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 A Research-Based Approach to College Student Success

Laurie A. Schreiner, Michelle C. Louis,

and Denise D. Nelson, Editors
Cite as:
Schreiner, L. A., Louis, M. C., & Nelson, D. D. (Eds.). (2012). Thriving in transi-
tions: A research-based approach to college student success. Columbia, SC: University
of South Carolina, National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and
Students in Transition.
Copyright © 2012 University of South Carolina. All rights reserved. No part of this
work may be reproduced or copied in any form, by any means, without written per-
mission of the University of South Carolina.
The First-Year Experience® is a service mark of the University of South Carolina. A
license may be granted upon written request to use the term “The First-Year Experi-
ence.” This license is not transferable without written approval of the University of
South Carolina.
Production Staff for the National Resource Center:
Project Manager Dottie Weigel, Editor
Design and Production Elizabeth Howell

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Thriving in transitions : a research-based approach to college student
success / Laurie A. Schreiner, Michelle C. Louis, and Denise D. Nelson,
editors.
p. cm.
Includes index.
Identifiers: ISBN 9781942072195 (Ebrary) | ISBN 9781942072201 (Epub)
| ISBN 9781889271835 (alk. paper)
1. College freshmen--United States. 2. Transfer students--United
States. 3. Student adjustment--United States. I. Schreiner, Laurie A.
II. Louis, Michelle C. III. Nelson, Denise D.
LB2343.32.T47 2012
378.1’980973--dc23
2012010294
Contents
List of Tables...............................................................................................v

Preface..........................................................................................................vii
Laurie A. Schreiner, Michelle C. Louis, and Denise D. Nelson

Introduction..............................................................................................xi
A New View of Student Success
Jillian Kinzie

Chapter 1.......................................................................................................1
From Surviving to Thriving During Transitions
Laurie A. Schreiner

Chapter 2.....................................................................................................19
Helping Students Thrive: A Strengths Development Model
Michelle C. Louis and Laurie A. Schreiner

Chapter 3.....................................................................................................41
Thriving in the First College Year
Denise D. Nelson and Deb Vetter

Chapter 4.....................................................................................................65
Thriving in Students of Color on Predominantly White
Campuses: A Divergent Path?
Kristin Paredes-Collins

Chapter 5.....................................................................................................87
Thriving in High-Risk Students
Rishi Sriram and Deb Vetter

iii
Chapter 6...................................................................................................111
Beyond Sophomore Survival
Laurie A. Schreiner, Sharyn Slavin Miller, Tamera L. Pullins,
and Troy L. Seppelt

Chapter 7...................................................................................................137
Transfer Students: Thriving in a New Institution
Eric J. McIntosh and Denise D. Nelson

Chapter 8...................................................................................................167
Thriving in the Senior-Year Transition
Michelle C. Louis and Eileen Hulme

Chapter 9...................................................................................................191
Recommendations for Facilitating Thriving in Transitions
Laurie A. Schreiner, Denise D. Nelson, and Michelle C. Louis

Index.............................................................................................................199

About the Authors................................................................................213

List of Tables
Table 3.1 Characteristics of the First-Year Student Sample.................... 47
Table 3.2 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Variables
Predicting Five Thriving Factors and Overall Thriving......... 49
Table 5.1 Characteristics of the High-Risk, First-Year
Student Sample....................................................................... 98
Table 5.2 Multivariate Analysis of Covariance of Posttest
Academic Effort as a Function of Academic Discipline,
Academic Self-Confidence, and Commitment to College... 101
Table 5.3 Multivariate Analysis of Covariance of Posttest Academic
Effort as a Function of General Determination, Goal
Striving, and Study Skills...................................................... 102
Table 5.4 Adjusted Posttest Mean Scores and Standard Errors as a
Function of Treatment Condition................................................103
Table 6.1 Institutional Characteristics of the Sophomore Sample....... 116
Table 6.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Sophomore
Study Participants................................................................ 118
Table 6.3 Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses
for Variables Predicting Thriving in Sophomores................. 119
Table 7.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Transfer
Study Participants ................................................................142
Table 7.2 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for
Variables Predicting Outcomes of Thriving in
Transfer Students................................................................. 145

v
Table 7.3 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for
Variables Predicting Outcomes of Thriving in
Nontransfer Students........................................................... 147
Table 7.4 Results of Independent t-Test Comparison Between
Transfer and Nontransfer Students ..................................... 149

vi
 Preface
Laurie A. Schreiner, Michelle C. Louis, and Denise D. Nelson

Higher education is at a critical juncture. Faced with unprecedented

economic hardships, increased demands for accountability, and challenges
from students, families, and the public to demonstrate the value of a college
education, we must find new ways of helping students succeed not only in
college, but in life. The tremendous strides that have been made in access
to college have not translated to equivalent rates of success, as fewer than half
of college students who begin a bachelor’s degree ever complete one in their
lifetime (Aud et al., 2010). Disparities in graduation rates, academic success,
and psychological well-being across ethnic groups on campus (Hennessy, 2010)
underscore that our traditional approaches to helping students succeed are not
working—at least not for all students.
Even traditional perspectives that encapsulate student success in strong
grades and degree attainment are open to question, as researchers are beginning
to realize that the college experience includes more than the classroom and
commencement (Kuh, Kinzie, Shuh, Whitt, & Associates, 2005). Engaging
fully in that experience and benefiting most meaningfully from a college
education involves potentially life-changing decisions, relationships, emotional
reactions, social interactions, and psychological responses that transcend the
behaviors we measure as GPA and graduation rates.
The construct of thriving as an expanded vision of student success pro-
vides a framework for conceptualizing new ways of helping students reap the
full benefits of higher education. The very word thriving implies that success
involves more than surviving a four-year academic obstacle course. Students
who thrive are vitally engaged in the college endeavor—intellectually, socially,
and emotionally. They experience what Tagg (2003) calls deep learning; they
are investing effort within the classroom and managing their lives well beyond
it. Thriving students are also goal oriented, applying their strengths to address

vii
viii | Preface

the academic challenges they face. When they are thriving, students are con-
nected to others in healthy and meaningful ways, and they desire to make
a difference in the world around them. They also see the world differently.
Equipped with a positive perspective on life, they are secure in the present
and confident of the future.
Thriving is not a personality trait. Because it is comprised of psychosocial
characteristics that are changeable within a person, interventions and envi-
ronmental situations can make a difference. Thriving students are those who
are able to experience life’s transitions as opportunities that lead to significant
personal growth. Yet, they rarely do so without support. Thriving students are
typically surrounded by others who are thriving, and are often embedded in
a community that provides them with a sense of belonging and competence.
The very nature of college demands the successful navigation of a series of
changes; thus, the focus of this book is on thriving in transitions.
The purpose of this book is to provide higher education faculty, staff,
and administrators with both a deeper understanding of the nature of the
transitions that students typically experience and a roadmap for helping them
thrive during those transitions and ultimately succeed in life. As a result, each
chapter outlines the research about students experiencing a specific type of
transition, offering empirical evidence for what contributes to thriving dur-
ing that period, and also includes practical suggestions for how educators can
assist students so they remain fully engaged during difficult times of change.
Because the concept of thriving is a departure from the behaviorally ori-
ented theories that populate the current student success literature, the book
opens with an introduction by Jillian Kinzie, who places the student success
theories in historical and theoretical context as a foundation for the exploration
of thriving. The first two chapters then provide the framework for the book. In
chapter 1, Schreiner describes the nature of successful transitions and outlines
how the construct of thriving was developed and measured, as well as how it
provides a helpful perspective for navigating transitions. In chapter 2, Louis and
Schreiner highlight strengths development as the vehicle for helping students
thrive in college. They include concrete descriptions of how integrating such
a perspective might inform advisors, educators in the classroom, and student
affairs professionals. As with each chapter in the book, the authors’ focus
is on practical strategies that can be implemented on a variety of campuses.
The remainder of the book highlights the successive transitions that students
experience while in college. A chapter on the first-year experience by Nelson
 Preface | ix

and Vetter delineates the hurdles students experience as they transition from
high school to college, as well as the structures that institutions could put into
place to support students during that transition. Paredes-Collins’ chapter on
students of color highlights the daily transitions that such students experience
as they navigate a predominantly White campus. Sriram and Vetter continue
the theme of continual transitions as they explore the experiences of high-risk
students and what helped them succeed.
Sophomores receive particular attention from Schreiner, Slavin Miller,
Pullins, and Seppelt in chapter 6, as the authors use the results of a national
study of thousands of sophomores as the basis for their recommendations on
how advising, student-faculty interaction, spirituality, and creating a sense of
community in the classroom can foster thriving in the sophomore year. Transfer
students and their ability to navigate a new institutional system are the focus
of quantitative research in chapter 7 by McIntosh and Nelson, followed by
Louis and Hulme’s chapter describing an extensive qualitative study of high-
achieving seniors who were followed into the year after graduation for insights
on how such students were able to thrive as they moved from college into life.
The book concludes with a chapter by the editors that synthesizes all the
recommendations from each chapter into a roadmap for educators. Recom-
mendations are grouped into three main areas: academic, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal thriving. The chapter ends with campuswide recommendations for
establishing a culture that is conducive to this holistic vision of student success.
Throughout the book, our purpose is to balance empirical evidence about
a wide variety of college-related transitions with practical suggestions for insti-
tutions as they help students address the challenges that accompany periods
of change. For educational access to translate to student success, the rigorous
inquiry described in this volume must be coupled with our best creative think-
ing to craft targeted solutions that equip all students to succeed. To that end,
perhaps the most important principle we offer is that colleges and universities
have both the power and the responsibility to help every student thrive.
x | Preface

References
Aud, S., Hussar, W., Planty, M., Snyder, T., Bianco, K., Fox, M., Frohlich, L. . .
Drake, L. (2010). The Condition of Education 2010 (NCES 2010-028).
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of
Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Hennessy, E. (2010). New data indicate educational attainment continues to flat-
line. Retrieved from the American Council on Education website: http://
www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/
HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=38696
Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., & Whitt, E. J., & Associates. (2005). Stu-
dent success in college: Creating conditions that matter. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Tagg, J. (2003). The learning paradigm college. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing.
 Introduction
A New View of Student Success
Jillian Kinzie

Over the last two decades, concern about lagging graduation rates in
postsecondary education has captured the attention of researchers and edu-
cational policy makers. In an effort to meet President Obama’s goal of having
the world’s best-educated adult population by 2020, the call to increase higher
education attainment rates has intensified (Bowen, Chingos, & McPherson,
2009; Nelson, 2010). However, despite increased access to higher education
from a broader segment of the U.S. population, baccalaureate degree completion
rates have remained below 60% for decades. Within community colleges, the
success rate is even lower, as the percentage of students who earn a certificate
or degree has hovered around 28% (ACT, 2010). Every year thousands of stu-
dents withdraw from postsecondary education without completing a degree or
certificate program. Moreover, according to the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) report, Education at a Glance 2010,
which compares the proportion of students who began postsecondary education
but did not complete a degree across 18 countries, the United States no longer
holds a position of leadership in degree production. It has experienced growth
in higher education participation rates, yet completion rates have not kept pace.
The OECD data, coupled with reports from influential higher education
organizations such as the Association of American Colleges and Universities
(AAC&U), make a strong statement that degree attainment rates are failing
to grow fast enough to meet or maintain international economic competitive-
ness. In addition, the learning outcomes of graduates are not meeting society’s
needs in basic academic areas or in workforce readiness (AACU, 2002, 2005).
These failings do not bode well, given that education beyond high school is
now considered essential to earn a middle-class income, and as an increasingly
diverse population with a wider range of academic preparation enters higher

xi
xii | Kinzie

education. Although the postsecondary system has widened opportunity to

numerous students from diverse backgrounds, this increased access has not
resulted in higher degree completion rates or a better-educated workforce.
Student success remains a vexing challenge in postsecondary education.
With graduation rates continuing to lag despite investments to increase
educational attainment, there is a need for fresh thinking about student success.
Why have graduation rates remained so stagnant for decades? Who are the
culprits of depressed success rates: underprepared or unmotivated students or
ineffective pedagogies and underperforming institutions? Is a success orienta-
tion something that could be encouraged in a student, or is this an unalterable
student trait? Are traditional models of success simply deficient in that they
neglect vital aspects of institutional practice, student attributes and behaviors,
or emotional or psychological phenomena? Will current models of student
success have any relevance for an increasingly diverse student population? Quite
simply, what is missing from the extant student success research? There is no
shortage of practical (and in some cases impractical) questions regarding the
rather persistent need to enhance student success.
The contemporary challenge of student success demands more theorizing,
advanced definitions, enriched models, and practical approaches and interven-
tions to help more students succeed. A tall order for sure, but one that can be
tackled given some fresh thinking in psychology, new perspectives on personal
well-being, and the development of novel tools to assess student success. These
fresh perspectives frame student success questions in more productive ways
by inviting expansive thinking about the factors that affect student success.
It is this evident need for an expanded understanding of student success and
the potential of new thinking that is the point of departure for this book.
In the chapters that follow, the authors provide a comprehensive introduc-
tion to the notion of thriving as a fresh, research-based approach to student
success. Conceptualized as optimal functioning in areas believed to contribute
to student success and persistence, the concept of thriving emanates from re-
search on psychological well-being and emphasizes the individual motivation
and psychological processes that lead to student success behaviors. Borrowing
from the field of positive psychology (Keyes & Haidt, 2003), with its emphasis
on what contributes to positive individual and community functioning, the
concept of thriving proposes to explain the difference between students who
flourish in college, those who make the most of campus opportunities and
fully invest in learning, compared to students who simply survive college by
 Introduction | xiii

meeting requirements with a minimal investment in learning (Schreiner, 2010).

The stark differences between students who thrive and those who merely
survive college are recognizable to most educators in colleges and universities.
No doubt, educators have wondered why students who seem to have similar
backgrounds and potential for success have qualitatively different experiences
at the same institution.
Thriving also draws from psychological models of student retention in
higher education. These models propose that personality traits, such as self-
efficacy and beliefs about locus of control, help students persevere when faced
with academic and social challenges and that their interaction with the insti-
tution influences the development of a set of attitudes about being a student.
These factors, as well as students’ sense of commitment to the institution,
result in persistence. The notion of thriving promises to explain the observable
differences in how students approach, experience, and persist in college and
suggests where theory can aid in the design of interventions to enable a greater
percentage of students to thrive in college. Ultimately, thriving promises to
make a novel contribution to the contemporary problem of student success.
In Piecing Together the Student Success Puzzle: Research, Propositions,
and Recommendations (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2007),
the psychological perspectives that bear on the topic of student success were
briefly introduced while extensive information about the practices that make
a difference in student learning and success were presented. The authors of
Thriving in Transitions add an important piece to the student success puzzle
by effectively elaborating the psychological models of student success and
demonstrating the power of measuring thriving. Even more, they describe
the utility of this information to develop a predictive model for estimating
student success and for designing practical educational interventions. Relying
on an extensive body of research from Laurie Schreiner’s Thriving Project
(see www.thrivingincollege.org), this volume fully explores the conceptual
foundations for thriving, presents empirical research on the predictors of thriv-
ing, and identifies approaches that help students thrive. The notion of thriv-
ing is explored in several chapters by examining its relationship to important
college transitions, such as the first college year, the sophomore experience,
and the transition during the senior year and beyond. The concept is also
explored specifically for underserved student populations, including students
of color on predominantly White campuses, transfer students, and high-risk
xiv | Kinzie

students. Each chapter contributes to the development of a more nuanced

understanding of thriving and offers practical educational interventions to
increase student success.
Before delving fully into the concept of thriving in chapters one through
eight, it is important to set the stage for this work and consider the foundational
principles of student success upon which the concept of thriving rests and
also builds. This opening chapter provides a broad introduction to the topic
of student success. It begins by describing the national stage that is the scene
for the current focus on student success and outlines some of the challenges
associated with this emphasis. The theoretical constructions for traditional
definitions of student success are then briefly discussed, and the frameworks
for alternative models of student success are reviewed to provide a context for
conceptualizing thriving as a new view of student success. The introductory
chapter closes with a discussion of the ways in which the concept of thriving
complements and extends existing research on student success and considers
where this new view may lead us, given current and future concerns in post-
secondary education.

Student Success as Degree Completion

The current national goal for a greater percentage of students to earn a
college degree is ambitious. The combination of presidential mandate, rising
concerns about college affordability, and stagnant graduation rates at the same
time a college education is deemed essential to earning places significant pres-
sure on administrators, educators, and policy makers to reduce the barriers
to student success.
The contemporary emphasis on increasing educational attainment rates
illustrates the most basic definition of student success: enabling students to
gain access to college and complete a certificate or degree. Increasing the rate
of college survival, or what institutions outside the United States often refer
to as throughput, is the basis of arguments that emphasize increasing access,
enrollment, and persistence (Bowen et al., 2009; Hauptman, 2007). In this
definition, student success is equated with graduation.
The roots of student success theories are thus anchored in models of
student persistence and graduation, as this definition of student success is
foundational to all subsequent definitions. The conceptual framework for
student success developed out of practical needs when campus administrators
in the 1970s were generally concerned about students who departed, and in the
 Introduction | xv

1980s when they realized that it was in their best interest to intensify efforts
to retain and graduate the qualified students who had matriculated at their
institutions. These interests led to research exposing the broad, complicated set
of factors that interact to influence persistence. The persistence theories that
have formed the basis of perspectives on student success reflect several differ-
ent disciplinary frameworks, notably sociological, economic, organizational
development, and psychological. This work is heavily based on Tinto’s (1975)
model of student integration, Braxton’s (2000) framework of college student
departure, and the economic models of St. John, Cabrera, Nora, and Asker
(2000). Although all of these models address factors that influence a student
to stay in college, they do so through competing explanations.
Sociological perspectives were evident among the first persistence theo-
ries. These theories generally involve a search for commonalities of behavior
that distinguish groups of students who remain enrolled in an institution
from groups of students who leave. They also emphasize an array of academic
and social interactions that can be “portrayed generally as the notions of
academic or social engagement or the extent to which students become involved
in (Astin, 1985a) or integrated (Tinto, 1975, 1993) into their institution’s
academic and social systems” (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005, p. 425). By far
the most widely adopted sociological model is Tinto’s (1975, 1993) interac-
tionalist theory of retention that asserts student success is based on student-
institution fit influenced by two independent, but complementary processes—
academic and social integration—by which students adjust to college life.
Academic integration represents the extent to which a student adapts to
explicit norms, such as earning passing grades, and the regularizing academic
experiences and values of the institution, while social integration represents
the extent to which a student finds the institution’s social environment to be
agreeable with his or her preferences. Student persistence is a function of the
quality of the relationships between the student and other actors within the
college and their home community, and their integration with academic norms.
Students most likely to persist are those whose values, norms, and behaviors are
congruent with the dominant patterns on campus (Berger & Milem, 1999).
Increased levels of academic and social integration are presumed to lead to
greater commitment to the institution and to the goal of graduation (Tinto,
1993). These commitments, in turn, increase the likelihood a student will
persist to graduate.
xvi | Kinzie

The second perspective dominating student persistence studies empha-

sizes an economic point of view. The primary determinants of persistence in
studies that employ an economic perspective include financial need, student
aid packaging, and adequacy of aid (Cabrera, Nora, & Castaneda, 1992;
St. John, Paulsen, & Starkey, 1996). Research using this approach has focused
on the overall effect of financial aid on persistence, the sensitivity of persis-
tence decisions to grants, loans, and other forms of financial assistance, and
the effectiveness of different student aid packages in the retention of under-
represented students (St. John et al., 2000).
An economic perspective is also evident in retention theories that emphasize
the extent to which students consider the costs and benefits of staying in col-
lege and participating in various activities. These price-response theories focus
in part on students’ analyses of the social and economic benefits of attending
college compared to the costs and benefits associated with alternative choices,
such as working full-time (St. John et al., 2000). If students perceive that the
cost of staying in school or becoming involved in educational activities, such
as a first-year seminar, internship, or study abroad, outweighs the return on
investment, they may forgo the opportunity and leave college prematurely
(Braxton, Hirschy, & McClendon, 2004). Although the economic perspective
has contributed to a deeper understanding of student persistence decisions, it
neglects the role that the institution and campus actors play in shaping those
decisions. Factors such as student support systems, interaction with faculty,
and affective outcomes associated with college, which are known to play a
role in student persistence (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005), are rarely
represented in economic models.
Organizational perspectives that emphasize the institutional structures
and processes influencing student behaviors also inform the retention theories
that are foundational to any conceptualization of student success. Basic insti-
tutional features, such as enrollment, selectivity, residential facilities, campus
climate, and faculty-student ratio, shape students’ attitudes and behaviors
(Pike & Kuh, 2005). From this perspective, a student’s beliefs are affected by
experiences with the institution, which then evolve into attitudes about the
institution and ultimately determine a student’s sense of belonging or fit. The
organizational perspective advances the idea that institutional structures and
processes, combined with students’ perceptions of the fairness of institutional
policies and the responsiveness of faculty and staff members, affect decisions
to persist or leave the institution.
 Introduction | xvii

The final perspective employed in student success studies emanates from

psychological theories. This focus views student persistence and success as
largely influenced by students’ individual attributes, perceptions, beliefs, coping
skills, levels of motivation, and interactions with other members of the campus
community. Psychological theories of motivation, attribution, and self-efficacy
are foundational to this perspective.
Students’ motivations are integral to psychological perspectives of college
persistence. Ethington’s (1990) model of persistence is rooted in expectancy-value
theory (Eccles, 1987), the premise of which is that students’ expectations of
success combine with the extent to which they value the goal of degree comple-
tion to produce differing levels of motivation that determine the amount of
effort they invest in the college experience. What students generally expect to
happen when they enter college shapes their subsequent behaviors in college,
which in turn affects their academic performance and social adjustment to
college life (Howard, 2005; Kuh, 1999).
Students’ levels of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982), or belief in their ability
to succeed in college, affect these postsecondary expectations, as does their
sense of academic control (Perry, Hall, & Ruthig, 2005). Students who perceive
the outcomes of academic tasks and challenges to be under their own control,
rather than a function of luck or powerful others, are also more motivated to
engage in the academic environment and invest the necessary effort to succeed.
According to attribution theory (Wiener, 1985), those who are most likely
to persist are those who attribute their failures to a lack of effort rather than
ability. In the case of college students, this attribution enables them to seek
new strategies and invest greater effort when they face challenges, so that they
eventually complete a college degree.
Bean and Eaton’s (2000) psychological model of college student retention
incorporates these theories into a comprehensive portrait of student persistence.
In their model, students’ personalities, skills and abilities, beliefs, and motiva-
tion to attend college combine with their levels of self-efficacy, attribution, and
coping skills at entrance to college to create a predisposition toward persistence
or departure. Then, as a consequence of students’ interactions with others on
and off campus, their attitudes and sense of institutional fit are shaped. If the
interactions bolster students’ self-efficacy, increase their confidence, motivation,
and internal attributions of control, and reduce their stress levels, academic
and social integration are more likely to occur, producing a greater sense of
institutional fit and loyalty, leading to a higher likelihood of persistence.
xviii | Kinzie

A psychological perspective of student success provides the conceptual

underpinnings of the construct of thriving as a new way of defining student
success (Schreiner, 2010). The concept of thriving explored in this book is
rooted in the field of positive psychology, which emphasizes well-being and
positive functioning, with specific connections to the construct of flourish-
ing (Keyes & Haidt, 2003) that is manifested through positive relationships,
rising to meet personal challenges, and engagement with the world (Schreiner,
McIntosh, Nelson & Pothoven, 2009). This perspective expands on theories
of motivation and individual psychological processes that can be influenced
by practices at the individual, classroom, and programmatic levels, enabling
more students to flourish in college. It also emphasizes the differential effects
of interventions on student success. More specifically, it advances a measure of
students’ positive functioning in three key areas that are typically associated
with student persistence: academic engagement and performance, interper-
sonal relationships, and intrapersonal well-being. The construct is somewhat
more expansive than other psychological theories of student success because
the measures of thriving involve individual attitudes; aspects of cognition and
learning, such as self-regulation; and also students’ experiences, interactions,
and perceptions of the campus community.
Taken together, the different theoretical perspectives on student persis-
tence account for most of the key factors that shape what students are prepared
to do when they enter college, how they respond to the college environment
once enrolled, and the meaning they make of their experiences. However, each
perspective has its shortcomings in terms of advancing an understanding of
student success. In fact, no one theoretical perspective can adequately account
for all the factors that influence success in college. Instead, contemporary
theories must incorporate a range of perspectives to address the complexities
of student success and inform practice and policy on students’ behalf.

Frameworks for Student Success

Although equating student success with increased completion rates is
straightforward and essential to address current concerns, it also limited,
offering little insight into the complexities of success. With its focus on the
percentage of students who persist at a specific institution from year to year,
along with grade point average as an intermediate marker of their progress to
graduation (Venezia, Callan, Finney, Kirst, & Usdan, 2005), this definition
conceptualizes the problem simply as reversing the dropout rate and increasing
 Introduction | xix

completion rates. Unfortunately, it also leads to the position that the easiest
way to improve graduation rates is for colleges and universities to be more
selective. Indeed, research demonstrates that students with certain character-
istics, such as those who have strong high schools records, come from higher
income families, and attend full time, are more likely to graduate (Adelman,
1999, 2006). However, such an approach of only admitting students whose
background characteristics predispose them to graduate would not only fail
to help the United States reach its ambitious goals for more adults with post-
secondary credentials, but it also contradicts all the efforts to expand college
access to a wider range of students.
The laser focus on completion may also overshadow other important
college processes and outcomes, including the quality of students’ experiences
in undergraduate education, student behaviors and level of engagement in
educationally purposeful activities, learning outcome attainment, preparation
for the world of work and lifelong learning, personal growth and development,
and many other desirable outcomes of college. The singular concentration on
graduation rates also provides limited insight into the full scope of what may be
contributing to lagging completion rates and, more importantly, what action
should be taken to improve student success. Finally, the emphasis on simple
survival to degree can eclipse important quality educational experiences that
engage students at high levels and help them make the most of their college
experience.
Although the current focus on increasing college completion rates is im-
portant, to make a real difference in a wider range of student success goals in
U.S. postsecondary education, there is a need for more expansive and actionable
definitions of student success. Expanded definitions still include graduation
rates, but they also consider the attainment of other desirable outcomes and
aspects of the educational experience itself. More specifically, expanded defini-
tions attend to issues of the quality of the experience and the content of the
learning environment, student perceptions and behaviors, the attainment of
educational and personal objectives, what students accomplish, and how they
develop while in college. Finally, these expanded views and definitions of stu-
dent success must also help guide and inform action to improve such success.
Definitions of student success that move beyond the fundamental bench-
marks of college completion rates and grades have emerged in recent years.
Such expanded definitions have included learning gains, talent development,
satisfaction and sense of belonging, and student engagement. The emphasis
xx | Kinzie

on student learning gains, for instance, has emphasized a definition of success

focused on the attainment of various intellectual, personal, and social devel-
opment outcomes, such as becoming proficient in writing, speaking clearly,
and developing critical thinking skills. The attention to the attainment of
particular educational goals is foremost on the agenda of many educators and
organizations, including the Association of American Colleges and Universi-
ties (AAC&U, 2002, 2005). An emphasis on educational gains and learning
outcomes as determinants of student success is emblematic of a learning-
centered focus in higher education, which highlights conditions that produce
learning. For example, in the learning paradigm college (Tagg, 2003), the focus
is on ensuring the quality of exiting students and their learning skills. In this
framework, student success results when colleges and universities develop
students’ talents and habits for learning and is gauged by the extent to which
student learning is advanced.
Astin (1985a) advanced a theory of talent development that emphasized
the institution’s role in promoting student learning and success as a key as-
pect of student success in college. A talent development view emphasizes the
educational impact of the institution on students and the extent to which
the institution is able to enhance students’ intellectual and scholarly talents
to make a positive difference in their lives. This view of student success rec-
ognizes that every student can learn under the right conditions; therefore,
the institution must organize its resources and create conditions for teaching
and learning to optimize success. Ultimately, the talent development view is
about increasing the institution’s commitment to developing the student to
his or her full potential.
This view of student success as developing student talent and potential
has particular relevance to assuring success for an increasingly diverse student
population. Such an approach emphasizes the need to embrace and address
students’ diverse talents and needs (Chickering, 2006). In this view, all students’
talents and skills are considered assets rather than deficiencies. By adopting
a talent development perspective and taking into account the backgrounds
and characteristics of students, institutions develop approaches that are more
responsive to the diverse learning needs of students historically underserved
in higher education.
Students’ perceptions of their experience in college, and specifically their
sense of belonging and satisfaction, are also critical dimensions of student suc-
cess. Astin (1993) proposed that an important aspect of student success is the
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