Section 4: Special Relativity

Formula 26: Lorentz Factor, γ = √ 1

1−u2 /c2

Formula 26: γ = √ 1
1−u2 /c2

1. Explanation
• The Lorentz factor γ measures how much time, length, and relativistic
mass change for an object moving at speed u relative to an observer.
• As u → c (speed of light), γ → ∞, meaning time dilation and length contrac-
tion become extreme.
• At everyday speeds (u ≪ c), γ ≈ 1, so relativistic effects are negligible.

2. Symbols
• γ: Lorentz factor (dimensionless)
• u: Relative speed of moving object (m/s)
• c: Speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)

3. When to use
• When calculating relativistic time dilation, length contraction, or relativis-
tic momentum/energy.
• Fundamental in special relativity problems involving high speeds.

4. When it may not be used

• Not necessary for low-speed classical mechanics (u ≪ c)
• Only applies in inertial frames (non-accelerating frames)

5. Example
Question: A spaceship travels at speed u = 0.8c relative to Earth. Calculate the
Lorentz factor γ.
Solution:

1 1 1 1 1
γ=√ =√ =√ =√ = ≈ 1.667
1 − u /c
2 2 1 − (0.8c) /c
2 2 1 − 0.64 0.36 0.6

Answer:

γ ≈ 1.667

Interpretation: At 0.8c, time on the spaceship runs slower by a factor of 1̃.667

compared to Earth.

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Formula 27: Time Dilation
Formula 27: ∆t = γ∆t0
1. Explanation
• This formula describes time dilation in special relativity.
• ∆t0 is the proper time (time interval measured by a clock moving with the
object).
• ∆t is the dilated time (time interval measured by a stationary observer relative
to the moving object).
• Moving clocks run slower from the perspective of a stationary observer.

2. Symbols
• ∆t: Time interval measured by stationary observer (s)
• ∆t0 : Proper time (time interval in moving frame, s)
√
• γ: Lorentz factor, γ = 1/ 1 − u2 /c2
• u: Speed of moving object (m/s)
• c: Speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)

3. When to use
• When an observer measures a moving clock and wants to find how much time
has passed compared to the clocks rest frame.
• Important in high-speed particle physics, space travel, and relativistic clocks.

4. When it may not be used

• Not needed for slow-moving objects (u ≪ c)
• Only valid for inertial frames (no acceleration)

5. Example
Question: A spaceship travels at u = 0.9c. A mission on the ship lasts ∆t0 = 2 hours
according to the ships clocks. How long does the mission appear to take from Earth?
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate Lorentz factor

1 1 1
γ=√ =√ =√ ≈ 2.294
1 − u2 /c2 1 − (0.9)2 0.19

Step 2: Apply time dilation

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 ∆t = γ∆t0 = 2.294 · 2 ≈ 4.588 hours

Answer:

∆t ≈ 4.59 hours

Interpretation: Earth observers see the mission take longer than the time measured
on the ship.

Formula 28: Length Contraction

Formula 28: l = l0 /γ
1. Explanation
• This formula describes length contraction in special relativity.
• l0 is the proper length (length measured in the objects rest frame).
• l is the contracted length observed by someone moving relative to the object.
• Moving objects appear shorter along the direction of motion from the station-
ary observers point of view.

2. Symbols
• l: Length measured by stationary observer (m)
• l0 : Proper length (length in rest frame, m)
√
• γ: Lorentz factor, γ = 1/ 1 − u2 /c2
• u: Relative speed of object (m/s)
• c: Speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)

3. When to use
• When an observer measures the length of a moving object along the direction
of motion.
• Important in relativistic travel, particle accelerators, and high-speed ob-
jects.

4. When it may not be used

• Not applicable for speeds much less than c (classical physics applies)
• Only affects length along motion; perpendicular dimensions are unchanged

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5. Example
Question: A spaceship has proper length l0 = 100 m. It travels past Earth at u = 0.8c.
What length is measured by an Earth observer?
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate Lorentz factor

1 1 1
γ=√ =√ =√ = 1.667
1 − u2 /c2 1 − 0.82 0.36

Step 2: Apply length contraction

l0 100
l= = ≈ 60.0 m
γ 1.667

Answer:

l ≈ 60 m

Interpretation: Earth observers see the spaceship contracted along the direction
of motion to 6̃0 m.

Formulas 2932: Lorentz Transformations

These relate space and time coordinates between two inertial frames moving at rela-
tive speed u.

Formula 29: ∆x′ = γ(∆x − u∆t)

1. Explanation
• Transforms the x-coordinate difference (∆x) from the stationary frame (S)
to the moving frame (S).
• Accounts for relativity of simultaneity: distances measured in moving frames
are affected by time differences.

2. Symbols
• ∆x′ : Distance in moving frame S (m)
• ∆x: Distance in stationary frame S (m)
• u: Relative speed of S w.r.t. S (m/s)
• ∆t: Time interval in S (s)
• γ: Lorentz factor

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Formula 30: ∆y ′ = ∆y
• Perpendicular dimensions to motion are unchanged.

Formula 31: ∆z ′ = ∆z
• Same for the z-axis (perpendicular to motion).

Formula 32: ∆t′ = γ(∆t − u∆x/c2 )

1. Explanation
• Transforms time interval between events from S to moving frame S.
• Shows time is relative: two events simultaneous in one frame may not be si-
multaneous in another.

2. Symbols
• ∆t′ : Time interval in moving frame S (s)
• ∆t: Time interval in stationary frame S (s)
• ∆x: Spatial separation in S (m)
• u: Relative speed (m/s)
• c: Speed of light (m/s)
• γ: Lorentz factor

3. When to use
• Converting space-time coordinates between two inertial frames.
• Problems involving relativistic motion, simultaneity, and events measured differ-
ently in different frames.

4. When it may not be used

• Not valid in accelerating frames
• Not necessary at low speeds (u ≪ c), classical Galilean transformations suffice

5. Example
Question: Two events occur 10 m apart along the x-axis in frame S, with a time
difference ∆t = 2 × 10−8 s. Frame S moves at u = 0.6c relative to S along x. Find ∆x′
and ∆t′ in S.
Solution:
Step 1: Lorentz factor

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 1 1
γ=√ =√ = 1.25
1 − u /c
2 2 1 − 0.36

Step 2: Transform x

∆x′ = γ(∆x − u∆t)

( )
∆x′ = 1.25 10 − 0.6 · 3 × 108 · 2 × 10−8

u∆t = 0.6 · 3 × 108 · 2 × 10−8 = 3.6 m

∆x′ = 1.25(10 − 3.6) = 1.25 · 6.4 = 8.0 m

Step 3: Transform t

∆t′ = γ(∆t − u∆x/c2 )

u∆x/c2 = 0.6 · 3 × 108 · 10/(9 × 1016 ) = 2 × 10−8 s

∆t′ = 1.25(2 × 10−8 − 2 × 10−8 ) = 0

Answer:

∆x′ = 8.0 m, ∆t′ = 0 s

Interpretation: In the moving frame, the events are simultaneous (∆t′ = 0) and
closer together along x (length contraction effect).

Formulas 3336: Inverse Lorentz Transformations

These allow you to convert coordinates from the moving frame S back to the
stationary frame S.

Formula 33: ∆x = γ(∆x′ + u∆t′ )

• Converts x-coordinate differences from S to S.
• Essentially the inverse of Formula 29.

Formula 34: ∆y = ∆y ′
• Perpendicular dimensions remain unchanged.

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Formula 35: ∆z = ∆z ′
• Same for the z-axis.

Formula 36: ∆t = γ(∆t′ + u∆x′ /c2 )

• Converts time intervals from moving frame S to stationary frame S.
• Shows how a time interval in a moving frame is observed differently in the
stationary frame.

1. Symbols
• ∆x, ∆t: Position and time in stationary frame S
• ∆x′ , ∆t′ : Position and time in moving frame S
• u: Relative speed (m/s)
• c: Speed of light (m/s)
• γ: Lorentz factor

2. When to use
• When you know events in S and want to find coordinates in S.
• Important in relativistic motion problems involving multiple observers.

3. When it may not be used

• Not valid for accelerating frames
• Unnecessary at low speeds (u ≪ c)

4. Example
Question: In moving frame S, two events occur 5 m apart (∆x′ = 5 m) and simul-
taneously (∆t′ = 0). Frame S moves at u = 0.6c relative to S. Find ∆x and ∆t in
S.
Solution:
Step 1: Lorentz factor

1 1
γ=√ =√ = 1.25
1 − u /c
2 2 1 − 0.36

Step 2: Transform x

∆x = γ(∆x′ + u∆t′ ) = 1.25(5 + 0) = 6.25 m

Step 3: Transform t

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 ∆t = γ(∆t′ + u∆x′ /c2 ) = 1.25(0 + 0.6 · 3 × 108 · 5/9 × 1016 )

u∆x′ /c2 = 0.6 · 3 × 108 · 5/9 × 1016 = 1.0 × 10−8 s

∆t = 1.25 · 1.0 × 10−8 = 1.25 × 10−8 s

Answer:

∆x = 6.25 m, ∆t ≈ 1.25 × 10−8 s

Interpretation: Events no longer simultaneous in S, and the spatial separation is

longer due to relative motion.

Formulas 3738: Relativistic Velocity Transformations

These show how velocities change between inertial frames moving at relativistic
speeds.

vx −u
Formula 37: vx′ = 1−uvx /c2
1. Explanation
• Gives the velocity vx′ of an object along the x-axis in the moving frame S.
• Ensures no velocity exceeds c, unlike classical addition.
• Important in relativistic particle motion.

vx′ +u
Formula 38: vx = 1+uvx′ /c2
• Converts the velocity back to the stationary frame S.
• Inverse of Formula 37.

2. Symbols
• vx : Velocity along x in stationary frame S (m/s)
• vx′ : Velocity along x in moving frame S (m/s)
• u: Relative speed between frames (m/s)
• c: Speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)

3. When to use
• When observing velocities of objects in different frames at relativistic speeds.
• Important in particle physics, rockets, and high-speed motion.

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4. When it may not be used
• Not needed at low speeds (u ≪ c)
• Only applies along the direction of relative motion

5. Example
Question: A spaceship moves at u = 0.7c relative to Earth. A probe inside the ship
moves forward at vx′ = 0.5c relative to the ship. Find the probes speed relative to
Earth.
Solution:

vx′ + u 0.5c + 0.7c

vx = =
′
1 + uvx /c 2 1 + (0.7 · 0.5)

Step 1: Numerator

0.5c + 0.7c = 1.2c

Step 2: Denominator

1 + 0.7 · 0.5 = 1 + 0.35 = 1.35

Step 3: Divide

1.2c
vx = ≈ 0.889c
1.35
Answer:

vx ≈ 0.889c

Interpretation: Even though velocities add, the resulting speed is still less than c.

Formulas 3942: Relativistic Momentum and Energy

Formula 39: p⃗ = √ m⃗v
= γm⃗v
1−v 2 /c2

1. Explanation
• This is the relativistic momentum of a particle.
• At low speeds (v ≪ c), it reduces to the classical p = mv.
• As v → c, momentum increases without bound, reflecting that no mass can
reach light speed.

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2. Symbols
• p⃗: Momentum vector (kgům/s)
• m: Rest mass of the particle (kg)
• ⃗v : Velocity vector (m/s)
• v = |⃗v |
√
• γ = 1/ 1 − v 2 /c2

Formula 40: E = γmc2

• Total energy of a particle, including rest energy and kinetic energy.

Formula 41: K = (γ − 1)mc2

• Relativistic kinetic energy.
• At low speeds, reduces to classical K = 12 mv 2 .

Formula 42: E 2 = (mc2 )2 + (pc)2

• Relates total energy, rest mass, and momentum.
• Useful for particles moving at high speeds, including massless particles like
photons (then m = 0 ⇒ E = pc).

3. When to use
• When calculating momentum, energy, or kinetic energy for relativistic par-
ticles.
• Important in particle accelerators, astrophysics, and high-speed travel.

4. When it may not be used

• At low speeds, classical formulas p = mv and K = 12 mv 2 are sufficient.
• Only valid in inertial frames.

5. Example
Question: An electron (m = 9.11 × 10−31 kg) moves at v = 0.8c. Find its relativistic
momentum and kinetic energy.
Solution:
Step 1: Lorentz factor

1 1 1
γ=√ =√ = ≈ 1.667
1 − v 2 /c2 1 − 0.64 0.6

Step 2: Relativistic momentum

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 p = γmv = 1.667 · 9.11 × 10−31 · 0.8 · 3 × 108

p ≈ 3.65 × 10−22 kgům/s

Step 3: Relativistic kinetic energy

K = (γ − 1)mc2 = (1.667 − 1) · 9.11 × 10−31 · (3 × 108 )2

K = 0.667 · 9.11 × 10−31 · 9 × 1016 ≈ 5.47 × 10−14 J

Answer:

p ≈ 3.65 × 10−22 kgům/s, K ≈ 5.47 × 10−14 J

Interpretation: At 0.8c, the electrons momentum and kinetic energy are much
higher than classical predictions.

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