexander Ih~ Grwt II pupil of Afl}/orlt, hod (I
d"l'C1 mf/utn~ on tht d~~lopmtnt of Wts t",rn
philosophy; ht brooqhl the ktJQ~n world, from
Itoly to nOI/1I AfliN), under his odmmlstruU~
pow",r orld mod", G~k II UnI"f''''o/ Ianguogt.

that the pre-Socratic Grttks' interest in cosmology

wasn't completely removed from the Chinese
interest in ethics (the Greek word ~kosm05· could
also be used to mean "good order: which had
ethical connotations), and the Greek interest in
abstract reasoning was in addition to their interest
in solving practical problems in science. ethics.
politics, and so on. Moreover. we can find many
parallels between the thoughts that the
philosophers in each tradition developed and the
attitudes that they expressed about human beings,

1/ I
341 S.C.E. 280 S.CE. 150 CE. 354 C.E.
society, the world, and the role of philosophy-as most important are the Milesians, the

for example, the notions of doo and logos, or the Pythagoreans, the Eleatics. and the

willingness to question ordinary, common-sense Atomists. But it's Plato and Aristotle who form

beliefs. It's possible, though, to be misled by surface the center and the main focus of interest in

similarities. and to take two conce!pts or doctrines ancient philosophy; that's not only because we

to be alike when they're simply e!qually obscure. have large bodies of accessible work from them
both, rather than the scattered fragments of

SOCRATES most of their prede<'essors. but because they're

Socrates is the turning point in ancient philosophy, formidable philosophers who between them set

and thOSe! philosophers who Jived before him are the philosophical agenda for the next two

known collectively as the pre-Socratics. They millennia, in terms both of methodology and of

divide into a number of schools. of which the! topics of interest

14 ANCIENT

-
THALES OF M ILETOS

BORN c.625 B.LE., Milet os DIED c.545 B.C.E.

MAIN INTERESTS Science, cosmology

INflUENCES Egyptian geometry, Meso potami an ast ronomy

INflUENCED Pythagoras; science and philosophy

Jhe elements of earth, air, Thales came from the Greek colony of
Miletos on the western coast of Asia Minor,
In a nutshell:
fire, and water weren't The world con be ~xplained without
and is generally considered to have been the
what we'd mean by those
first genuine scientist, in that he developed appealing to gods of the gaps.
terms; ruther, they a rational, nonsuperstitious account of the
represented ~ of natural world. l ittle is known for sure about
his life; the only definite date we have is 585
subston~. Morrover; the
B.C.E., because he's said to have successfully
types of substan(t" predicted an eclipse on May 28 of that year. that lasted for two thousand years, until the
represented by roch t~m Copernican revolution: the Earth is at the
would ohen tit surprising Thales is supposed to have been a merchant center of the universe, the Sun. Moon. and
who traveled widely and encountered many stars being arranged in circles around it. He
to modem rrodrn-for
other cultures and ideas, which he took back devdoped a theory of evolution. according
exampk, ·wate"- included to Greece. In particular, he's supposed to to which living things arose from elemental
metals (presumably have introduced geometry to the Greeks, and water acted upon by the Sun, then higher
to have been the first to prove that a circle animals from the lower (human beings
because they con mell).
is bisected by its diameter. His cosmology, evolving from fish). He held that the world
which was probably influenced by Egyptian must originate from some substance (the
and Babylonian creation myths, held that Boundless) that underlay the four elements.
the Earth is a cylinder or disc, with water
below and above it-it floats on the former Anaximenes (c.550-475 B.C.E.), on t he other
and is rained upon by the latter. Water, hand, held that air (or mist) was the
moreover, is the basic principle or primordial element. In the case of each
constituent of the universe. thinker, what's important is not the theory
itself (though they're not as crude as they
We know little else for certain about his might seem), but the general approach.
beliefs; none of his writings survive, so that Though the Egyptians and Babylonians held
all we have are various legends and an that water is the primordial element. they
account in Aristotle's Metaphysics, written appealed to divine action to explain the
some two hundred years after his death. He creation and nature of the world; the
may have held some version of panpsychism. Milesians, on the other hand, offered
naturalistic explanations. For example, Thales
Thal5 was the first of an important line of explained earthquakes, not by appealing to
Milesian thinkers. These included the actions of some sea god. but by
Anaximander (c.611-547 S.C.E.), who is suggesting the occurrence of tremors in the
credited with introducing a basic cosmology water upon which the Earth floats.
 700 ,.c.E. -400 C.E. 15

PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS
BORN c.S70 B.C. E., Samos DIED C.SOO a.c.E., Metapontum

INTERESTS Mathematics, scie nce

Thalts. Anaxirnander. Ana xi menes

Heraclitus. Parmenides, Socrates. Plato. Ari stotl e

The fact that the Earth is Pythagoras was born on Samos, but fled the on explaining the world mathematically.
roughly spherical, nat island to escape the reign of its tyrant. This set the cou rse for science in general.
Polycrates, and settled in the Greek colony and influenced a succession of later
flat. has betn known
of Croton in sou thern Italy. There he founded scientists and philosophers, most notably
sina: the time of a religious commun ity, which followed strict Plato and Galileo.
Pythagoras, and wos dietary rules (vegetarianism, plus ot her
taboos, including beans) and ot her forms of It must be admitted that the Pythagoreans
familiar to generations of
self-discipline. We know his teachings only often came up with pretty far-fe tched
philasophef5 and through his students, many of whom were accounts of numerical relationships, based
scientists. The idM that women, including his own wife (Theano of on mystical presuppositions rather than
people thought that the Ctotona) and daughters. He seems to have observation or logic. Some of Pyt hagoras'
taught that there is a cycle of reincarnation, later followers went even further. making
forth wos flat until
and that t hrough study and right living one actual numbers the building blocks out of
Columbus showed can reach a state where the soul escapes the which the Universe is built. On the credit
otherwise is now almost cycle and joins the world soul. side, they were the first to develop a
cosmology in which the Earth was a sphere
universally believed, and
In mathematics he probably discovered the like the Moon and other heavenly bodies, all
seems to der~ from a
proof of the theorem that bears his name of which orbited an invisible central hearth,
19th-<:t'ntury German (the fact had been known through Hes tia (unfortunately they made the Sun
novel about Columbus (a experience for centu ries); in ast ronomy he orbit Hestia too). Even here, though, their
is traditionally credited with discovering that number-mysticism interfered: because ten is
best seller in its day, but
Hesperus and Phosphorus (t he Evening Star the perfect number, there had to be ten
now forgotten). and the Morning Star) are the same thing bodies orbiting Hestia, so they invented a
(now known as t he planet Venus); and in Hcounter-Earth" to make up the numbers.
acoustics he established the mathematical The Pythagoreans, then, offered an uneasy
ratios that relate to the intervals of the mixture of groundbreaking thought, which
musical scale. establ ished a foundation for modern science.
and fuzzy mumbo-jumbo, establishing a
This last discovery is perhaps the most foundation for centuries of numerology and
important. for it led Pythagoras to the view other pseudo-sciences.
that the Universe as a whole could be
explained in mathematical terms. This was an
important step forward from the Milesians: In a nutshell:
instead of looking for some hypothetical The structure of the world must be
primal mattrt-whether fire or water or the understood through numbers.
Boundless-the Pythagoreans concentrated
16 ANCIENT

K UNG FU- ZI
I (CONFUCIUS)

BORN 551 '.C.E., Ch·ufu. Lu DIED 479 B.C.E" Lu

MAIN INTERESTS Ethics. politics

INflUENCES Unknown

INflUENCED who came after him

K'ung fu-zi (Confucius) was born illegitimate

MAJOR WORKS
in the small kingdom of lu (now Shandong
Note:
Ana/rets The suffix ~-zi" is on honorific. often
province). His father died when he was three,
leaving the family in poverty. He received an translated "Master," and "fu" means
excellent education, however, both from the ~greor or "venerable. 8

state and through private study, though he

had to go to work early to support his
mother. After his mother died, in 527 B.C.f.,
-Is there anyone word, • he turned the family home into a school. virtue and human sympathy at every level of
where he taught history, poetry, and Ii {the SOCiety. His political theory was paternalistic.
asked Tzu-Kung, ·which
rules of proper conduct}. Teaching made him streSSing the need for all members of society
could be adopted as a
very little money, so he was forced to to know their places,
and to fulfill their
lifelong rule of conduct?" supplement his income with various jobs. position in the social
(and domestic)
The Master ff!plied: "Is hierarchy to the best
of their abilities. He
When he first traveled in neighboring states, doesn't simply arguefor the maintenance of
not Sympathy the word?
he found himself unwelcome, probably the status quo, however; if rulers are unjust,
Do not do to others whot
because of his questioning and or in any other significant way fail to fulfill
you would not likr forthrigh t ness. After a brief period of study their proper role, the people have the right
yourself." in the capital, he returned to lu and to rebel against them.
continued teaching, as well as act ing as
Anakm xv. I()/ii adviser to various rulers. K'ung fu-zi himself K'ung fu~zi's naturalistic moral and political
never achieved high office, though some of teachings themselves have reached us
his followers did. There are a host of through the Analects (Lun- Yu)-a set of
If the ruler is virtuous, apocryphal stories, in which he undergoes a conversations, sayings, and events collected
variety of trials and tribulations on his by two of his followers. His teachings had a
thr people will olso Ix'
travels. What is certain is that he taught a huge effect on future Chinese thought. His
virtuous{..} number of students, who traveled around thinking has gone in and out of fashion, but
the country with him. it has never been neglected {though
An;olcds'
sometimes it's been harshly criticized, as in
living at a time when China was in a state the. People's Republic of China during the
of social and moral decline, K'ung fu-zi 1970s, after a period of e.qually vehement
taught the need to follow the dao (the way defense in the 1960s}. Its lowest point was
or path) of the ancients, emphasizing the probably in the fourth century B.C.E., when it
ancient cardinal virtues, claiming that the had so degenerated that K'ung fu-zi was
old social hierarchies reflected the moral worshipped as divine, and Confucianism was
order of the world, but stressing the need for declared the state religion of China.
 700 '.c.E.-400 c.E. 17

OVERVIEW
its greatest exponent was the third-century philosopher
CHINESE Han Fei-zi. legalism regarded human beings as
intrinsically evil, held in check only by a strict system of

PHILOSOPHY laws and punishments. The result is a political theory that

comes close to totalitarianism and had a great influence
on Chinese politics for centuries.
The history of Chinese philosophy is normally divided into
three eras: the classical. which lasted from about the VIRTUE VERSUS LAW
sixth to the second century B.C.E. (the last four centuries Put very simply, then, Confucianism and Mohism argue
of the Zhou dynasty), the medieval, which lasted until for rule by virtue (humanity and righteousness), legalism
the eleventh century C.E. (covfring the Oin and Han argues for rule by law and its enforcement, whereas
dynasties, the Six-Dynasties Period, the Sui and Tang Daoism is largely unconcerned with ruling, and
dynasties, the Five-Dynasty Period, and the beginning of sometimes even argues (or a withdrawal from society.
the Song dynasty), and the modern era, from then until
the present (covering the major part of the Song dynasty. Though, as is clear (rom thc above, Chinese philosophy
the Yuan. Ming. and Manchu dynasties, and modern mostly centered on social, moral, and political issues,
nondynastic China). there were many thinkers who grappled with other
concerns, including logiCians (Mohists in particular
The classical era was a time of turbulence, as the Zhou developed logic to a high level, though their work was
dynasty went through its long, slow. and often violent largely neglected by other philosophers), and
collapse; it saw the lives of K'ung fu-zi, Mo-zi, Meng-zi, metaphysicians (though this was always more than
Ha n Fei-zi, and, if he was a real person, lao-zi. The four slightly tinged with mystical and semi-religious
great systems of Chinese thought originated during this assumptions. as with the Pythagoreans of Ancient
period. K'ung fu-zi (or Confucius) gave us the moral and Greece).
political system, Confucianism, and nearly two hundred
years later, Meng-zi developed it further, spending his life Two lesser, though still interesting and important. schools
attempting to establish Confucianism at the heart of should also be mentioned here. The Yin-Yang school
Chinese government. Around the same time, the more offered a cosmology and philosophy of history founded
mystical (though still essentially naturalistic) system of upon the Five-Powers theory of the world, which
Daoism (or Taoism) appeared, attributed to the probably appealed to the five ~elements" or powers of water, fire,
mythical philosopher lao-zi (or lao-tzu); however, the wood, metal, and earth, together with the Yin-Yang
book that bears his name wasn't in fact written until approach developed in the classic Chinese text the Yi
about 300 B.C.E. This system was elaborated and Jing. The School of Names was centrally concerned with
established on a firmer footing by Zhuang-zi, whose language, but few of its writings have survived, and it
book of the same name offers a mixture of argument and has generally been neglected by other philosophers.
anecdote in defense of the Daoist position that what is
natural is best, and the less government the better (and The history of philosophy in China after the classical era
that presents K'ung fu-zi as if he'd been a Oaoist). Mo-zi is almost entirely one of consolidation and development
developed the notion that universal love and mutual of the great schools {especially Confucianism] and of
benefit was the only way to save society; he founded a foreign systems of thought, rather than of new, original
community on these Mohist lines, which became thinking. That is not to say that a great deal of
economically self-sufficient and militarily prepared to interesting and important work wasn't done-for
fight just wars. example, see the entries on the medieval philosopher
Wang Chong, and the modern philosophers Zhu Xi and
Finally, at the beginning of the fourth century B.C.E. a Wang fu - zi.
new system of thought arose, which rejected the
generally rosy view of human nature that in different
ways underlay the other schools; this was Legalism, and
18 ANC IEN T

LA 0 - ZI (LAO-TZU)
UVEO c.S70- 490 B.C.E. ? DIED Unknown

MAIN INTERESTS Eth ics, politics. meta ph ysics

•
-
-- INfLUENCES Unknown

INFLUENCED Everyone who came aft er him

l ike the Greek bard Homer, it is not clear

who Lao-zi (lao-tzul was, or even if he
In thei r own words:
existed. "lao-zin is a title, meaning "Old
Humans model themselves on Eorth.!
Master." which may have been given to any
Eorth on Heaven.! Heaven on the
one of a number of philosophers, or may Way,/ And the Way on that which is
simply stand for "whoever wrote the book naturally 50.
called Loo-zi." Even the time at which he
Dan De Jin9 §251
lived is uncertain, with different accounts
Though originally a placing him anywhere from the thirteenth to
philosophicol system, the fourth century B.C.E. The following is a
more likely account than most. humankind and the world. When that unity
Daoism had btrome a is in place, people live in simplicity and
religion by 440 C.E.; lao-zi was born to a farming family in harmony; when its unity is disrupted. the
wo-zi was trroted as a Henan around 570 B.C.E. He held the post of result is desire:, selfishness. and competition.
imperial historian of the State Archives at Morality and politics are called upon in the
divinity. and the Dooists
the court of Zhou. It was a time of political absence of the unity, but they only make
vied with the Buddhists
and social instability, and lao-zi resolved to things worse. The aim of the Oaoist is to
and Confucians for become: a hermit. He set out for the re turn to unity by rejecting social
favor at Court. mountains, but was stopped at the border. conventions, accepted morality, and worldly
The customs official allowed him to pass, on desires. So long as unity isn't achieved,
condition that he leave some record of his govcrnments will be formed. Governments
wisdom; l ao-zi wrote a short book, mounted should make it poSsible for people to live
his ox, and left China forever. The book their lives naturally, but not impose any code
became known as the Lao-zi, otherwise of conduct. Ideally, the philosopher, or sage,
called the DaD De Jing-the founding text of is so filled with the de (virtue, or power) of
Oaoism. [It seems actually to have been the daD that the people will recognize and
written some time in the third century B.C.E.) respond to it, making him their ruler.

The book is in two parts: the De Jing (the The Oaoist notion of the daD is not the
Book of Virtue), followed by the 000 ling Confucian dao; it's eternal, unchanging, both
[the Book of the Way). (The discovery of the transcendent and immanent, the source of
oldest surviving copy, the Silk Manuscript, in everything, yet uncreat ive and empty. This
1973, gave us thiS ordering.) The first deals union of opposites is an integral part of
with social, political. and moral matters, the Daoism. Unsurprisingly, it lent itself to
second with metaphysics. At the heart of mysticism, and became bound up with
Oaoism is a belief in the natural unity of alchemy, and the search for immortality.
 700 '.C.E.- 400 C.E. 19_

HERACLITUS OF EPHESOS
t.535 8.C.f.., Ephesos DIED Aftt' 480 B.C.E.

INTERESTS Metaphysics, cosmology

-'-___T
_h_t_ M_il_tsians. Pythagoras

D Parmtn ides, Socrates, Plato, Arist otle , l ena of Kiti on

Born in the Greek city of Ephesos. in what is change; either everything in the world, or
now Turkey, Heraclitus was considered by the the world as a whole (it isn't clear from what
Ancient Greeks to have been one of the most survives of his writings), is in a constant
important philosophers, ye t he's now a state of flux, or becoming, and this underlies
rather obscure figure. little is known of his the nature of everything. For that reason, he
life (ancient biographies being fanciful at look the element of fire to be the pr imordial
best), and though he wrote at least one substance, and held a view reminiscent of
book, On Nature, his writings reached us in the Pythagoreans, whereby the fire of
,<, a single, unifiro thing fragments preserved in the work of other virtuous human souls will become one with
there t'Xists in us both authors. From these fragments, a more-or- the cosmic fire.
less coherent reconstruction of his thought
life and death, waking
has been developed, though there's What balances the shifting nature of the
and s/ff'ping, youth and considerable disagreement over most of the world is the logos. like Daoism's notion of
old age, because the details. Contemporary accounts agree that the dao (with which it is sometimes,
his written style was obscure-some say misleadingly, equated), the notion of logos is
former things having
deliberately so, in order to restrict its complex and difficult to understand. The
changed are now the readership to the educated elite. It's normal translation would be "word,"
latter; and when those unsurprising, then, that with only the "speech: "thought: or "reason: depending
things change. they scattered remains to go on, his work is on the context, though in Heraclitus it plays
difficult to follow. more the role of universal, cosmic law or
become the former.
principle. The logos has the function of
Quoled ,n p~udo-Prufllrm, Heraclitus seems to have had little time for reconciling or unifying opposites, of creating
Con5oiaIM)n 10 A;lollo ordinary people. When asked to help produce and maintaining order. Though it permeates
a written constitution for Ephesos, he everything, the ordinary person has no
refused, on the grounds that the city was understanding of it. There's more than a hint,
too corrupt. Ordinary people lacked here and elsewhere in Heraclitus' thought. of
understanding, and he had no interest in Pl ato's doctrine of the Forms, and Plotin us'
them. He had a similar attitude toward other notion of the One.
philosophers, especially those from nearby
Miletos, against whose work he reacted. His
political views seem to have been Note:
authoritarian, with an emphasis on the law. In later thought. the notion of logos
would pass vio the Stoics to the
The most important part of Heraclit us' Christian use of the tenn to
thought, though, is his account of the nature ",fer to god.
of the world. At the heart of his system is
20 ANCIENT

PARM EN I DES OF ElEA

C.S10 l .e.E.

Metaphysics. epistemology

:--::;:";
Th:'.--U-U-",
-·-.-ns. Pyt hag 0 ras, He raclit us, Xcnop hanes

who came after him

MAJOR Parmenides' life is a little hazy. The yea r of

his bi rth is calculated from Plato's dialogues,
In a nutshell:
On The senses deceive us, but reason
and we don't know when he died. He came
from the Greek colony of Elea in southern reveals the truth.
Italy, which gave its name to the school of
which he was t he chief figure, the Eleatics.
He was involved in the drafting of the laws
of Elea, and every year the citizens had to
One of Pialo's most swear an oath to maintain what Parmenides can be certain that something exists.
had created. More of his writings survive Moreover, the nonexistent can't.be the
important dialogues
than of the other pre~Socratics: over a object of coherent thought, and any theory
about epistemology. the that refers to what doesn't exist must be
hundred lines of his philosophical poem On
Pormenides, is based on Nature and fragments of the rest. incoherent. Whatever exists can be
a metring Ix'twetn conceived, so whatever can't be conceived
In On Nature, Parmenides presents theories can't exist. Also (and this is what seems most
fbrmf'nid~, his student
derived from Pythagoras and Heraditus. peculiar to us), whatever can be conceived
lena, and Socrotrs, and However, his work is more recognizably must exist, for nothing can't exist.
Plato is unusually careful philosophical than that of his predecessors:
to make Fbrmenides his arguments are clearer, more rigorously One conclusion that he draws is the essential
deductive, and more abstract. Many of his unchangingness of the world; coming into
mort: than just a foil for
ideas have continued to shape philosophical being and passing away are both ruled out.
Socrates' wisdom. thoug ht up to modern times. Our empirical theories about the world can
be convincing and well constructed, and
Parmenides distinguishes between the world even useful in our everyday lives, but they
as it is in itself-necessary, unchanging, are unprovable so cannot constitute genuine
atemporal-and as it appears to us- knowledge. Sense e)(perience is essentially
contingent, constantly changing, temporal. related to change, to coming to be and
Unlike Kant's noumenal and phenomenal passing away, yet change is impossible-so
worlds, though, Parmenides argues that the sense e)(perience is essentially misleading.
world as it is, Reality, is unperceivable but Reason alone can lead us to the truth.
knowable (via the Way of Truth), whereas the
world as it appears is perceivable but For about a century, philosophy was molded
unintelligible (t he Way of Seeming). Some of by Parmenides. Some, such as Zeno of Elca ,
his arguments anticpate Descartes : we can't accepted his position, ot hers, such as
doubt that there is thinking, but thinking Empedodes of Acragus, rejected it, but no
must have an existing object-therefore we one could ignore it.
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