Crossing the x-axis

MOPSS
28 April 2025

Mathematics Olympiad
Problem Solving Sessions

MOPSS

Department of Mathematics
IISER Bhopal

https://jpsaha.github.io/MOTP/MOPSS/

Suggested readings
• Evan Chen’s advice On reading solutions, available at https://blog.
evanchen.cc/2017/03/06/on-reading-solutions/.
• Evan Chen’s Advice for writing proofs/Remarks on English, available at
https://web.evanchen.cc/handouts/english/english.pdf.
• Notes on proofs by Evan Chen from OTIS Excerpts [Che25, Chapter 1].
• Tips for writing up solutions by Edward Barbeau, available at https:
//www.math.utoronto.ca/barbeau/writingup.pdf.
• Evan Chen discusses why math olympiads are a valuable experience for
high schoolers in the post on Lessons from math olympiads, available at
https://blog.evanchen.cc/2018/01/05/lessons-from-math-olympiads/.
List of problems and examples
1.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Example (China TST 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

§1 Crossing the x-axis

Here are a few problems from this notes, and this one.

Example 1.1. Suppose P (x) is a polynomial with real coefficients such that
P (x) = x has no real solution. Show that P (P (x)) = x has no real solutions.

Solution 1. Since x 7→ P (x) defines a continuous map from R → R, by

the intermediate value theorem, it follows that P (x) > x holds for all x ∈ R
or P (x) < x holds for all x ∈ R. If P (x) > x holds for all x ∈ R, then
P (P (x)) > P (x) > x holds for all x ∈ R, and hence P (P (x)) = x has no real
solutions. Similarly, if P (x) < x holds for all x ∈ R, then P (P (x)) = x has no
real solutions. ■

Example 1.2. Any polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has a real
root.

Example 1.3. Let P (x) and Q(x) be monic polynomials of degree 10 having
real coefficients. Assume that the equation P (x) = Q(x) has no real roots.
Prove that the equation P (x + 1) = Q(x − 1) has at least one real root.

Solution 2. Note that P (x) − Q(x) is a polynomial of degree at most 9 having

real coefficients. Since P (x) − Q(x) has no real root, it follows that it has
degree at most 8. In other words, the coefficients of x9 in P (x), Q(x) are the
same. Note that P (x + 1) − Q(x − 1) is of degree ≤ 9, and the coefficient of x9
in P (x + 1) − Q(x − 1) is equal to the coefficient of x9 in (x + 1)10 − (x − 1)10 ,
which is equal to 20. This shows that P (x + 1) − Q(x − 1) is a polynomial of
degree 9 with real coefficients. Consequently, it has at least one real root. ■

Example 1.4. Let P (x) be a nonconstant polynomial with real coefficients

having a real root. Suppose it does not vanish at 0. Show that the monomial
terms appearing in P (x) can be erased one by one to obtain its constant term
such that the intermediate polynomial have at least one real root.

Solution 3. Write P (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 with an . . . , a0 lying in R, and

an a0 ̸= 0. Since any polynomial of odd degree has a real root, it follows that if

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1 Crossing the x-axis Typos may be reported to [email protected].

the degree of P (x) is odd, then the nonconstant monomials, other than the
leading term, can be erased one by one, and then, the leading term can be
erased to obtain a0 , and the intermediate polynomials have a real root. If an , a0
are of opposite signs and n is even, then the same process can be followed, and
note that any of the intermediate polynomials takes values of opposite signs at
0 and at a large enough integer, and hence has a real root.
Let us assume that n is odd, and an , a0 are of the same sign. Let α denote
a real root of P (x). Let Q(x) denote the polynomial P (x) − an xn . Note that
Q(0) = a0 and Q(α) = −an αn . Since a0 is nonzero, it follows that α = ̸ 0, and
hence, Q(0), Q(α) are of opposite signs. This shows that Q(x) is a nonconstant
polynomial with real coefficients having a real root, and it does not vanish at
0. Since the degree of Q(x) is smaller than that of P (x), by induction, we are
done. ■

Example 1.5 (China TST 1995). Alice and Bob play a game with a polynomial
of degree at least 4:

x2n + □x2n−1 + □x2n−2 + · · · + □x + 1.

They take turns to fill the empty boxes. If the resulting polynomial has no real
root, Alice wins, otherwise, Bob wins. If Alice goes first, who has a winning
strategy?

Solution 4. Bob has a winning strategy, as described below.

Bob makes sure that at the end of each of his turns except the last one, the
number of even powers of x whose coefficients have been provided by some of
them is equal to the number of odd powers of x whose coefficients have been
provided by some of them. This can be done, for instance, if during a turn
of Bob, other than the last turn, Bob provides the coefficient of an odd (resp.
even) power of x if Alice has provided the coefficient of an even (resp. odd)
power of x in the preceeding turn.
Since n ≥ 2, it follows that Bob gets at least one turn. At the beginning of
the final turn of Bob, there are two powers of x whose coefficients are to be
determined, denote them by xi , xj , their coefficients by ci , cj respectively. Let
Q(x) denote the polynomial, obtained by the erasing the terms corresponding
to xi , xj from the polynomial that Bob had at the beginning of his final turn.
Note that
P (x) = Q(x) + ci xi + cj xj .
Note that at least of i, j is odd. Interchanging i, j if necessary, let us assume
that i is odd. We descrie the strategy that Bob follows in the two cases below.
Let us consider the case that j is even. Bob determines cj in such a way
that for any choice of ci , the completed polynomial P (x) is guaranteed to have
at least one real root. This can be done, for instance, by taking cj satisfying

Q(1) + Q(−1) + 2cj = 0.

Some style files, prepared by Evan Chen, have been adapted here. 3
28 April 2025 https://jpsaha.github.io/MOTP/

For any choice of ci , the above choice of cj shows that P (1) + P (−1) = 0, which
implies that P (x) has a root in the interval [−1, 1].
Let us consider the case that j is odd. Bob determines cj in such a way that
for any choice of ci by Alice in the next turn, the completed polynomial P (x)
is guaranteed to have at least one real root. This can be done, for instance, by
taking cj satisfying

Q(2) + cj 2j + 2i Q(−1) − cj 2i = 0.

Since i ̸= j, the above holds for some cj ∈ R. For any choice of ci , note that

P (2) + 2i P (−1) = 0

holds, which implies that P (x) has a root in [−1, 2]. ■

References
[Che25] Evan Chen. The OTIS Excerpts. Available at https : / / web .
evanchen.cc/excerpts.html. 2025, pp. vi+289

4 The content posted here and at this blog by Evan Chen are quite useful.