LONG TERM -2026

(TWO YEAR)

PHYSICS
STUDY MATERIAL
Class (XII)

Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE, PALA
Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800
www.brilliantpala.org., email: [email protected].
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 CONTENTS

1. Electrostatics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------05

2. Current Electricity-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------23

3. Moving Charges and Magnetism---------------------------------------------------------------43

4. Magnetism and Matter-----------------------------------------------------------------------------61

5. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current-------------------------------------75

6. Electromagnetic Waves---------------------------------------------------------------------------89

7. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments-------------------------------------------------------- 103

8. Wave Optics ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 117

9. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation-------------------------------------------------------- 128

10. Atoms and Nuclei--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141

11. Semiconductor Electronics-------------------------------------------------------------------- 153

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 Chapter
ELECTROSTATICS
01

SYNOPSIS
Electrostatics is the branch of physics which deals with electric charges at rest. There are two types
of charges +ve and –ve. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Unit of charge is coulomb
(C) in SI. In C.G.S the unit is stat coulomb or electrostatic unit of charge (esu of charge)
Electrification by friction
When two substances are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one body to the other.
The transfer of electrons takes place from the material in which electrons are held less tightly to
the nucleus to the materials where electrons are held more tightly. The substance which loses
electrons become +ve and the one which gains electrons become –vely charged
Properties of charges
1. Quantization
2. Additive property
3. Charge conservation
4. Speed independence
Difference between mass and charge
1. Charge can be +ve, –ve or zero, but mass is always +ve
2. Charge is quantized. Mass is not strictly quantized
3. Charge is independent of speed. Mass increases with speed as
m0
m= m0– rest mass
v2
1− 2
c
m – mass when moving with a velocity v
c – velocity of light
Similarities between gravitational and electrostatic field
Both are
1. Central forces 2. Conservative
3. Inverse square law forces 4. Long range forces
5. Two body interaction

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Difference
Electrostatic force Gravitational force
1. May be attractive or repulsive Always attractive
2. Affected by the medium Not affected by the medium
3. Of strong magnitude Of weak magnitude
Note that the electrostatic force between the electron and proton is 1038 times as large as the
gravitational force between them for equal distance of separation
Coulomb’s law
The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges q1 and q2 is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
q1 q 2 1 q q
F∝ 2
F =1 2 2
r 4π∈0 r

1
∈0 is the absolute permittivity of free space (air or vacuum) = 9 ×109 Nm 2 C−2
4π∈0

1 q1 q 2
When the charges are kept in a medium other than air or vacuum, F =
4π∈0∈r r 2

r
is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium. ∈0 ∈r =∈ is the absolute permittivity

of the medium
Fair
=∈r
Fmedium
The force between two charges will be reduced to zero if a metal plate is introduced between them.
For metals ∈r =∞
∈0 8.854 ×10−12 C2 N −1m −2
=
Principle of superposition
When a number of charges are interacting, the total force on a given charge is the vector sum of
the individual forces exerted on the given charge by all the other charges.
Electricfield
The space surrounding a charge where another charge experiences a force is known as an electric
field. The intensity of the electric field at a point is the force experienced by a unit +ve charge
(+1C) placed at that point. The magnitude of the intensity of the electric field at a point P due to a
point charge is given by

1 q
E=
4π∈0 r 2

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where r is the distance of the point from the point charge. The force experienced by a charge of q

coulomb placed in an electric field strength E is given by
 
F = qE

 qE
Acceleration of a charged particle in an electric field a =
 m
Unit of E is NC–1 or Vm–1
[E] = [A–1 MLT–3]
Properties of Electrostatic field lines
1. Electric field lines start from a +ve charge and ends on a –ve charge
2. Electric field lines do not intersect each other
3. The tangent at any point on the electric field line gives the direction of the electric field at that
point
4. The number of lines of force passing normally through unit area taken around a point gives the
intensity of the electric field at that point. It is also known as the electric flux density.
5. In a uniform electric field electric lines are parallel and equidistant from each other
6. Lines of force always start normal to a surface and end normal to a surface
Electric dipole

Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small vector distance form an electric dipole. The
length of the dipole is a vector quantity. Its direction is from the –ve to the +ve charge. The length

AB of the dipole is represented by 2a .

Electric dipole moment p

It is the product of one of the charges and the distance between the charges.

(length of the dipole is 2a )
 
p = q × 2a
It is a vector quantity. Its direction is from –ve to +ve charge
Intensity of the electric field at a point on the axial line

1 2 Pr
E=
4π∈0 (r − a 2 ) 2
2

If a<< r (ie short dipole)

1 2P
E=
4π∈0 r 3

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Intensity of the electric field at a point on the equatorial line

P 1 P
E =
2 2 32
; If a << r, E
4π∈0 (r + a ) 4π ∈0 r 3
For a short dipole Eaxial =2 E equatorial
The direction of the electric field is antiparallel to the direction of the length of the dipole
Null point
A null point in an electric field is the point where the resultant field is zero
a) when two like charge are separated by a distance the null point will be:
(1) on the line joining the charges
(2) in between the charges
(3) nearer to the smaller charge
q1 q 2
Also, = where r1 and r2 are the distance of the null point from q1 and q2
r12 r2 2
If q1 =q2 null point will be at the centre
(b) When two unlike charge are separated by a distance the null point will be
(1) on the line joining the charges
(2) outside the charges
(3) nearer to the smaller charge
q1 q 2
Also, 2 = 2 where r1 and r2 are the distance of the null point from the charges. If q1= q2 there
r1 r2

will be no null point.

Torque acting on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field

  
=
Torque τ P E sin θ ie τ = p × E
(i) When the dipole is in stable equilibrium, = 0o, = PE sin 0 = 0
(ii) When the dipole is perpendicular to the field, PE sin90 = PE
This is the maximum torque.

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(iii) When the dipole is in unstable equilibrium

= 180o, = PE sin 180o = 0
In stable equilibrium, is parallel to
In unstable equilibrium, is antiparallel to
Work done in rotating a dipole from to in a uniform electric field. (Potential energy of an
electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field)
W= pE (cos θ1 − cos θ2 )


1
- Initial angle of dipole moment P relative to electric field

2
- Final angle of dipole moment P relative to electric field
If = 900 and θ2 =θ , W = –pE cos

Electric potential : V at a point in an electric field is the amount of work done in bringing a unit +ve
charge (+1C) from infinity to that point against the direction of the field
r  
W
V = − ∫ E.dr V is a scalar quantity V = . Unit of V is JC–1 (volt)
∞
q
[V] = A–1 ML2 T–3
Potential difference between two points in an electric field is the amount of work done to bring a
unit +ve charge from one point to the other against the direction of the field
VBA = VB – VA
Equipotential surface is the surface over which the electric potential remains the same.
On an equipotential surface the p.d between any two points is zero. Hence no work is done in
moving a test charge on an equipotential surface
The electric field (ie, electric lines) are perpendicular to an equipotential surface
dv
Potential gradient is the rate of change of potential w.r.t distance, ie . It is a vector quantity
dr

−dv
Electric field E =
dr
In a constant electric field E r = V
Unit of electric field is Vm–1
Unit of potential gradient also is Vm–1
Potential at a point due to a point charge is
1 q
V=
4π∈0 r
Potential due to a large number of charges q1, q2, ...... is,
1 q1 1 q2
V= + + ............
4π∈0 r1 4π∈0 r

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Potential due to a uniformly charged conducting spherical shell (or a conducting solid sphere)
of radius R:
1. Potential at any point outside the shell at a distance r from the centre
1 q
V=
4π∈0 r

1 q
2. On the surface of the shell, V =
4π∈0 R

1 q
3. Inside the shell, V =
4π∈0 R

Electric potential due to an electric dipole (short dipole)

1. At any point,
1 p cos θ
V=
4π∈0 r 2

1 p
2. Vaxial =
4π ∈0 r 2
3. Vequitorial = 0
Potential energy of a system of two charges

1 q1 q 2
U=
4π∈0 r
Potential energy = Potential charge
Potential energy of system of three charges
U = U12 + U23 + U13

1  q1q 2 q 2 q 3 q1q 3 
=  + + 
4π ε0  r12 r23 r13 

Electric flux ( ) through an area (surface) in an electric field is the number of lines of force passing
normally through the area. Flux through an area is given= by dφ Eds cos θ = ie, dφ Eds cos θ
Flux is a scalar quantity. Note that the direction of area is normal to the area taken

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Gauss’s theorem : The total electric flux through any closed surface enclosing a charge is equal to
1
times the total charge enclosed by the surface
∈0

  1
=
φ ∫ E ⋅ =
ds
∈0
.q

Applications
1 q
1. Electric field due to a point charge =
4π ∈0 r 2

2. Electric field due to an infinitely long line charge,

λ
E=
2π∈0 r
3. Electric field due to an infinite thin plane sheet of charge
σ
E=
2∈0
4. Electric field due to two infinite parallel sheets of charge with equal but opposite charge densities,
(i) outside the sheets = 0
σ
(ii) in between the sheets =
∈0
5. Electric field due to a charged nonconducting solid sphere of radius R:

1 q
(i) outside the sphere (r > R) E=
4π∈0 r 2

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1 q
(ii) on the sphere (r = R) E=
4π ∈0 R 2

1 q
(iii) inside the sphere (r < R) E= r
4π ∈0 R 3
6. Electric field due to a charged conducting shell (or conducting sphere) of radius R

(i) outside the shell (r > r),

(ii) on the sphere (r = R),

(iii) inside the sphere (r < R) E = 0

Electrostatic shielding is the vanishing of the electric field inside a conducting cavity
Capacitor or condenser
It is a device for storing large amount of electric charges. Charge stored in a capacitor, q = CV
C – capacitance or capacity
q
C= ∴ unit is CV–1 (Farad)
V
Parallel plate capacitor

∈0 A
(i) Air capacitor, Capacitance C =
d

σ
E=
∈0
V=E d

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(ii) Capacitor with a dielectric,

∈0 KA
C' =
d
ie =C K K is the dielectric constant
σ
E '= For metals K =
∈0 K
For vacuum K =1
V=' E '× d For Air K = 1.00059
1
Combination of capacitors
(i) Parallel

Potential difference across all the condensers will be the same, but charge will be different
q1 = C1V, q2 = C2V, q3 = C3V
Effective capacitance, Ceff = C1 + C2 + C3

(ii) Series

Potential difference on different capacitors will be different, but the charge will be the same
q q q
V1 = , V2 = , V3 =
C1 C2 C3
The effective capacitance Ceff is
1 1 1 1
= + +
Ceff C1 C2 C3
Energy of a charged capacitor is the amount of work done in charging the capacitor
1 1 Q2
U = CV 2 U = QV U=
2 2 2C

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Molecule as a dipole
If the +ve charge centre doesn’t coincide with the –ve charge centre, the molecule will have a
dipole moment. Such molecules are called polar molecules.
In non-polar molecules, the +ve and –ve charge centers coincide
Motion of a charged particle in an electric field
(i) A charged particle moving along the direction of the electric field
qE
A +ve charged particle will move along the direction of the field with an acceleration of
m
A –ve charged particle will move more along the direction of the field with a deceleration of qE/m
Velocity after t seconds v = u + at
(ii) A charged particle entering perpendicular to a uniform electric field

The path of the charged particle inside the electric field is a parabola. Let t be the time spent by the
particle inside the field. Initial velocity vx is in the X – direction. Velocity acquired in the Y-direction
is vy. Sy is the displacement in the Y-direction. Sx is displacement in the X-direction within the field.
Then
Vy = Uy + at ⇒ Since Uy= 0 ∴ Vy = at

1 2 1
Sy =U y t + at Since u y =0 ∴ Sy = at 2
2 2

1
Sy U y t + at 2
= S x = Vx t
2

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QUESTIONS 6. Which of the following statements about dipole

LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] moment is not true?

1. An atom is electrically 1) The dimension of dipole moment is [LTA]

1) positive 2) The unit of dipole moment is Cm

2)negative 3) Dipole moment is a vector quantity and

directed from negative to positive charge
3) neutral
4) Dipole moment is a scalar quantity and its
4) none of them magnitude equal to the potential energy of
2. The ability of concentrating the electric flux in the system of charges
a dielectric or insulator is called
7. A charge q is situated at a distance from an
1) gravitational constant electric dipole on its axial line. It experience
a force F. If the distance of the charge is
2) permittivity
doubled the force acting on it will be
3) electrostatic force
F
4) electric flux 1) F 2)
2
3. How many electrons are to be removed or
added to a material body to form charged
F F
body 3) 4)
4 8
1) 6.25 × 1018
2) 6.25 × 1019 8. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 1 meter.
Charges of +1μC and -1μC are placed at
3) 3.125 × 1018 points B and C as shown in figure. The electric
4) 3.125 × 1019 field at A is

4. +2C and +6C two charges are repelling each

other with a force of 12N. If each charge is
given –2C of charge, then the force will be
1) 4N (Attractive)
2) 4N (Repulsive)
3) 8N (Repulsive)
1) 9 x 102 NC–1 parallel to BC
4) Zero
2) 18 x 103 NC–1 parallel to CB
5. Three charges each of magnitude q are placed
at the corners of an equilateral triangle, the 3) 9 x 103 NC–1 parallel to BC
electrostatic force on the charge placed at the 4) 9 x 103 NC–1 parallel to CB
centroid is
9. Total normal electric flux surrounding an
1 q2 electric dipole is
1) zero 2)
4π ε 0 L2 P
1) 2) P∈0
∈0
1 3q 2 1 q2
3) 4) 2
4π ε 0 L2 12π ε 0 L2 3) zero 4) P ∈0

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10. A point charge +q is placed at the centre of 13. Two point charges Q and –3Q are placed at
a cube of side L. The electric flux emerging some distance apart. If the electric field at the
from the cube is location of Q is E, then field at the location of
–3Q is
q
1) 2) zero E
∈0 1) –E 2)
3
2 q −E
3) 6qL 4) 3) –3E 4)
∈0 6L2 ∈0 3

14. The force experienced by an particle placed

11. Two infinite plane parallel sheets separated
in the axial line at a distance of 10cm from the
by a distance d have equal and opposite
centre of a short dipole of moment 0.2 10–20
uniform charge densities . Electric field at
cm is;
a point between the sheets is
1) 5.75 10–27 N
1) zero
2) 11.5 10–27 N
σ
2)
∈0 3) 23 10–27 N

4) 34.5 10–27 N
3) σ 15. A rod with uniform linear charge density
2∈0
penetrates a cube of side a so that the cube
encloses maximum charge. Then the rod
4) Depends upon the location of the point penetrates through a sphere of radius a
diametrically. The ratio of flux through cube
12. Three charges −q1, + q 2 , and -q3 are placed and that through sphere.
as shown in the figure. The x-component of
the force on -q1 is proportional to 3 2
1) 2)
2 3

3 1
3) 4)
1 3

16. Three concentric spherical shell A, B and C of

radii a, b, c (a < b < c) having charge densities
and respectively. The potential of B
is

σ σ  a 2 b2 
1) (a + b + c) 2) + + 1
1)
q 2 q3
− sin θ 2)
q 2 q3
− cos θ ε0 ε0  c c 
b2 a 2 b2 a 2

q 2 q3 q 2 q3 σ  a 2 b2  σ  a2 
3) + sin θ 4) + cos θ 3)  + σ 4)  b − b + c
b2 a 2 b2 a 2 ε0 c c ε0  

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17. At a certain distance from a point charge the 21. A capacitor is charged by connecting it to a
electric field is 500 v/m and the potential is cell of potential V. Now after disconnecting
3000V. What is the distance the battery, the capacitor is connected to an
another cell of potential 2V. The new charge
1) 6m on capacitor
2) 12m 1) Same as earlier
3) 36m
2) Double the first
4) 144m
3) Half the first
18. A sphere of radius 8.86m has potential of 4) Thrice the first

800V, then the energy density near the 22. If earth is taken as a capacitor, then the
surface will be capacitance of earth is nearly
−7
1) 64 × 10 J / m
3
1) 653µF 2) 711µF
−7 3
2) 32 × 10 J / m 3) 827µF 4) 999µF
3) 6.4 ×10-7J/m3 23. The capacitance of an air core parallel plate
−7 3 capacitor is C. If the plate area is doubled and
4) 3.2 × 10 J / m th
1
the plate separation is reduced to of initial
19. A charged particle of mass 5 × 10–5 kg is held 4
stationary in space by placing it in an electric
separation. Find new capacitance
field of strength 107 NC–1 directed vertically
downwards. The charge on the particle is 1) 8C 2) 4C
1) –20 × 10–5 µC 3) 2C 4) 16C
2) –5 × 10–5 µC 24. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacity 6µF
3) 5 × 10–5 µC
in air and 60µF when dielectric medium is
4) 20 × 10 µC
–5

introduced. The dielectric constant of medium

20. Two parallel plates have equal and opposite is:
charge. When the space between them is
evacuated, the electric field between the 1) 5 2) 10
plates is 2 × 105 V/m. When the space is filled
with dielectric, the electric field becomes 1 × 3) 15 4) 20
105 V/m. The dielectric constant of the material
25. The distance between the plates of a parallel
1 plate capacitor is d. A metal plate of thickness
1) d/2 is placed between the plates. The new
2 capacity is
2) 1 C
1) C 2)
3) 2 2
3) 2C 4) 4C
4) 3

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26. What is the work done by a battery to charge 30. An electric dipole of dipole moment is 6.0 x
a 24 µF capacitor to a potential difference of 10-6 Cm placed in a uniform electric field of
500V 1.5 x 103 N/C in such a way that the dipole
1) 3J 2) 6J moment is along the electric field. The work
done in rotating dipole by 180º in this field will
3) 1.5J 4) 0.75J be ___ mJ.
27. Two identical metal plates are given positive
LEVEL II
charges Q1 and Q2[Q2 < Q1] respectively. If
they are now brought close together to form 1. A body is charged by rubbing it, its weight:
a parallel plate capacitor with capacitance C,
the potential difference between them is; 1) Always decrease slightly
Q1 + Q 2 Q1 + Q 2 2) always increase slightly
1) 2)
2C C 3) may increase or decrease slightly

Q1 − Q 2 Q1 − Q 2 4) remains precisely the same

3) 4)
C 2C 2. A soap bubble is given a negative charge;
then its radius
28. Assertion : Electrostatic field lines are
perpendicular to the surface 1) decreases
of a conductor
2) increases
Reason : Surfaces of a conductor are
equipotential 3) remains unchanged
1) If both assertion and reason are correct 4) first increases and then decreases
and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion 3. In 1gm of solid, there are 5x1021atoms.If one
2) If both assertion and reason are correct electron is removed from each of 0.1% atom
and reason is not the correct explanation of of the solid, the charge gained by the solid is:
the assertion 1) 0.08C 2) 0.8C
3) If assertion is correct but reason is incorrect
3) -0.08C 4) -0.8C
4) If both assertion and reason are incorrect
4. If an electron has an initial velocity in a
29. Assertion : If proton and electron are
direction different from that of an electric field,
placed in the same uniform
the path of the electron is:
electric field, they experience
acceleration of different 1) a straight line
magnitudes
2) a circle
Reason : Electric force on a charge is
independent of its mass 3) an ellipse
1) If both assertion and reason are correct 4) a parabola
and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion 5. The ratio of force acting on an Alpha particle,
if it is placed at a distance ’r’ from the centre
2) If both assertion and reason are correct
of a small electric dipole on the axial point to
and reason is not the correct explanation of
that on the equatorial point is:
the assertion
3) If assertion is correct but reason is incorrect 1) 1:2 2) 2:1
4) If both assertion and reason are incorrect. 3) 1:1 4) 3:2

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6. An electric dipole is placed in a non-uniform 10. Two parallel infinite line charges with linear
electric field, experiences charge densities +λ C / m and − λC / m are
1) Only torque but no net force
placed at a distance of 2R in free space. What
2) Only force but no net torque is the electric field mid-way between the two
3) Both torque and net force line charges?

4) No torque and no force 1) Zero

7. Two equal negative charges - q are fixed
at points (0, a) and (0, - a) on the y-axis, A 2λ
2) N / C
positive charge Q is released from rest at a πε 0 R
point (2a, 0) on the x-axis. The charge Q will
1) execute simple harmonic motion about the λ
3) N/C
origin πε 0 R
2) move to the origin and remain at rest there
3) move to infinity λ
4) N/C
4) execute oscillatory but not simple harmonic 2πε 0 R
motion.
8. Eight dipoles of moment P and charge q are 11. There is an air-filled 1 pF parallel plate
placed inside a cube .The total electric flux capacitor. When the plate separation is
coming out of the cube is doubled and the space is filled with wax, the
capacitance increases to 2 pF. The dielectric
8q constant of wax is:
1) zero 2)
ε0
1) 2 2) 4
4q 16q
3) 4) 3) 6 4) 8
ε0 ε0
12. The ratio of minimum to maximum capacitance
9. A hollow conducting cylinder has a charge ‘Q’
of n equal capacitors in combination is
within the centre. If is the electric flux along
the curved surface, the flux linked with one of
1) n2 2) 1:n
the end faces is
q 3) 1:2n 4) 1:n2
1)
2ε0
13. The force between the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor of capacitance C and distance
1 q  of separation of the plates d with a potential
2)  − φ difference V between the plates is :
2  ε0 
1) CV2/2d
q
3) −φ 2) C2V2/2d2
2ε0
3) C2V2/d2
φ
4)
3 4) V2d/C

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Assertion-Reason 18. Two equal and opposite charges are placed at

a certain distance. The force between them is
1) If both assertion and reason are correct F. If 25% of one charge is transferred to other,
and reason is a correct explanation of the then the force between them is :
assertion
1) F
2) If both assertion and reason are correct
but reason is not the correct explanation of 2) 9F / 16
assertion
3) 15F / 16
3) If assertion is correct but reason is incorrect
4) 4F / 5
4) Assertion is incorrect reason is correct
19. Electric field at the centroid of a triangle
14. Assertion : Work done by the field of a carrying q charge at each corner is
nucleus in a complete orbit
of the electron is zero even 2Kq
1) zero 2)
if the orbit is elliptical. r2
Reason : Electrostatic force is
conservative in nature. Kq 3Kq
3) 4)
15. Assertion : When the space between 2 r2 2 r2
the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor partially filled with 20. A pendulum bob of mass 30mg, carrying a
a dielectric capacitance charge of 2x10-8 is at rest in a horizontal field of
does not changes. 20000V/m. Find the tension in the thread of
the pendulum
Reason : Capacitance of the capacitor
does not depend upon the 1) 0.5µN 2) 500 µN
nature of the material of the
plate. 3) 50µN 4) 5µN
LEVEL III 21. Two points charges q1 = 2µC and q 2 = 1µC are
placed at distances b = 1 cm and a = 2 cm
16. Two small identical spheres having charges
from the origin on the Y and X axes as shown
+10 µC and −90µC attract each other with a in fig. The electric field vector at point P (a, b)
will subtend an angle with x-axis given
force of F Newton. If they are kept in contact
by :
and then separated by the same distance, the
new force between them is:
1) F/6 2) 16F
3) 16F/9 4) 9F
17. A charge Q is divided into two parts q and Q-q
and separated by a distance R. The force of
repulsion between them will be maximum,
when:
1) tan θ =1 2) tan θ = 2
1) q = Q/4 2) q = Q/2
1 1
3) q = Q 4) q = Q/8 3) tan θ = 4) tan θ =
2 4

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

22. A u n i f o r m e l e c t r i c f i e l d g i v e n b y 25. A charge -2C is moved from a point A to a

 N
( )
E = 3iˆ + 4ˆj + 5kˆ
C
pierces the Gaussian
point B in an electric field. The work done is 6J
and kinetic energy of charge reduces by 10J
during the process. The potential difference
cube as shown. The electric flux through the VA-VB is
right face and top face in Nm2/C are :
1) 8V 2) 8V

3) -4V 4) 4V

26. The electric field between two points is

constant in both magnitude and direction.
Consider a path of length d at an angle
θ =600 with respect to field lines shown in
figure. The potential difference between points
1 and 2 is :
1) 12 and 20 2) Zero, zero
3) 16 and 20 4) 12 and 16

23. The electric flux through a hemisphere

surface of radius R, placed in a uniform
electric field of intensity E parallel to the axis
of its circular plane is :

1) 2πRE
2
2) 2πR E E
1)
2 3
d cos 600
3) πR E 4) (4 / 3)πR E
2) Ed cos 600
24. The figure shows some of the equipotential
surfaces. Magnitude and direction of the Ed
electric field is given by : 3)
cos 600

E
4) cos 600
d

27. Sixty four drops of mercury of equal radii and

each possessing the same charge combines
to form a bigger drop. The capacitance of this
big drop as compared to that of each smaller
drop is:
1) 200 V/m, making an angle 1200 with the X-axis
1) 2 times
2) 100 V/m, pointing towards the negative x-axis
2) 4 times
3) 200 V/m, making an angle 500 with the
x-axis 3) 8 times
4) 100 V/m, making an angle 30 with the 0
4) 16 times
x-axis

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

28. A parallel plate capacitor is made by stacking Numerical

n equally spaced plates connected alternately.
If the capacitance between any two plates is 29. Electric potential is given by V = 6x - 8x2. The
C, then the resulting capacitance is: magnitude of electric force acting on a 2C
charge placed at the origin is 3n, then ‘n’ is
1) C
30. A capacitor is charged to 50V and a
2) nC
capacitor is charged to 100V. The capacitors
3) (n-1)C are then connected parallel. The common
potential of the combination is 200/n V. Then
4) Cn ‘n’ is

22
 Chapter
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
02

SYNOPSIS
Electric current through a conductor is defined as the time rate of flow of charge through any
q
cross section of a conductor. If q is the charge flowing in time t, then current I = . (for steady
t
current) Unit of current is Ampere. Current is a scalar quantity.
dq
• If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, then the current at any time is given by I =
dt
Electromotive force
To maintain a steady current, we need a closed circuit with a source. The work done per unit
charge by the source in taking a positive charge from lower to higher potential energy is called
electromotive force or emf of the source.
OR
It is the p.d between the two terminals of a source in open circuit. SI unit of e.m.f is volt. (V)
Ohm’s law
At constant temperature, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the two ends of the conductor.
ie V α I
V = IR. Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor.
V
* Resistance is the opposition to the current flow in a conductor. R = Its unit is V/A or ohm. Ω .
I
Conductors which obey Ohm’s law are known as ohmic conductors. Eg: Silver, Copper, Aluminium

V V - I characteristic of ohmic conductor.

Factors affecting the resistance

The resistance of a conductor depends on its
i) length ii) area of cross section,
iii) nature of the material and, iv) temperature.

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Law of resistance - The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (l) and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section (A)

1 
R α , R α ∴R α
A A

ρ
R= Where ρ is a constant known as resistivity or specific resistance.
A

RA
ρ= Its unit is ohm metre ( Ωm ) .


If l = 1 and A = 1, then ρ = R
Resistivity of the material of a conductor is defined as the resistance of the conductor of unit length
and of unit area of cross section.

1
• Resistivity depends on the nature of the material ρ = ; n is the no. of free electrons per unit
n
volume)
• Resistivity increases with the increase in temperature of the conductor.

• Resistivity is independent of geometrical dimensions (ie length, area, shape etc.)

• Substances having low resistivity are conductors of electricity.
• Substances having high resistivity are insulators.
Conductance

1 A −1
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance. It is denoted by G. G
= = SI unit is Ω
R ρ
or mho
Conductivity
Conductivity a material is its ability to conduct electric current. Conductivity is the reciprocal of
1 −1 −1
resistivity. σ = . Its unit is Ω m or mho m-1.
ρ

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Temperature dependance of Resistance

1
For a conductor, R α where R → Resistance, τ → Relaxation time
τ

When a metallic conductor is heated, vibration of atoms increases and collision increases. This
reduces the relaxation time t and increases the value of resistance R.

R t R 0 (1 + αt )
If R0 be the resistance of a conductor at 0oC and Rt at toC then =
Where α is called temperature coefficient of resistance of the material

R t − R 0 change in resistance / degree rise in temperature

=α =
R0t resistance at 0o C

Thus the temperature coefficient of resistance can be defined as the ratio of the change in resistance
per unit rise of temperature to the resistance at 0oC. (It’s unit is K-1)

R 2 − R1
If R1 and R2 are resistances at t1 and t2oC, α =
R 1 t 2 − R 2 t1

• For metals α is +ve. Thus metals (conductors) has positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
• For semiconductors α is -ve. (negative temperature coefficient of resistance)
• Due to high resistance and low temperature coefficient of resistance, the alloys like constantan,
manganin and nichrome are used as standard resistances.
Combination of resistances
i) Resistance in series
The resistors are said to be in series if the current through each one must be same and equal to
main current.

Let three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series to a source of potential V. Since they
are in series combination the current through them is same. Let I be the current through the circuit.
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across the resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
But V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
∴ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
If Rs is the equivalent resistance of their series combination, then V = IRs ∴ IRs= I(R1 + R2 + R3)
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

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ii) Resistances in parallel

The resistances are said to be in parallel if the p.d across each resistor is the same.
Let three resistance R1, R2 & R3 are connected in parallel to a source of potential difference V. Since
they are in parallel, potential difference across each resistor is same. Let I1 be the current through
R1, I2 through R2 and I3 through R3 respectively. Let I be the total current then, I = I1 + I2 + I3

V V V
from Ohm’s law, I1 = , I2 = α I3 =
R1 R2 R3

If Rp is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination,

V V V V V
I= ∴ = + +
RP R P R1 R 2 R 3

1 1 1 1
∴ = + +
R P R1 R 2 R 3

Potentiometer
It is used for measuring potential difference accurately, comparing e.m.f’s of two cells, measuring
internal resistance of a cell etc. A potentiometer consists of a uniform resistance wire of 10m length,
stretched on a wooden board.
KIRCHOFF’S LAWS & ITS APPLICATION
Kirchoff’s laws
First law (Point rule, Junction rule)
The algebraic sum of the current meeting at any junction in a closed circuit is zero.
Consider a circuit as shown below

Three currents are meeting at O. Incoming current I1 is taken as +ve and outgoing currents I2 & I3
are taken as -ve.

Then according to this rule, I1 - I2 - I3 = 0 ie, ∑ I =0

Second law
The algebraic sum of the product of current and resistance in any closed loop is equal to the total
e.m.f in that loop.
Consider a circuit,

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- BIOLOGY]

Here anticlock wise currents are taken as positive and clockwise current are taken as negative.
Now consider loop ABCDA, I1R1 = E
then ABEFA, I2R3 + I2R2 = E or in general ∑ IR =
∑E
Wheatstone’s Bridge Network
Wheastone’s Bridge is an arrangement of four resistance used for measuring one unknown
resistance in terms of the other three known resistances.
Wheatstone’s Network
P,Q,R and S are four resistors connected to form a loop ABCD. A cell is connected between A and
C. A sensitive galvanometer of resistance G is connected between B and D. The current flowing
through each branch of the circuit is shown in the diagram.

Applying Kirchhoff’s rule to the mesh ABDA. -i1P - igG + i2R=0

For the loop BCDB, -i3Q + i4S + igG = 0
Now the four resistances are so adjusted so that the galvanometer current ig is zero. Now the
network is said to balanced.
Then, i1 = i3 and i2 = i4
so i1P = i2 R ...................(1) and
i3Q = i4S .................(2)
iP i2R P R
(1) ÷ ( 2 ) =
we get 1
=
i 3Q i 4S Q S
This is Wheatstone’s Principle.
Flow of electric charges in a Metallic Conductor
In conductors, valence electrons can move about in whole conductor and are known as free electrons.
When an external field is applied, these free electrons moves in a definite direction constituting an
electric current. Thus electrons are current carriers in conductors.
• Since conduction is due to free electrons, these electrons are also called conduction electrons.

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Drift Velocity
Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which free electrons in a conductor get drifted
in a direction opposite to the direction of the applied electric field. [It is in the order of 10-5m/s]
• Consider a conductor connected to a cell which provides an electric field in the conductor.
 
The electrons experiences a force F = -eE [ F = qE here, q = e ]


 -eE
but F = m.a ∴ a =
m

eE
ie, In the presence of an external field, each electron experiences an acceleration opposite to
m
the field direction. This acceleration remains for a very short time ( τ ) , called relaxation time. The

small interval of time between two successive collissions between electrons and ions in the lattice
is called relaxation time.
Now drift velocity
 
  −eE -eE
Vd =u + at =O + τ Vd = τ
m m
• In the absence of electric field, the motion of electrons in the conductor is randomly distributed and
there is no overall drift.
Mobility
Mobility of a charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity of the charge carrier per unit electric field.
Vd 2 −1 −1
µ= . [It’s unit is m V S ]. Mobility is positive for both free electrons and holes*.
E

eτe eτh
=
If me and mh are electron and hole mobilities then µe and
= µh
me mh
* Holes - Vacancy of an electron which acts like positive charge.
# The electrical conductivity ( σ ) for a semiconductor containing electrons and holes can be

represented as σ= neµ e + peµ n

Relation between drift velocity and electric current
Let V be the potential difference applied across the ends of a conductor with length  and area of

cross section ‘A’.

V
Electric field produced across the conductor E =


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Let n be the number of free electrons per unit volume.

The total no. of electrons in the conductor = n × volume of the conductor = n × A 

Now total charge in the conductor, Q=(n.Al)e


let ‘t’ be the time taken by the charge to cross the conductor, t = where Vd → drift velocity  →
Vd

length of the conductor (distance)

Q
From the definition of electric current I =
t
nA ( e ) I
=I = nAVd e I α Vd (e, A & n are constants) ∴ Vd =
 nAe
Vd
Relation between mobility and electric current

Electric current I = nAeVd but Vd = µ e E

I
I nAe.µ e E or µ=
∴= e
nAeE
Cell

Cell is a device which provides the necessary potential difference to maintain a continuous flow of
current in an electric circuit. [Its symbol is ]

emf

EMF of a cell in the potential difference between the terminals of a cell when no current is drawn from it.

Potential difference

Potential difference is the difference of potentials between any two points in a closed circuit.

Comparison of emf & p.d

emf p.d
emf of a cell is the potential difference Potential difference is the difference of
1 between the terminals of a cell when no potentials between any two points in a
current is drawn from it closed circuit.
but pd is directly proportional to
2 is independent of resistance of the circuit
resistance
3 term emf is related with a cell p.d is measured between any two points

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Internal resistance of a cell

The electrical resistance offered by the electrolyte and the electrodes of a cell to the flow of current
is called internal resistance.
Internal resistance of a cell depends on the
i) Separation between the electrodes
ii) Conductivity
iii) Area of the plates
iv) nature of the electrodes
Consider a cell with emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ is connected with a resistance R as shown

E
Then E = I(R + r) or I = (circuit equation)
R+r

E = IR + Ir = V + Ir V = E – Ir
This is the relation between pd, internal resistance and emf of a cell.
Grouping of cells
i) Cells in series
When cells are connected in series,
1) Total emf of series combination is equal to the sum of the individual emfs of the various cells.
2) The current in each cell is the same and is equal to the main current through the arrangement.
3) Total internal resistance of series combination is equal to the sum of the individual internal
resistances.

Let n cells of emf E and internal resistance (r) are connected in series with R. Then total emf = nE
Then total resistance = R + nr
nE
Current I =
nr + R

ii) Cells in parallel

When (n) identical cells are connected in parallel,
1) Total emf of the parallel combination is the same as that of a single cell.
2) The reciprocal of total internal resistance of of the parallel combination is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of the resistances of the individual cells.

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3) The main current is divided equally among the cells.

Total internal resistance R1

1 1 1 r
= + + ....n times ∴ R1 =
R1 r r n

 r
∴ Total resistance =  R + 
 n

E
∴ Current I =
r
R+
n

iii) Mixed grouping

Let n cells of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in series and m’ such combination is
connected in parallel.

Total emf = nE

Internal resistance each row = nr

nr
Total internal resistance =
m

nr
∴ Total resistance = R +
m

nE
∴ Current I =
nr
R+
m

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THERMAL & CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

I. JOULES HEATING EFFECT
V2
* Heat produced across resistance according to H = I2Rt = t = VIt in Joules
R
I = current, R = resistance, t = time, V = applied voltage
* In calories heat equation is
I 2 Rt I 2 Rt
=H = Cal
4.2 J
J = The mechanical equivalent of heat
= 4.2 J/Cal
* In this effect heat energy is produced due to the collisions of free electrons with the ions or atoms
of the conductor.
* Joules heating effect is irreversible.
* Heating effect produced by ac and dc are the same.

II. ELECTRIC POWER

* Electric power is the rate at which work is done by the source of emf. Its equations are
V2
P = VI = I2R =
R
* Electricity is always transferred as power from source to device.

So power is transferred with minimum current and maximum voltage.

* Unit of power - Watt or Ampere volt
Horse power 1HP = 746 W
* In series combination of resistors, the power consumed P α R
1 1 1 1
* In series combination of appliances, the effective power consumed P is = + + + ......
P P1 P2 P3

1
* In parallel combination of resistors, the power consumed Pα
R
* In domestic supply, the appliances are connected in parallel and the effective power consumed is
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .......

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QUESTIONS 7. The specific resistance of Manganin is

50×10-8 Ω m. The resistance of a cube of
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1. In an electrolyte 3.2 × 1018 bivalent positive length 50 cm across two sides will be
ions drift towards the right per second while
3.6 × 1018 monovalent negative ions drift 1) 10-16 Ω 2) 10-6 Ω
towards left per second. Then the total current
3) 5 × 10-44 Ω 4) 2 ×10-4 Ω
is
1) 0.576 A towards right 8. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a
wire is 0.00125 per degree. The resistance at
2) 0.576 A towards left
300K is 1 Ω . At what temperature, its
3) 1.024 A towards right resistance become 2 Ω
4) 1.60 A towards right
1) 1154 K 2) 1127 K
2. Two wires of the same material but of
different diameters carry the same current 3) 600 K 4) 1400 K
I, if the ratio of their diameters is 2 : 1, then
the corresponding ratio of their mean drift 9. Four resistance are connected as shown
velocities,
1) 4 : 1 2) 1 : 1
3) 1 : 2 4) 1 : 4
3. The V-I graph for a good conductor makes
angle 40o with V-axis. Here V denotes voltage
and I denotes current. The resistance of the
conductor will be
1) sin 40o 2) cos 40o The current through 4 Ω and 6 Ω are
3) tan 40o 4) cot 40o
1) 2A and 1A
4. A wire 1m long has a resistance of . If it is
uniformly stretched so that its length increases 2) 1A and 2A
by 25% then its resistance will increased by
3) 2A and 2A
1) 25% 2) 50%
3) 56.25% 4) 77.33% 4) 1A and 1A
5. The length of a conductor is doubled and its 10. In the figure current through 3Ω is 0.8 A. The
radius is halved, its specific resistance is potential drop through 4Ω is
1) unchanged 2) halved
3) doubled 4) quadrupled
6. The total momentum of electrons in a straight
wire of copper of length 1m carrying a current
of 16A is
1) 91 × 10–15 Kg m/s
2) 91 × 10–16 Kg m/s
1) 9.6 V 2) 2.6 V
3) 91 × 10–14 Kg m/s
3) 1.2V 4) 4.8V
4) 91 × 10–12 Kg m/s

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

11. Five identical resistance each of value 1100Ω 14. The steady state current in a 2Ω resistor
are connected to a 220V battery as shown. when the internal resistance of the battery is
negligible and the capacitance of the capacitor
The reading of ideal Ammeter
is 0.1µF is

2 3
1) A 2) A
5 5

1
3) A 4) 1 A 1) 0.6A
5
2) 0.9A
3) 1.5A
4) 0.3A

12. 15. The equivalent resistance between points A

& B in the figure is 1Ω . What is the value of

unknown resistance R?
What will be the resistance between the points
A and B?
1) 5Ω 2) 13Ω

3) 10Ω 4) 2Ω
13. The current I in the figure.

1) 1Ω

2) 3Ω

3) 6Ω

4) 9Ω
1 1
1) A 2) A
45 15

1 1
3) A 4) A
10 5

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

16. A uniform wire of resistance 36Ω is bent in 19. In the circuit. The reading of the ideal voltmeter
the form of a circle. The effective resistance ( resistance of voltmeter is infinity)
across the points A & B is

1) 2.4V
2) 8V
3) 4V
1) 36Ω
4) 12 V
2) 18Ω
20. Two cells of the same emf E but different
3) 9Ω internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected in
series with an external resistance R
4) 2.75Ω

17. In the circuit shown, the voltmeter reads 30V.

What is the resistance of the voltmeter?

The terminal potential difference across the

second cell is found to be zero. Then the
external resistance R is
1) r1 r2
2) r2 - r1

1) 1200Ω 3) r1 - r2
4) r1 + r2
2) 700Ω
21. In the figure shows currents in the part of an
3) 400Ω electric circuit, the current I is,

4) 300Ω

18. Three resistances of 4Ω, 6Ω & 12Ω are

connected in parallel and the combination
1) 1.7A
is connected in series with 4V battery with
internal resistance 2Ω . The battery current is 2) 3.7A

1) 1A 2) 10A 3) 1.3A
4) 1A
3) 2A 4) 0.5A

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

22. The equivalent resistance between the points 25. In the circuit element given here, if the
A and B is potentials at point ‘B’ is V B= 0 then the
potential of A and D are

1) VA =
−1.5V, VD =
4.5V
2) VA =
+1.5V, VD =
−0.5V
36
1) Ω 3) VA =
−1.5V, VD =
−0.5V
7
4) VA =
+1.5V, VD =
+0.5V
2) 10Ω 26. In the circuit shown, the heat produced by 6Ω
85 resistance due to current flowing it is
3) 60calorie/second. The heat generated across
7 3Ω resistance per sec will be :
4) 41
23. During an experiment with a meter bridge the
galvanometer shows a null point when the
jockey is pressed at 40 cm from unknown
resistance end. If the standard resistance
used is 3Ω . Then unknown resistance is 1) 30 cal 2) 60 cal

9 3) 100 cal 4) 120 cal

1) Ω
2 27. Two resistance R and 2R connected in
parallel in an electric circuit. Then the ratio of
2) 2Ω thermal energy developed in R and 2R is

3) 1Ω 1) 1:2 2) 1:4

4) 3Ω 3) 4:1 4) 2:1
28. In the given figure, Find the heat developed
24. In the figure P = 10Ω Q = 20Ω R = 15Ω S
in 6Ω and 3Ω in one minute
= 30Ω , the current passing through the

battery

1) 720J, 360 J 2) 720 J, 12J

3) 360 J, 720J 4) 6J, 360J
29. An electric bulb is rated 220V and 100W.
Power consumed by it when operated on 110V
is
1) 0.18A 2) 0 1) 100 W 2) 75 W
3) 0.72A 4) 0.36A 3) 50 W 4) 25 W

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

30. You are given 3 bulbs rated 180V – 40W, Statement II: Drift velocity is given by
240V – 60W, 200V – 100W. Which bulb has eEτ
the highest resistance vd = and in above
m
1) 40W bulb 2) 60W bulb 
described situation E is
3) 100W 4) 1 & 2
31. An electric bulb has a rating of 500W, 100V. increasing as one moves
It is used in a circuit having a 200V supply. from A to B.
What resistance must be connected in series 1) Statement I is true, statement II is true;
with the bulb so that it delivers 500W statement II is a correct explanation for
1) 10Ω 2) 20Ω statement I
3) 30Ω 4) 40Ω 2) If statement I is true, statement II is true;
statement II is not a correct explanation for
Numerical statement I
32. Figure shows the part of a larger circuit. 3) If statement I is true statement II is false
All ammeters are ideal. If the ammeter A1
reads 1A. The reading of ammeter A2 is ....A 4) If statement I is false; statement II is true
35. Statement I : In the given circuit if lamp B or
C fuses then light emitted by
lamp A decreases

33. In the circuit figure, the voltmeter reads 30V.

The resistance of the voltmeter is ..... Ω

Statement II : Voltage on A decrease, if B

or C fuses
1) If statement I is true, statement II is
true; statement II is correct explanation for
statement I
34. Statement I : A steady current is flowing 2) If statement I is true, statement II is true;
in a conductor having non- statement II is not a correct explanation for
uniform cross-section as statement I
shown in figure. The drift
3) If statement I is true; statement II is false
speed of the electrons
increases as one moves 4) If statement I is false; statement II is true
from A to B LEVEL II
1. There is a current of 3.2 A is a conductor. The
number of electrons that cross any section
normal to the direction of flow per second is
A B
1)1020 2) 1.6 × 1018
3) 2 × 1019 4) 3.2× 1019

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

2. An electron is moving along a circle of radius 7. A wire is stretched so that its radius is reduced
1 cm with a constant speed of 2 x 106 ms-1. to one-third of the original value. Find the ratio
Calculate the electric current at a point on the of final resistance to initial resistance
circle
1
1) 0.51 × 10-3 A 2) 0.51 × 10 -11 A 1) 2) 9
81
3) 0.51 × 10-1 A 4) 0.51 A
3. A metallic wire of diameter 1mm carries a 3) 27 4) 81
current of 1.6 A. The free electron density 8. The terminal potential difference of a cell
in the metal is 6.25 × 1028m-3. Find the drift which draws 10A current from a charger is 6.8
velocity of electrons. V. If the cell has an open circuit voltage 5.6 V
1) 2.04 ×10-4 ms-1 then the internal resistance of the cell is
2) 2.04 × 10-3ms-1 1) 0.1Ω 2) 0.5Ω
3) 2.04 × 10 ms-2 -1
3) 0.12Ω 4) 0.2Ω
4) 4 × 10-3ms-1
9. How would you arrange 48 cells each of emf
4. I-V characteristic of a copper wire of length L 1.8 V and internal resistance 1Ω . So as to get
and area of cross-section A is shown in figure.
The slope of the curve becomes. strongest possible current in a resistance of
3Ω
1) 12 cells in 4 row
2) 24 cells in 2 row
3) 2 cells in 24 row
4) 8 cells in 6 row
1) More if the experiment is performed at
higher temperature 10. N identical cells are connected in series to
form a closed circuit. EMF of each cell is ‘E’
2) More if the length of the wire is increased
Then the potential difference across any one
3) Less if the area of cross-section of wire is cell is
decreased
1) Zero 2) E
4) Less if the length of the wire is increased
5. The masses of three copper wires are in the E ( n − 1) E
3) 4)
ratio 1 : 3 : 5 and their lengths are in the ratio n n
5 : 3 : 1. The ratio of their electrical resistance
is 11. In a meter bridge experiment, the value of
unknown resistance is 2Ω . To get the
1) 1 : 3 : 5 2) 5 : 3 : 1
3) 1 : 15 : 125 4) 125 : 15 : 1 balancing point at 40 cm distance from the
6. A wire is stretched to increase its length by same end the resistance in the resistance box
10%. What is the percentage increase in will be
resistance ? 1) 0.5 Ω 2) 3 Ω
1) 2.1% 2) 21%
2) 0.21% 4) None of the above 3) 20 Ω 4) 80 Ω

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

12. The resistance of a wire is 5 Ω at 500c and 15. The total current supplied to the circuit by the
6 Ω at 1000c. The resistance of the wire at 00c battery in the given figure
will be in ohm

1) 2 Ω 2) 1 Ω

3) 3 Ω 4) 4 Ω

Statement Type

13. Statement I : A piece of copper and 1) 1 A 2) 2A

germanium are cooled from
room temperature to 100 3) 4A 4) 6A
K conductivity of copper
increases and that of LEVEL - III
germanium decreases
16. In the given circuit the voltmeter reads 30 V
Statement II : Copper has positive The resistance of voltmeter is
temperature co-efficient
where as germanium has
negative temperature co-
efficient.

1) Statement I is true Statement II is a correct

explanation for statement I

2) Statement I is true, statement II is true.

Statement II is not a correct explanation for 1) 750Ω
statement I
2) 200Ω
3) Statement I is true, statement II is false
3) 100Ω
4) Statement I is false statement II is true 4) 3000Ω

14. A copper wire of length 50 cm and area of 17. A set of ‘n’ equal resistors of value R each are
cross section 10-6m2 carries a current 0.5A. If connected in series to a battery of emf E and
the resistivity of copper is 1.8 × 10-8 Ω m The internal resistance ‘R’. the current drawn is I.
electric field across the wire is Now the ‘n’ resistors are connected in parallel
to the same battery. then the current drawn
1) 9 Vm
−1
becomes 10 I. the value of n is

−1 1) 9
2) 0.9 Vm
2) 10
−1
3) 0.09 Vm
3) 20
−1
4) 0.009 Vm 4) 11

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

18. The reading of voltmeter 21. In the network, current through the resistor
is 0.25 A. Then the input voltage is

1) 50 V
2) 60 V
1) 20 V
3) 40 V
4) 80 V
2) 10 V
19. A material ‘B’ has twice the resistivity of ‘A’
circular cross sectional wire made of ‘B’ has
twice the diameter of a wire made of A. Then 3) 5 V
for the two wires have the same resistance,
 A  15
the ratio   of their respective length is 4) V
 B  z

1 1 22. In the circuit shown, the current ‘I’ drawn from

1) 2) the 5 volt source is
4 3

1
3) 1 4)
2

20. Two cells of emf 10 v and 15 V are connected

in parallel to each other between two points
A and B. The cell of emf 10 V is ideal but the
cell of emf 15 V has internal resistance .
What is the equivalent emf between A and B

1) 1A

2) 2A

1) 25 V 3) 1.5 A

2) 5V
4) 0.5 A
3) 10 V
4) 15 V

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

23. Match the following 25. What will happen when 40w, 220V lamp and
100 w, 220 v are connected in series to 440
Circuit Effective resistance
V supply
between A and B
1) 100 W lamp will fuse
2) 40 W lamp will fuse
3) Both lamps will fuse
1. P)
4) Neither lamp will fuse

26. Two identical cells each of emf 1.5 V are
2. Q) connected in parallel across a parallel
combination of two resistors each of resistance
20 Ω . A voltmeter connected in the circuit
measures 1.2V. What is the internal resistance
of cell in ohm

1) 1 Ω
3. R)
2) 0.5 Ω

3) 4 Ω

4) 5 Ω
4. S)
Statement Type
27. Statement I : In the given circuit

T)
1) 1 - S, 2 - T, 3 - P, 4 - Q
2) 1 - S, 2-T, 3 - P, 4 - R
3) 1 - R, 2 - S, 3 - P, 4 - Q Vab = Va - Vb = 0 If I = 2A
4) 1 - S, 2 - R, 3 - P, 4 - Q Statement II : Potential difference across
24. Power dissipated across the 8Ω resistor in the terminal of a non ideal
battery while discharging is
the circuit shown is 2W. The power dissipated less than it’s emf when a
in 3Ω resistor is current flows through it.
1) Statement I is true Statement II is a correct
explanation for statement I
2) Statement I is true, statement II is true.
Statement II is not a correct explanation for
statement I

1) 2 w 2) 1 w 3) Statement I is true, statement II is false

3) 0.5 w 4) 3 w 4) Statement I is false statement II is true

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

Numerical 30. Five identical bulb rated 100W, 250V are

connected as shown in the figure, with
28. Four identical resistors each of 8 Ω are a battery of emf E= 260 v and internal
resistance 25Ω. Thermal power developed
connected as shown in the bulb A is .......... watts

x
The ammeter reading is found to be A.
16
Find x

29. If the ammeter A shows a zero reading in the

circuit show below, the value of resistance R
is .......... Ω

42
 Chapter
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
03

SYNOPSIS
Hans Christian Oersted observed that when a compass needle is placed near a straight wire
carrying current, the compass needle aligns so that it is tangent to a circle drawn around the wire.
His discovery provided the first link between electricity and magnetism.
Biot - Savart’s Law
According to this law, the magnetic field due to a current element of length dl carrying a current I
at a point at distance ‘r’ from it is given by
µ 0 Idlsin θ
dB =
4π r2


 µ I dl × rˆ
In vector form dB = 0
(
)
4π r2

Where, θ the angle between the direction of the current and the line joining the current element

to the point.
µ 0 - permeability of the free space ( µ 0 = 4 π × 10-7 TA-1 m). The direction of magnetic field is

along  
dl × r

• When θ = 0, dB = 0 i.e. the magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying conductor is zero
µ 0 Idl
• When θ = 900 dB = i.e. magnetic field is maximum in a plane perpendicular to the
4 π r2

current element and passing through its axis.

Comparison of Biot - Savart’s law and Coulomb’s law

• Magnetic field is produced by a vector source, the current element Idl . But electrostatic field is

produced by a scalar source, the electric charge.

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• Both are long range, since both obey inverse square law. The principle of superposition applies
to both fields.
• The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the field point. The
magnetic field is perpendicular to the displacement vector
• There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present in the coulomb’s law
1
• Permeability µ 0 and permittivity ε 0 are related as µ 0 ε 0 =
c2
Magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor
The magnetic field at a point at perpendicular distance ‘r’ from a straight conductor carrying
current I is given by.

µ0 I
=B [sin φ1 + sin φ2 ]
4π r

 π
In case of the straight conductor of infinite length  φ1 =φ2 = 
 2

µ 0 2I µ 0 I 1
B= = ∴B∝
4π r 2πr r

 π µ0 I
At one end of a straight infinite conductor  φ1 = 0, φ2 =  B=
 2 4πr
Right hand thumb rule : If the linear conductor is grasped in the palm of the right hand with thumb
pointing along the direction of the current, then the curl fingers will point in the direction of lines
of force.

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• The conventional sign for a magnetic field coming out of the plane normal to it is a dot. ie. 
• The magnetic field perpendicular to the and pointing into the plane, normal to it is denoted by ⊗
• The magnetic induction at the centre of a square loop of wire of side a carrying a current I is

2 2 µ0 I
B=
πa
Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular coil
• For a coil of radius a consisting of N turns and carrying current I, the magnetic field at a point on
the axis at a distance d from the centre is :
µ 0 2π NIa 2 µ 0 NIa 2 µ0 2M
=B = 2 2 3/2
= 2 2 3/2
;B
4π (a + d ) 2(a + d ) 4π (a + d 2 )3/2
2

Where M = NIA is the magnetic moment of the loop of wire which acts as a magnetic dipole. and
A = π a2 is the area of the coil.
µ 0 NI
• at the centre of the coil B0 =
2a
B0
• at d = a, B =
8
• The current carrying loop behaves as a small magnetic dipole placed along the axis. One face of
the loop acts as north pole while the other face acts as south pole.
• The face in which the current is flowing in clockwise direction behaves as south pole while the
face through which the current is flowing in anticlockwise direction behaves as south pole.

µ0 I
At the centre of a semi circle B =
4a

µ 0 Iα
a, B
At the centre of the arc of a circle of angle= (α in radian)
4πa

Right hand thumb rule : Curl the fingers of the right hand around the circular wire with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current, then the thumb gives the direction of the magnetic
field.
• Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field around any closed path is
equal to µ 0 times the current enclosed by the path.
 
∫  = µ0 Ienclosed
B.d

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This law holds for steady current which do not fluctuate with time.
Field due to a long straight wire of radius ‘a’ carrying steady current I.

At a point outside the wire (r=

> a) B
µ0 I I
or B ∝
2πr r

µ0 I
On the surface of the wire (r = a) B =
2πa

µ 0 Ir
(r < a) B
At a point inside the wire = or B ∝ r
2πa 2

Field due to a solenoid

µ 0 nI
=
If a solenoid of n turns per unit length carries a current I, then field B [cos θ1 − cos θ2 ] ,
2
where θ1 and θ2 are the angle made by the ends of the solenoid with its axis at point.
• Magnetic field at a point well inside the solenoid, B = µ 0 nI
µ 0 nI B
• Bend
Field at one end of the solenoid, = =
2 2
• A solenoid acts as a magnetic dipole
• Direction of magnetic field can be found out by right hand thumb rule
Field due to a toroid
The magnetic field produced in toroid will be same at all points and at any point it will act along
the tangent to the ring. B = µ 0 ni
For any point inside the empty space surrounded by the toroid and outside the toroid magnetic
field is zero.
Toroid produces magnetic field without any magnetic poles
• Force on a charge ‘q’ in an electric field E is F = qE
qE
The acceleration of the charge is a =
m

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- BIOLOGY]

  
• Force on a charge ‘q’ in a uniform magnetic field B with velocity v is,= (
F q v ×B )
or F = qvB sin θ

Then magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity v and the work done by the magnetic force

is zero. Therefore magnetic force cannot change the speed of charged particle even if the field is
non-uniform.
Flemings left hand rule : If the forefinger, central finger and thumb are stretched at right angles
to each other, then central finger represents the direction of current, fore finger represents field
and thumb represents force.
Lorentz Force : The total force experienced by a charge moving inside the electric and magnetic
field is called lorentz force. It is given by
   
(
F = q E + v × B 
  )
Motion of a charge in a magnetic field
• The charge does not experience any force, if it is at rest or if it moves along the direction of
magnetic field.
• If velocity and magnetic field are perpendicular, the force on the charge make it to move along a
circular path. If r is the radius of the circular path, then

mv 2 qBr mv P 2mE
= qvB ∴v= or r= = =
r m qB qB qB

Where, P - momentum, E = kinetic energy

If the charge accelerated through a potential difference V then E = qV

2mqV
∴r=
qB

2πr 2πm
T
Time period of revolution= =
v qB

Time period is independent of velocity and radius of the path

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 
If v and B makes an angle ‘ θ ’, then due to the perpendicular component of velocity v sin θ the

charge moves along a circular path of radius, r =

mv sin θ . The parallel component of velocity
qB

v cos θ makes the charge to moves along the direction of the magnetic field. Then the charge

2π mv cos θ
moves along a helical path. The pitch of the helix is, pitch =
qB

Velocity selector
If the electric field, magnetic field and velocity of the particle are mutually perpendicular as shown
in figure.
 
FE = ˆ F =
qEj, qv ×B=− qvBjˆ
B

total force=F q (E − vB)ˆj

E
If the total force on the charge is zero then qE = qvB or v = .
B

E
Therefore only particles with speed pass undeflected through the region of crossed fields.
B
This method was used by J.J. Thomson to measure (e/m) of an electron.

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- BIOLOGY]

Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor

A conductor of length ‘  ’ carrying current I placed in a uniform magnetic field B experiences a

  
force F =× (
I  B or F = )
I  B sin θ

Thus force is perpendicular to both the field and conductor. Force is maximum, when the magnetic
field acts at right angles to the length of the conductor and the force is zero, when the length of
the conductor is parallel to the magnetic field.
Force between two infinitely long parallel current carrying conductors
Force per unit length of the conductor is
µ 0 2I1I 2
F= where I1 and I2 are the currents through the conductors and r is the separation
4π r

between conductors.
• The force is attractive, if currents are in the same direction and repulsive if currents are in opposite
directions.
• When a coil of area A having N turns and carrying current I, is suspended in a magnetic field of
strength B then the torque acts on the coil is
t = NIAB sin θ = MB sin θ
Where M = NIA - magnetic moment of the coil.

θ - angle between the direction of B and normal to the plane of the coil.
  
In vector form τ = M × B

If makes B an angle with the plane of the= coil τ NIABcos
= θ MBcos α
Moving coil galvanometer : It is a device used to measure small electric current. A current
carrying loop or coil experience a torque in a uniform magnetic field. This is the principle of
moving coil galvanometer.
The radial field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Thus torque acts on the coil is τ = NIAB
If φ is the angle of rotation of the coil, the restoring torque τ = kφ where k- tortional constant of

the spring. In equilibrium k φ = NIAB

NAB k
or φ= I or I= φ= Gφ
k NAB

k
=
Where G = galvanometer constant
NAB

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φ NAB
Current sensitivity : = (rad A −1 )
I k

φ NAB
Voltage sensitivity = (rad V −1 ), Where R - Resistance of the coil.
V kR

Ammeter :

A Galvanometer of resistance G can be converted into an ammeter of range I, by connecting a

small resistance S called shunt parallel to the galvanometer, which is given by

Ig G
S=
I − Ig

Since Ig G = (I - Ig)S

Where, Ig - current through galvanometer

GS
Resistance of the ammeter is R A =
G +S

Ammeter is a low resistance device and always connected in series to the circuit.

Voltmeter

A Galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter read up to V by connecting a large resistance

V
‘R’ in series to the galvanometer and R= −G
Ig

Resistance of voltmeter RV = R + G

It is a high resistance device and always connected in parallel to the circuit.

Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron

Let T be the time period of revolution, r be the orbital radius of the electron and v the orbital
2πr e ev
speed, then T = and current =
I =
v T 2 πr

2 evr
The orbital magnetic moment µ  = IA = Iπr =
2

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- BIOLOGY]

e e
=
or µ=
 IA =mvr =L, L mvr , angular momentum of the electron
2m 2m

µ e
= is called gyromagnetic ratio
L 2m

nh
According to Bobr hypothesis L = , n =1, 2, 3........
2π

enh
∴ µL =
4πm

eh
Its minimum value is ( µ  )min = = 9.27 ×10−24 Am 2 and is called the Bohr magneton.
4 πm

Electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment due to the spin motion of electron and is known as
e
spin magnetic moment µs = S, Where S - spin angular momentum
2m

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

QUESTIONS 4. Two ions having equal masses but charges

LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] in the ratio 1 : 2 are projected perpendicular
to a uniform magnetic field with speeds in the
1. A positive charge moving with a constant ratio 2 : 3. The ratio of the radii of the circular
velocity v enters a region of a uniform paths along which the two ions move is
magnetic field pointing into the page. What
is the direction of the magnetic force on the 1) 4 : 3 2) 2 : 3
charge? 3) 3 : 2 4) 1 : 4
5. Electron of mass m and charge e is travelling
with a speed V along the circular path of
radius r at right angle to uniform magnetic
field B. If the speed of electron is doubled
and magnetic field is halved, the resulting
path would have a radius
1) 4r 2) 2r
r r
3) 4)
1) Left
4 2

2) Right 6. If B1 is the magnetic field induction at a point

on the axis of a circular coil of radius R
3) To the bottom of the page
situated at a distance R 3 and B2 is the
4) To the top of the page magnetic field at the centre of the coil, then
2. Under the influence of a uniform magnetic B1
the ratio of is equal to
field a charged particle is moving in a circle B2
of radius R with constant speed v. The time
period of the motion.
1 1
1) depends on both R and V 1) 2)
3 8
2) Is independent of both R and V
3) depends on R but not on V 1 1
3) 4)
4) depends on V but not on R 4 2

3. Two particles X and Y having equal charges, 7. A current of 10A passes through two very
after being accelerated through same long wires held parallel to each other and
potential difference enter a region of uniform separated by a distance of 1m. The
magnetic field and describe circular paths of magnitude of force per unit length between
radii R1 and R2 respectively. The ratio of the µ0
mass of X to that of Y is: them is [Use = 10−7 in SI unit]
4π
1/2
R  R2 −5
1)  1  2) 1) 2 × 10 N / m
 R2  R1
−5
2) 3 × 10 N / m
−5
R 
2 3) 4 × 10 N / m
R
3)  1  4) 1 −6
 R2  R2 4) 5 × 10 N / m

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS
 11. If the current sensitivity of a galvanometer is
8. The magnetic field dB due to small current
  doubled, then its voltage sensitivity will be
element d  at a distance r from an element
carrying current i is: 1) doubled 2) halved
 
 µ 2  d  × r  3) unchanged 4) four times
1) dB = 0
i  
4π  r 2  12. The magnetic field due to a long straight
conductor of uniform cross section of radius a
  and carrying a steady current is represented
 µ  d  × r  by
2) dB = 0
i 
4π  r 3 
B
  1)
 µ 2  d  × r 
3) dB = 0 i  3 
4π  r  r
a

  B
 µ  d  × r 
4) dB = 0 i  2  2)
4π  r 
r
9. The magnetic field at a distance r from a thin a
long wire carrying current i is 0.4 Tesla. The
magnetic field at a distance 2r is

1) 0. 1 T B

2) 0.2T
3)
3) 0.8T r
a
4) 1.06T

10. Two long parallel wires at a distance ‘d’ apart B

carry currents of 1A and 3A in the same
direction. The wire carrying 1A current lies to
left of the other wire. The point at which their 4)
magnetic fields cancel are locate at r
a
1) A distance of d/4 to the right of the first wire 13. Magnetic field dB to a current element at any
having current 1 A point on its axis is
2) A distance of d/4 to the right of the second
1) Maximum
wire having current 3 A
2) Zero
3) A distance of d/4 to the left of the second
wire having current 3 A 3) Varies between minimum and maximum
4) A distance of 3d/4 to the right of the 4) Depends on the position of the point
second wire having current 3 A

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14. A straight wire of length 0.5m and carrying a 19. A straight wire carrying current I is made into
current of 1.2 ampere is placed in a uniform a circular loop. If M is the magnetic moment
magnetic field of induction 2 tesla. The associated with the loop, then the length of
magnetic field is perpendicular to the length the wire is
of the wire. The force on the wire is
M
1) 2.4N 2) 1.2 N 1) L =
4πI
3) 3.0 N 4) 2N

15. Current is flowing in two long parallel 2π

conductors in the same direction. The 2) L = M
L
conductors

1) Attract each other

4πM
2) Repel each other 3) L =
I
3) Neither attract nor repel
L
4) = 4πM.I
4) Get perpendicular to each other
20. A positive charge is moving downward in a
16. A conducting circular loop of radius r carries magnetic field which is towards north. The
a constant current I. It is placed in a uniform
 particle will be deflected towards
magnetic field such that B is perpendicular
to the plane of the loop. the magnetic force 1) east 2) west
acting on the loop is;
3) north 4) south
1) IrB 2) 2πrB
21. A charged particle moves in a circular path
3) zero 4) πrIB in a uniform magnetic field. If its speed is
reduced, then its time period will
17. A wire of length 2m carrying a current of 1A is
bend to form a circle. The magnetic moment 1) increase
of the coil is (in A-m2) 2) decrease
1) 2π 2) π / 2 3) remain same

4) none of these
3) π / 4 4) 4. 1 π
22. If the galvanometer current is 10 mA,
18. A circular coil of radius 4cm and of 20 turns resistance of the galvanometer is 40
carries a current of 3A. It is placed in a Ω and shunt of 2 Ω is connected to the
magnetic field of 0.5T. The magnetic dipole galvanometer, the maximum current which
moment of the coil is can be measured by this ammeter is
1) 0.15 A-m2 1) 0.21 A
2) 0.3 A-m2 2) 2.1 A
3) 0.45 A-m2 3) 210 A

4) 0.6 A-m2 4) 21 A

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23. The magnetic induction at point O of the 27. Two particles ‘A’ and ‘B’ having equal charges
given infinitely long current carrying wire +6C, after being accelerated through the
shown in the figure below is same potential difference, enter a region of
uniform magnetic field and describe circular
path of radii 2cm and 3cm respectively. The
ratio of mass of ‘A’ to that of ‘B’ is

4 9
1) 2)
9 5
µ 0 I  3π  µ0 I
1) 1 −  2)
4πR  2  2R (1 + π ) 1 1
3) 4)
2 3
µ 0 I  3π  µ0 I 28. A part of a long wire carrying current ‘i’ is bent
3) 1 +  4)
4πR  2  4πR into a circle of radius ‘r’ as shown in figure.
The net magnetic field at the centre ‘o’ of the
24. A long solenoid has 200 turns per cm and circular loop is
carries a current of 2.5 A. The magnetic field
( −7
at its centre is µ 0 = 4π×10 Wb / Am )
−2 2
1) 3.15 × 10 Wb / m

−2 2
2) 6.28 × 10 Wb / m

−2 2
3) 9.42 × 10 Wb / m
µ 0i µ 0i
1) 2)
−2
4) 12.56 × 10 Wb / m
2
4r 2r

25. In a circular coil (1) of radius R, current I is µ 0i µ 0i

flowing and in another coil (2) of radius 2R 3) (π + 1) 4) (π − 1)
2πr 2πr
a current 2I is flowing, then the ratio of the
magnetic fields produced by the two coils is
29. A charged particle enters a magnetic field B
1) 1:1 2) 1:2 with its initial velocity making an angle of 450
with B. The path of the particle will be
3) 2:1 4) 3:1
1) a straight line 2) a circle
26. Two similar coils are kept mutually
3) an ellipse 4) a helix
perpendicular such that their centres
coincide. At the centre, find the ratio of 30. A moving charge will produce
the magnetic field due to one coil and the
resultant magnetic field through both coils, if 1) no field
the same current is flown
2) an electric field
1) 1: 2 2) 1:3
3) a magnetic field
3) 1:2 4) 3 :1 4) both 2 and 3

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LEVEL - II 
6. Force F experience by a charge q moving

1. In which of the following case no force with a velocity v -in an electric field of

exerted by a magnetic field on a charge ? strength E -and a magnetic field of strength

1) Moving with constant velocity B -is
   
2) Moving in a circle 1) F= q  E + v × B  ( )
3) At rest
4) Moving along a curved path    
2) F= q  B + v + E  ( )
2. A positive charge is moving upward in a
magnetic field which is towards north. The
    
particle will be deflected towards
=
3)  ( ) (
F q  v.E + B × v 
 )
1) East
2) West     
(
4) F= q  v × E + v × B  ) ( )
3) North
4) South 7. A horizontal overhead power line is at a
height of 4m is from the ground and carries a
3. A proton and an α - particle moving with the
current of 100 A from east to west. The
same velocity enter into a uniform magnetic
magnetic field directly below it on the ground
field, acting normal to the plane of their
motion. The ratio of the radii of the circular ( −7
is µ 0 = 4π ×10 T m A
−1
)
paths described by the proton and α - particle is
−7
1) 2.5 ×10 T northward
1) 1 : 2 2) 1 : 4
3) 1 : 16 4) 4 : 1 −7
2) 2.5 ×10 T southward
4. The acceleration of an electron at a certain −6
3) 5 ×10 T northward
moment in a magnetic field B = 2iˆ + 3jˆ + 4kˆ
is a = xiˆ + ˆj − k.
ˆ The value of x is −6
4) 5 ×10 T southward

1) 0.5 2) 1 8. The magnetic field intensity produced at O

due to current carrying wire shown in the
3) 2.5 4) 1.5 figure will be
5. An α -particle crosses a space without any
deflection. If electric field E = 8×10⁶ Vm–1 and
magnetic field is B = 1.6 T, the velocity of
particle is
6 −1 µ0 I µ0 I
1) 2.5 ×10 ms 1) 2)
2r 2 πr
6 −1
2) 5 ×10 ms
6
3) 8 ×10 ms
−1 µ0 I µ0 I
3) 4)
7 −1
4r 4 πr
4) 5 ×10 ms

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9. A conducting wire bent in the form of a 12. A long straight wire of radius a carries a
parabola y2 = 2x carries a current = 2A as steady current I, the current is uniformly
shown in figure. This wire is placed in a distributed over its cross section. The ratio of

uniform magnetic field B = − 4kˆ tesla. The the magnetic fields B and B’, at radial
magnetic force on the wire (in newton) a
distance and 2a respectively, from the
2
axis of the wire is
1 1
1) 2)
4 2

3) 1 4) 4
13. A long solenoid carrying a current produces
a magnetic field B along its axis. If the current
1) −16 ˆi 2) 32 ˆi is doubled and the number of turns per cm
is halved. then new value of the magnetic
field is
3) −32 ˆi 4) 16 ˆi
1) B 2) 2 B
10. A long wire carries a steady current. It is bent
3) 4 B 4) B/2
into a coil of one turn such that magnetic
induction at centre is B, then same wire is 14. A, B and C are parallel conductors of
bent to form a coil of smaller radius of n turns equal length carrying currents I, I and 2I
when magnetic induction at centre is B’ then respectively. Distance between A and B
is x. Distance between B and C is also x.
1) B’ = B 2) B’ = nB F1 is the force exerted by B on A. F2 is the
force exerted by C on A. Choose the correct
B answer.
3) B’ = n2B 4) B =
n
11. Two wires with currents 2 A and I A are
enclosed in a circular loop. Another wire with
current 3A is situated outside the loop as
 
shown below. The ∫ B.dI around the loop
is;
   
1) F1 = 2F2 2) F2 = 2F1
2A 1A 3A    
3) F1 = F2 4) F1 = − F2
15. An electron having charge 'e' is moving with
a constant speed ν along a circle of radius r.
Its magnetic moment will be

1) µ 0 2) 3µ 0 eνr
1) e ν r 2)
2
3) 6µ 0 4) 2µ 0
3) 2πreν 4) Zero

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LEVEL III 19. A galvanometer has 25 divisions and

resistance of 50 Ω . A current of 4 × 10–4 A
16. Magnetic moment and angular momentum of gives a deflection of one division. To convert
an orbital electron are ‘M’ and L respectively. this galvanometer into voltmeter having a
Specific charge of orbital election. range of 25 V, it should be connected with a
M M resistance of
1) 2)
2L L 1) 2500 Ω as a shunt

2M 2L 2) 2450 Ω as a shunt
3) 4)
L M
3) 2550 Ω in series
17. A 50 cm long wire is bent to form a particular
geometrical shape. It carries a current of 4) 2450 Ω in series
15A and is kept in a magnetic field of 0.01 T.
The maximum torque obtainable using this 20. A straight wire of mass 300g and length 2.5m
arrangement is : carries a current of 3.5A. it is suspended in
mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field
1) 3 × 10–3 Nm B. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field ?
2) 3 × 102 Nm
1) 0.654 T
3) 3 × 10–2 Nm
4) 0.2 Nm 2) 0.34 T

18. A uniform magnetic field of 3000 G is 3) 1.576 T

established along the positive Z - direction.
A rectangular loop of sides 10 cm and 5 cm 4) 0.939 T
carries a current of 12 A. The torque on the
loop in the two cases shown are : Assertion & Reason Type

1) If both Assertion & Reason are True and

the Reason is a correct explanation of the
Assertion

2) If both Assertion & Reason are True and

the Reason is not a correct explanation of
the Assertion

3) If Assertion is True but the Reason is False

1) (i) Zero (ii) 1.8 × 10–2 Nm along positive y 4) If both Assertion & Reason are false
axis
21. Assertion : A linear solenoid carrying
2) (i) 1.8 × 10–2 Nm along negative y - axis (ii)
current is equivalent to a bar
zero
magnet.
3) (i) zero (ii) 1.8 × 10–2 Nm along negative
y - axis Reason : The magnetic field lines due
to current carrying solenoid
4) (i) 1.8 × 10–2 Nm along negative z - axis (ii) resemble exactly with those
zero of a bar magnet.

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

22. Assertion : If a charged particle is 25. Match the physical quantities of Column I with
released from rest in a their mathematical expressions in Column II
region of uniform electric
Column I Column II
and magnetic fields parallel
to each other, it will move in Torque in a circular
a straight line. current loop placed µ 0i
A) in uniform magnetic 1)
2R
Reason : The electric field exerts no field
force on the particle but the Force per unit length
magnetic field does. between parallel
B) 2) iABsin θ
current carrying
23. A wire carrying a current I along the positive wires
x-axis has length L. It is kept in a magnetic
 Magnetic field at the
field B = ( )
2iˆ − 3jˆ − 4kˆ T. The magnitude of C) centre of a circular 3)
mV
current carrying loop qB
the magnetic force acting on the wire is :
Radius of circular
path of a charge
1) 5 IL µ 0i1i 2
D) particle moving 4)
uniform magnetic 2πd
2) 5 IL field
1) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
3) 3 IL
2) A-2, B-2, C-4, D-3
4) 3IL 3) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
4) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
24. A coil in the shape of an equilateral triangle
of side  is suspended between the pole 26. A current-carrying short coil behaves likes a
pieces of a permanent magnet such that B is short magnet. if the area of the coil is A and
in the plane of the coil. If due to current I in magnetic moment is M, then current in the
coil is
the triangle, a torque τ acts on it. The side 
of the triangle is M A
1) 2)
A M
2  τ 
1)   3) MA 4) A2M
3  Bi 
27. A straight horizontal conducting rod of length
‘L’ and mass ‘M’ is suspended by two vertical
1/2 wires at its ends. If ‘I’ is the current passing
2) 2  τ  through the rod, then in order that tension
 
 3 Bi  in the wire is zero, the magnetic field set up
normal to the conductor is
1/2 (Neglect the mass of wire, g = acceleration
3)
2  τ  due to gravity)
 
3  Bi  IL Mg
1) 2)
M IL2
4) 1 τ
Mg Mg
3 Bi 3) 4)
IL I2 L

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

28. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop Numerical

of area A is B. Then the magnetic moment
29. A moving coil galvanometer has a rectangular
of the loop is ( µ 0 -permeability of the free coil of 10 turns and length and breadth 5cm
space) and 2cm respectively situated in a radial
magnetic field of 0.4T. The coil is suspended
BA 2 BA A by a torsion wire of torsional rigidity
1) 2) 2 × 10–6 N-m/degree. The current sensitivity
µ0 π µ0
is x degree per mA, where x is
30. The magnetic field at a point due to a current
BA A 2BA A carrying conductor is '3T'. if the current
3) 4) flowing through a conductor is doubled then
µ0 π µ0 π
magnetic field will be [in Tesla]

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 Chapter
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
04

SYNOPSIS

Magnetic Field Lines

Form continuous closed loops

Tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field B at that
point

Bar Magnet

2 equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by small distance

A Magnetic dipole :- Consist of a pair of magnetic poles of equal and opposite strength separated
by small distance.

Magnetic moment of a bar magnet :- is defined as a vector quantity having magnitude equal to the
product of pole strength (m) with effective length (l) and it is directed along the axis of the magnet
from south pole to north pole ie M = m

It is an axial vector

Its S.I. unit is Am2

• A bar magnet attracts certain magnetic substances. The attracting power of the magnet is maximum
at two points near the ends called poles

• Pole Strength : The attracting power of a bar magnet at its poles called pole strength

• The pole strength of north pole and south pole of a bar magnet is conventionally represented by
+m and -m respectively

• The pole strength is a scalar quantity its unit is A.m.

• The pole strength of a bar magnet is directly proportional to its area of cross section. ie m α A

• The attracting power of a bar magnet at its centre point is zero. So it is called neutral point

• Magnetic poles are always exist in pairs ie monopole does not exist in magnetism. So Gauss law
in magnetism given as ∫ B.ds = 0
• Effective length or magnetic length:- It is distance between two poles along the axis of a bar
magnet. As poles are not exactly at the ends, the effective length (l) is less than the geometrical
length (l0) of the bar magnet. ie l = 0.84 l0

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• Inverse square law:- The magnetic force between two isolated magnetic poles of strength m1
and m2 lying at a distance ‘r’ is directly proportional to product of poles strength and inversely
proportional to the square of distance between their centers.
m1m mm
ie F α 2
or F =
k 12 2
r r
µ0
(SI )
4π

where K

1(c.g.s)
• If a magnet is cut into two equal parts along the length then pole strength is reduced to half and
m M
length remains unchanged. New magnet moment M1 = m1 × l = ×=
2 2
• If a magnet is cut into two equal parts perpendicular to its length, then pole strength remains
M
unchanged and length reduced to half. The new magnetic dipole moment M1 =m× / 2 =
2
• The magnetic dipole moment of a magnet is equal to product of pole strength and distance
between poles. ie M = m × l
• As magnetic moment is a vector, in case of two magnets having magnetic moments M1 and M2
with angle θ between them, the resulting magnetic moment
1/2
M =  M12 + M 22 + 2M1M 2 Cosθ  with direction
 M 2Sinθ 
tan φ =  
 M1 + M 2 cos θ 
• Magnetic dipole in magnetic field
Torque on magnetic dipole
θ= 90 ⇒ τ= MB ( max i )
=
(a) Bar Magnet τ MBsin θ

=θ 0 or180
= ⇒ τ 0 ( min i )


In vector form τ= M × B
(
(b) Coil or loop τ= M × B, τ= NI A × B )
θ= 90 ⇒ τ= BINA ( max i )
=τ BINA sin θ

=θ 0 or180
= ⇒ τ 0 ( min i )

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Fnet = 0 ( not translatory motion )

Dipole in uniform magnetic field

τ − may or may not be zero ( decided by θ )

Fnet ≠ 0 ( not translatory motion )

Dipole in non uniform magnetic field

τ − may or may not be zero ( decided by θ )

θ2 θ2

• τ.dθ
Work done in rotating a magnetic dipole= ∫ ∫ MBsin
= θ dθ MB ( cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
θ1 θ1

If the magnetic dipole is rotated from field direction, Then work done
(1) in one - rotation ( θ1 = 0, θ2 = 360 )
W = MB (cos 0 - cos 360) = 0
(2) in 3/4 rotation ( θ1 = 0, θ2 = 270 )
W = MB (cos 0 - cos 270) = MB
(3) in half rotation ( θ1 = 0, θ2 = 180 )
W = MB (cos 0 - cos 180) = 2 MB.
(4) in 1/4 rotation ( θ1 = 0, θ2 = 90 )
W = MB (cos 0 - cos 90) = MB.
• Work done to rotate a dipole in a magnetic field is stored in the form of potential energy of magnetic
dipole.
• Potential energy of magnetic dipole - defined as work done in rotating the dipole from a direction
perpendicular to the given direction
ie U =Wθ − W90 =MB (1 − cos θ ) − MB =− MBcos θ

 
In vector form U = − M.B
• When M and B are parallel ( θ =0 ) , the dipole has minimum potential energy and it is in stable

equilibrium
U = –MB (minimum)
When M and B are antiparallel ( θ =180 ) the dipole has maximum P.E. and it is in unstable

equilibrium, U = + MB (maxi)

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• When M and B are perpendicular to each other ( θ =90 ) , the dipole has potential energy U = 0

and in this situation maximum torque acts on it hence no equilibrium.

Magnetism & Gauss’s Law
• The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero
 
∫ ds = 0
B.
• Atomic Magnetism:
Bohr’s Postulates
mv 2 kze 2 h
(i) = 2 (ii) L =
MrV =
n × where n =
1, 2,3...........
r r 2π
Basic elements of atomic magnetism
(a) Orbital current

e ev ew
=l ef= = =
T 2πr 2π

µ 0 I µ 0 ef µ 0 e µ 0 ev µ 0 ew
(b) Magnetic Induction at nucleus position, BN
= = = = =
2r 2r 2Tr 4πr 2 4πr

2 πr 2 e evr ewr 2
(c) Magnetic moment of circular orbit, M= IA= ef × πr = = =
T 2 2
• Relation between magnetic moment and angular momentum of orbital electron

eVr m eL  −eL
M= × = ; In vector form M =
2 m 2m 2m
 
So for electron its M and L both are antiparallel axial vectors.
Bohr Magneton ( µ B ) - Bohr magneton can be defined as the magnetic moment of orbital electron
which revolves in first orbit of the hydrogen atom.
eh 1.6 ×10−19 × 6.6 ×10−34
µ=
B = = 0.923 ×10−23 Am 2
−31
4πm 4 × 3.14 × 9.1×10

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- BIOLOGY]

I
• Time period of oscillation of suspended magnet . T = 2π Where M = magnetic moment of
bar magnet. MBH
I - Moment inertia of bar magnet about its geometric axis.
• Magnetic field due to a bar magnet
µ 2Mr µ 0 2M
(i) At axial position Ba = × = ×
0

4π ( r −  ) 4π r 3
2 2

µ M µ0 M
(i) At equatorial position Be = 4π × 2 ≈ ×
0

( )
3/2
r + 2 4π r 3

Magnetic Materials

• ( )
Magnetic field or magnetic intensity H − Field in which a material is placed for magnetisation,
called as magnetising field.
 B0 Magnetic field
( H=) =
µ 0 Permeability of free space
• Its S.I. unit is A/m

• Intensity of magnetisation I ()
When a magnetic material is placed in magnetising field then induced dipole moment / unit volume
 
m
of that material is known as intensity of magnetisation I − =
v
S.I. unit is Ampere / Meter
I
• Magnetic Susceptibility ( χ m ) = (It is a scalar with no units and dimensions)
H
• Physically it represent the way with which a magnetic material can be magnetised
Bm Total magnetic field inside the material
• Magnetic Permeability ( µ=
) =
H Magneti sin g field
its unit is TmA-1 or NA-2
µ
• Relative permeability µ r =
µ0
It has no units and dimensions
Relation between permeability and susceptibility
We know Bm = B0 + Bi = µ 0 H + µ 0 I
µ0 ( H + I )
Bm =
Bm  I
= µ 0 1 +  = µ 0 (1 + χ m ) ;
H  H
µ = µ 0 (1 + χ m ) ; µ r = (1 + χ m )

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Classification of magnetic materials

On the basis of magnetic properties of the materials materials are divided into three classes.

Properties Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Cause of magnetism Orbital motion of elec- Spin motion of elec- Formation of domains
trons trons
Substance placed in Poor magnetisation Poor magnetisation in Strong magnetisation
uniform magnetic field in opposite direction. same direction. Here in same direction.
Here Bm< B0 Bm>B0 Here Bm>>B0
I → small, negative I-small, positive var- I-very large, positive
ies linearly with field. & varies non-linearly
varies linearly with with field.
field

I - H Curve

χ m → small, negative
χm − T 1 1
and temperature χmα χmα ( T > TC )
0 T T − TC
independent χ m α T

χm X

TC T TC T
µr >>> 1 ,Ni
Ex:
Bi, Cu, Ag, Pb, H 2 O
Na, K, Mg, Mn
Hg, H 2 , He, Ne, Au Fe3O 4 Gd, A ln ico, etc Iron, Cobalt,
Sn, Al, O 2 Nickel, CrO­2,
Zn,Sb, NaCl Gadolinium etc.
Diamond

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Magnetic Hysteresis

The lagging of intensity of magnetisation (or magnetic Induction) behind the magnetising field,
when a magnetic specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetisation, is called hysterisis.

Residual Magnetism (Ob) = BK = retentivity = remanence - The value of Intensity of magnetisation of

the magnetic material, when the magnetising field is reduced to zero is called retentivity.

Coercivity (oc) = The value of reverse magnetising field which has to be applied to the magnetic
material so as to reduce the residual magnetisation to zero is called its coercivity.

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

QUESTIONS 5. The distance between two magnetic poles

is doubled and their pole strength is also
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] doubled. The force between them
1. The magnetic dipole moment m in a current 1) Increase four times
loop is given by 2) Decreases by half
1) AI 2) NAI 3) Remains unchanged
3) RNAI 4) NAI 4) Increases to two times
2 6. A steel wire of length '  ' has magnetic
2. The magnitude of the magnetic moment of moment ‘M’. It is bent into semicircular arc.
The new magnetic moment is:
the solenoid of length 2 ,radius a and
having n turns per unit length is : 2M
1) 2) M
1) m n ( 2 ) Iπa 2
= π

3) M 4) M × 
2) m n ( 4 ) Iπa
2
= 
7. A magnet of magnetic moment ‘M’ and pole
3) m n ( 2 ) 2Iπa
2
= strength ‘m’ is cut into two equal parts along
the axis of magnet then magnetic moment of
each part will be
4) m n ( 2 2 ) I ( πa )
2
= 1) M 2) M/2
3) M/4 4) 2M
3. The North-pole and South pole of a bar
magnet of length ‘ 2 ’ is assigned a magnetic 8. The magnetic field at a distance ‘d’ from
a short bar magnet in longitudinal and
charge (also called pole strength) +qm and transverse positions are in the ratio:
-qm respectively. The magnetic moment of
the bar magnet is 1) 1 : 1 2) 2 : 3

1) 2qm ( 2 ) 2) 4qm ( 2 ) 3) 2 : 1 4) 3 : 2
9. The equatorial field (BE) of a bar magnet with
magnetic moment m at a distance r for r >> 
qm
3) ( 2 ) 4) qm ( 2 ) where  is the size of the magnet is that
2
µ0 m −µ 0 m
1) 2)
4. The north-pole and south pole of a bar 4πr 3 4πr 3
magnet of length ‘ 2 ’ is assigned a magnetic
charge (also called pole strength) +qm and 3) µ 0 m 4) −µ 0 m
3
-qm respectively 4π 4π3
The field due to qm at a distance ‘r’ from it is 10. The axial field (BA) of a bar magnet for r >> 
given by is
µ 0 qm −µ 0 2m µ 0 2m
1) 2) 2µ 0 qm 1) 2)
2πr 2 πr 2 4π r 3 4π r 3

3µ 0 qm µ 0 qm µ 0 2m −µ 0 2m
3) 4) 3) 4)
4πr 2 4πr 2 4π  3 4π  3

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11. A small compass needle of known magnetic 16. Gauss’s law for magnetism is
moment m and moment of inertia I is allowed
1) The net magnetic flux through any closed
to oscillate in the magnetic field B Time
surface is B. ∆S .
period of oscillation of the dipole is
2) The net magnetic flux through any closed
2I I surface is E. ∆S .
1) 2π 2) 2π
mB 2mB 3) The net magnetic flux through any closed
surface is 0
3) I 4) I
4π 2π 4) Both 1 and 3
mB mB
17. Magnetisation M is a
12. A small compass needle of known magnetic 1) Vector quantity
moment m and moment of inertia I is allowed
to oscillate in the magnetic field B The 2) Scalar quantity
magnetic potential energy Um is given by 3) neither (1) nor (2)
1) U m = − m.B 2) U m = m.B 4) Both 1 and 2
18. Magnetic intensity is defined by
3) U m = 2m.B 4) U m = −2m.B
 B B
ˆ 2 is placed H
1) = −M H
2) = +M
13. A magnet of moment m = 50iAm µ0 µ0
along the x-axis in a magnetic field 2B
 µ0 ( M − B)
=B ( 0.5iˆ + 3jˆ ) T . The torque acting on the 3) H = H
4) =
µ0
−M

magnet is: 19. Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit

length and carrying a current I. The magnetic
1) 175kˆ Nm 2) 150 kˆ Nm field at the centre of the solenoid is given by
3) 75iˆ Nm 4) 25 37 kˆ Nm 1) B0 = µ 0 I 2) B0 = −µ 0 I
14. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 0.3Am2 is
placed in a uniform magnetic field of 3) B0 = µ 0 nI 4) B0 = −µ 0 n
2 ×10−5 T If each pole of the magnet
20. Magnetisation inside the solenoid is given by
−5
experiences a force of 6 × 10 N , the length 1) M = 2χH 2) M = 3χH

of the magnet is: 3) M = χH 4) m = χH

4
1) 0.5m 2) 0.3m
3) 0.2m 4) 0.1m 21. B =µ 0µ r H . In the given equation µ r is

15. If a bar magnet of magnetic moment it is called

freely suspended in a uniform magnetic field
of strength B, the work done in rotating the 1) Relative magnetic permeability of a
magnet through an angle θ is substance
2) Magnetic susceptibility of substance
1) MB (1 − sin θ ) 2) MBsin θ
3) Magnetic permeability of substance
3) MBcos θ 4) MB (1 − cos θ ) ) 4) Both 1 and 3

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22. Which of the following materials have 28. The area enclosed by a hysteresis loop is a
tendency to move from stronger to weaker of measure of:
the magnetic field ?
1) Retentivity
1) Paramagnetic
2) Susceptibility
2) Diamagnetic
3) Permeability
3) Feromagnetic
4) Energy loss per cycle
4) All of these
29. χ − 1 graph for an alloy of paramagnetic
23. When will be the field lines completely expelled ? T
1) x =−1and µ r =0
nature is shown in the figure. The Curies
2) −1 ≤ χ and µ r >> 1 constant is:
3) χ ≤ 1and µ r << 1
4) neither 1 nor 2
24. Which of the following possess a permanent
magnetic dipole moment of their own ?
1) Diamagnetic 2) Paramagnetic
3) Copper 4) Lead 1 )

25. The magnetisation of a paramagnetic

material is inversely proportional to
1) Curie’s constant −3
50K 2) 2.8 × 10 K
2) absolute temperature −3
3) 570 K 4) 17.5 × 10 K
3) susceptibility
30. A paramagnetic liquid is filled in a glass
4) Permeability U-tube of which one limb is placed between
26. When the external field is removed in the pole pieces of an electromagnet. When
ferromagnetic materials the magnetisation the field is switched on the liquid in the limb
persists. Such materials are called which is in the field will:
1) Soft ferromagnetic materials 1) Rise
2) Hard ferromagnetic materials 2) Fall
3) neither 1 nor 2 3) Remain stationary
4) Diamagnetic materials 4) First rise and then fall
27. The temperature of transition from 31. Those substance which at room temperature
ferromagnetism to paramagnetism is called retain their ferromagnetic property for a long
the period of time are called
1) Absolute temperature 1) Permanent magnets
2) Curie temperature 2) Electromagnets
3) Both 1 and 2 3) Diamagnets
4) neither 1 nor 2 4) Paramagnet

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32. Assertion : A disc shaped magnet LEVEL - II

is deviated above a
1. A short bar magnet is of magnetic moment
superconducting material
m = 0.32 J/T is placed in a uniform magnetic
that has been cooled by
field of 0.15T. If the bar is free to rotate in the
liquid nitrogen
plane of the field the potential energy which
would correspond to its unstable equilibrium ?
Reason : Super conductors repel a
magnet 1) 4.8 × 10-2J 2) -4.8 × 10-2J
3) 7.5 × 10-2 J 4) 3.6 × 105J
1) If both Assertion and Reason are correct
and the Reason is a correct explanation of 2. Rate of change of torque with deflection is
the Assertion maximum for a magnet suspended freely in
a uniform magnetic field of induction B when
2) If both Assertion and Reason are correct 0 0
but Reason is not a correct explanation of 1) θ =0 2) θ =45
the Assertion
0
3) θ =60 4) θ =90
3) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is
incorrect 3. The dimension of magnetic permeability are
1) MLT-2A-2 2) ML2T-2A-2
4) If the Assertion is incorrect but the Reason
is correct 3) ML-2T-2A-1 4) ML-1T-2A-2
4. A current flows in a conducting wire of length
33. Choose the correct statement L if we bend it in a circular form its magnetic
dipole moment would be
1) A paramagnetic material tends to move
from a strong magnetic field to weak IL IL2
magnetic field 1) 2)
4π 4π
2) A magnetic material is in the paramagnetic
phase below its Curie temperature I2 L I 2 L2
3) 4)
4π 4π2
3) The resultant magnetic moment in an
atom of a diamagnetic substance is zero 5. If the total magnetic field strength due to earth
is 28 A/m, then the total magnetic induction
4) Typical domain size of a ferromagnetic due to earth is
material is 1nm
1) 28T 2) 280 T
34. Coersivity of a magnet where the ferromagnet 3) 0.352 gauss 4) 0.352 T
gets completely demagnetized is 3×103 Am-1.
What is the minimum current required to be 6. Core of electromagnets are made of
passed in a solenoid having 1000 turns per ferromagnetic materials which have
metre, so that the magnet gets completely 1) High permeability 2) Low retentivity
demagnetized ?
3) Both 1 and 2 4) None of these
35. An iron rod of volume 10 m and relative
-4 3
7. The susceptibility of magnesium at 300K
permeability 1000 is placed inside a long is 1.2 ×10-5. At what temperature will the
solenoid wound with 5 turns cm-1. If a current susceptibility increase to 1.8 × 10-5
of 0.5A is passed through the solenoid, then
1) 100 K 2) 200 K
the magnetic moment of the rod ?
3) 800K 4) 400 K

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8. Ratio of intensity of magnetisation and 3 −1

13. A bar magnet has coercivity 4 × 10 Am .It is
magnetising field is called
desired to demagnetise it by inserting it inside
1) Permeability a solenoid 12 cm long and having 60 turns.
2) Magnetic induction The current that should be sent through the
solenoid is :
3) Magnetic susceptibility
1) 2A 2) 4A
4) Magnetic Intensity
3) 6A 4) 8A
9. At curies point a ferromagnetic material
14. The magnetic moment produced in a
becomes
substance of mass 1 g is 6 × 10−7 Am 2 .If
1) non magnetic its density is 5g cm-3, then the intensity of
magnetisation in Am-1 will be:
2) diamagnetic
6
1) 8.3 × 10 2) 3
3) paramagnetic
−7 −6
3) 1.2 × 10 4) 3 × 10
4) Strongly ferromagnetic
15. Two magnets of same size and mass makes
10. The magnetic susceptibility of a material of a
respectively 10 and 15 oscillations per minute
rod is 499. Permeability in vaccum is
at certain place. The ratio of their magnetic
4π×10−7 H / m . Absolute permeability of the moments is :
material of the rod is 1) 4:9 2) 9:4
−4
1) 4π× 10 H / m 3) 2:3 4) 3:2
−4
2) 2π× 10 H / m LEVEL - III

−4 16. A magnet is parallel to a uniform magnetic

3) 3π× 10 H / m
field. It is rotated by 600. The work done is
−4
4) π× 10 H / m 0.8J. How much work is done in moving it
further 300 ?
11. Which of the following is true ?
1) 0.4J 2) 0.8J
1) Diamagnetism is temperature dependent
3) 1.2J 4) 1.6J
2) Paramagnetism is temperature dependent 17. A thin rectangular magnet suspended freely
3) Paramagnetism is temperature has a period of oscillation equal to ‘T’. Now it
independent is broken into two equal halves (each having
half of original length) and one piece is made
4) None of these to oscillate freely in the same field. It its
period of oscillations is T1, the ratio T1 is
12. If a magnetic substance is kept in a magnetic
field then which of the following is thrown out? T
1) Paramagnetic 1
1) 1 4 2)
2) Ferromagnetic 2 2
3) Diamagnetic
3) 1 2 4) 4
4) Antiferromagnetic

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18. A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 300 22. Two identical magnets each of magnetic
with a uniform external magnetic field of 0.25 moment M are arranged as shown. The net
T experiences a torque of magnitude equal magnetic moment of the system is
to 4.5 × 10-2 J. The magnitude of magnetic
moment of the magnet is

1) 0.38 J/T

2) 0.96 J/T

3) 0.45 J/T

4) 0.36 J/T

19. The magnetic induction along the axis of an

air solenoid is 0.03T. On placing an iron are 2M 4M
1) 2)
inside the solenoid the magnetic induction 5 5
becomes 15 T. The permeability of iron will
be
3M M
3) 4)
[wb A m ]
-1 -1 -1
5 5
1) 12.5 × 10-6 23. Two identical magnetic dipoles ‘A’ and ‘B’
2) 9.41 × 10 -5 each having a magnetic moment ‘m’ are
placed separated a distance ‘d’ with their
3) 6.28 × 10-4 axis perpendicular mutually. The magnetic
field midway between the dipole is:
4)3.14 × 10-3

20. A magnetic needle lying parallel to a

magnetic field requires W units of torque to
turn it through 600. The torque required to
maintain the needle in this position will be

1) 3w 2) w

3
3) w 4) 2w 2µ 0 m 5µ 0 m
2 1) 2)
4πd 3 4πd 3
21. A magnetized wire of magnetic moment ‘M’
is bent into an arc of a circle that subtends 2 5µ 0 m µ0 m
3) 4)
an angle of 600 at the centre. The equivalent πd 3 πd 3
magnetic moment is 24. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnet
M 2M material at -730c is 0.0075. its value at -1730c
1) 2) will be
π π
1) 0.015 2) 0.15
3M 4M 3) 15.0 4) 1.50
3) 4)
π π

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25. A rod of ferromagnetic material with Statement Type

dimensions 10 cm × 0.5cm × 0.2 cm is placed
in a magnetic field of strength 0.5×104 Am-1 28. Statement 1: The unit of intensity of
as a result of which a magnetic moment of magnetisation is Am-1.
5 Am2 is produced in the rod. The value of
magnetic induction will be
Statement 2 : Intensity of magnetisation
1) 0.54 T 2) 6.28T of a magnetic material is
3) 0.358 T 4) 2.591 T defined as the magnetic
moment per unit volume.
Assertion and Reason
26. Assertion : Soft iron is used as 1) Both statement 1 is true and statement 2
transformer core. is true
Reason : Soft iron has low hysterisis
loss 2) Both statement 1 is false and statement 2
is false.
1) Both A and R are correct and R is the
correct explanation of A
3) Statement 1 is true and statement 2 is
2) Both A and R are correct. But R is not
false
correct explanation of A
3) A is correct R is incorrect 4) Statement 1 is false and statement 2 is
4) A is incorrect R is correct true
27. Assertion : The poles of a magnet
cannot be separated by Numerical
breaking into two pieces.
29. A bar magnet with a magnetic moment 5
Reason : The magnetic moment will
be reduced to half when a Am2 is placed in parallel position relative to
magnet is broken into two a magnetic field of 0.4T. The amount work
equal pieces of half the done in turning the magnet from parallel
length of the magnet to antiparallel position relative to the field
direction is ............. J
1) Both A and R are correct and R is the
correct explanation of A
30. A solenoid of 1200 turns is wound uniformly
2) Both A and R are correct. But R is not in a single layer on a glass tube 2m long and
correct explanation of A 0.2m in diameter. The magnetic intensity at
3) A is correct R is incorrect the centre of the solenoid when current of 2A
flows through it is ......... Am–1
4) A is incorrect R is correct

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 Chapter
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
05 AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

SYNOPSIS
Magnetic Flux
• Magnetic flux over an area held in a magnetic field represents the number of magnetic field lines
force crossing the area normally.
 
• Magnetic flux over a small area ds held in a magnetic field B is
 
dφ B.ds
= = B ds cos θ
where θ is the angle between directions of field vector and area vector.
• The total magnetic flux through the surface
   
=φ ∫ B.ds
= B.A , if the field is uniform throughout the surface.

• The magnetic flux linked with a coil of N turns and area A placed in a uniform magnetic field of
induction B,
=φ N B A cos θ
• Flux is a scalar quantity.
• SI unit of magnetic flux is weber. 1 Wb = 1 T.m2
Electromagnetic Induction
• It is the phenomenon of generation of emf in a circuit by changing the magnetic flux associated
with it.
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law (Magnitude of Induced emf)
• First Law – Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is induced in it.
This induced emf lasts so long as the change in flux lasts
• Second Law – The magnitude of induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with it.
Lenz’s Law (Direction of Induced emf)
• The polarity of induced emf is always such as to oppose or tends to oppose the cause of change
in flux.
• Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.
dφ
• Induced emf e = −
dt

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e 1 dφ
• Induced current i = = −
R R dt

dφ φ1 − φ2
• ∫
Induced charge q =i dt = − ∫ R
=
R

Flemings Right Hand Rule

• Stretch out the thumb, fore figure and middle figure of the right hand along mutually perpendicular
directions with fore figure along the direction of magnetic field and the thumb along the direction
of motion of the conductor, then the direction along which the middle finger points will give the
direction of induced current.
Motional emf
When a conducting rod of length l moves with a velocity v in a uniform magnetic field B, the
motional emf between its two ends,
=e Blv sin θ
where is the angle made by the direction of magnetic field with the plane containing its length
and velocity.
• When a conducting rod of length L is rotated with uniform angular velocity in a perpendicular
magnetic field of strength B, the induced emf generated,

BωL2
=e = BAf
2

where f is the frequency of rotation and A is the area of the circle.

Self-Induction
• It is the property of a coil due to which the coil opposes any change in the strength of current
through it by inducing an emf.
• Coefficient of self-induction or self-inductance,
Flux linked with a coil φ
L =
Current through the coil i
e
emf induced in the coil
L = di
Rate of change of current through the coil dt

• SI unit of L is henry (H)

• Self-inductance of a solenoid of N turns, length l and area A with a core material having relative
permeability

µ 0µ r N 2 A
L=


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Mutual Induction
• It is the property of two coils due to which a change of current in one of them induces an
instantaneous emf in the other.
• Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance,
Flux linked with one of the coils φ1 φ2
M
= = =
current through the other coil i 2 i1

emf induced in one of the coil e2 e1

M
= = =
Rate of change of current through the other coil di1 di 2
dt dt
• SI unit of M is henry (H)
• Mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids each of length l and area A
µ 0µ r N1 N 2 A
M=
l

• For two coupled coils, M = K L1 L 2 ,where K is the coefficient of coupling between the coils.

• When K = 1, the coils are said to be tightly coupled.

Energy Stored in an Inductor
• The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor,
1 2
E= Li
2
Eddy Current
• Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing magnetic
field in the conductor.
• Eddy currents are also known as Foucault’s current.
• Eddy currents can be minimized by using laminated cores.
Alternating Current
• Working principle of an ac generator is electromagnetic induction.
• The instantaneous emf produced by an ac generator
• is the peak value of emf
• Instantaneous value of current
Characteristics of AC
• Cycle – One complete set of positive and negative values of ac
• Time period (T) – The time taken to complete one cycle of ac
2π
T=
ω

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• Frequency – The number of ac cycles per second

1 ω
v= =
T 2π

• Instantaneous value – The value of ac at a particular instant of time

=E E 0 sin ωt
• Peak Value (E0 or I0) – The maximum value of ac on either direction of the cycle
• The average value of ac over a complete cycle is always zero.
• The average value of ac is defined only for half cycles.
2E 0
E=
avg = 0.637E 0
π

2I0
I=
avg = 0.637I0
π

RMS value or virtual value or effective value of ac

E0
E=
rms = 0.707E 0
2

I0
I=
rms = 0.70710
2
• The ratio of rms value to the average value of ac is called form factor.
I rms
form factor
= = 1.11
Iavg

Reactance
• The opposition offered to ac by a coil of inductance L or by a capacitor of capacitance C
• Inductive reactance, X L =ωL =2πfL
1 1
• Capacitive reactance, X
=c =
ωC 2π fC

AC Circuits
• In a purely resistive circuit, the alternating current and the alternating emf are in same phase.
• In a purely inductive circuit, the alternating current lags behind the alternating emf by a phase
angle 900.
• In a purely capacitive circuit, the alternating current leads the alternating emf by a phase angle
900.

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Series LCR Circuit

• The total effective opposition to the flow of ac in an LCR circuit is called impedance Z

Z= R 2 + (X L − X C ) 2

• The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance (K)

• The phase angle by which the emf leads the current in an LCR circuit,

XL − XC
tan ϕ =
R
Power in an AC Circuit

• Instantaneous power, Pinst = EI

• power, Pavg E RMS I RMS cos φ

Average power or true =

• E RMS I RMS is the apparent power and cos φ is the power factor

Series Resonant Circuit

• At resonance X L = X C

1
• Resonant angular frequency, ωr =
LC
1
• Resonant frequency, f r =
2π LC
• Current through the series LCR circuit is maximum and impedance is minimum at resonance.

E
ZM in Rand
= = I Max
R
• Series resonant circuit is also known as acceptor circuit.

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Quality factor or Q – factor

X L Lωr
Q
= =
R R
XC I
Q =
=
R Cωr R

1 L
Q=
R C

Transformer

• Transformers are used for increasing or decreasing alternating voltages through mutual induction

Ns Es IP
• n
Transformation ratio or turn ratio, = = =
N P E P Is

Pout E s Is
• Efficiency of a transformer,=
η =
Pin E P I p

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QUESTIONS 4. A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance

is placed vertically in East – west plane.
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] A uniform magnetic field of 0.1 T is set up
1. The magnetic flux through a circuit of across the plane in North – East direction.
The magnetic field is reduced to zero in 0.7s
resistance R changes by an amount in at a steady rate. The magnitude of induced
a time . Then the total quantity of electric current is
charge Q that passes any point in the circuit
1) 1mA 2) 2 mA
during the time is represented by
3) 0.5 mA 4) 3 mA
1 ∆φ
1) Q = 5. A thin circular ring of area A is held
R ∆t
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of
induction B. A small cut is made in the ring and
∆φ a galvanometer is connected across the ends
2) Q =
R such that the total resistance of the circuit is
R. When the ring is suddenly squeezed to
zero area, the charge flowing through the
∆φ galvanometer is
3) Q =
∆t
BR AB
1) 2)
A R
∆φ
4) Q = R
∆t
B2 A
3) ABR 4)
2. A coil of resistance is placed in a R2
magnetic field. If the magnetic flux (Wb)
linked with the coil varies with time 6. Along solenoid of diameter 3.2 cm has 200
turns/cm and carries a current of 2A. At
t (sec) as
= φ 50t 2 + 4 . The current in the coil
its centre a 100 turns closely packed coil
of diameter 2.0 cm is placed with its axis
at t = 2s is
coinciding with the axis of solenoid. The
1) 0.5 A current in the solenoid is reduced to zero at
a steady rate in 20 ms. The induced e.m.f in
2) 0.1 A
the coil is:
3) 2 A
1) 80 mV
4) 1 A
2) 25 mV
3. A 800 turn coil of effective area 0.05 m is 2
3) 100 mV
kept perpendicular to a magnetic field
5 ×10−5 T . When the plane of the coil is 4) 160 mV
7. A uniform magnetic field exists in a region
rotated by 900 around any of its coplanar axis 
given by B = (3iˆ + 4ˆj + 5k)T
ˆ .A rod of length
in 0.1 s, the emf induced in the coil will be:
1) 2 × 103 V 5m is placed along the Y-axis and is moved
along the X-axis with constant speed 1 m/s.
2) 0.02 V Induced e.m.f in the rod is
3) 2 V 1) Zero 2) 25 V
4) 0.2 V 3) 20 V 4) 3 V

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8. Lenz’s law is a statement of 11. A conducting rod PQ of length 1 m is moved

1) Law of conservation of charge with a velocity 3 m/s in a uniform magnetic
field 2T, as shown. Then
2) Law of conservation of current
3) Law of conservation of energy
4) None of these
9. Two parallel conducting rails with negligible
resistance are 10 cm apart. The circuit
contains two metal rails AB and CD with
resistance each along the rails. A uniform
1) VP – VQ = 3V 2) VQ – VP = 3V
magnetic field 0.01T is applied perpendicular
to the plane of rails. If AB and CD move with 3) VP – VQ = 6V 4) VQ – VP = 6V
uniform speed 4m/s and 2 m/s away from 12. A long solenoid has 500 turns. When a current
each other, the induced current in the circuit of 2 A is passed through it, the resulting
is magnetic flux linked with each turn of the
solenoid is 4 × 10-3 Wb. The self-inductance
of the solenoid is
1) 2.5 H 2) 2 H
3) 1 H 4) 4 H
13. Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.005
H. The current changes in the first coil
according to equation I = I0 sin ω t, where

I0=10A and rad/s. The maximum

value of emf in the second coil is
1) 0.5 mA 2) 1.5 mA
1) 2π 2) 5π
3) 1 mA 4) 2 mA
3) π 4) 4π
10. A thin semicircular conducting ring (PQR) of
radius r is falling with its plane vertical in a 14. The magnetic potential energy stored in a
horizontal magnetic field B, as shown in figure. certain inductor is 25 mJ, when the current
The potential difference developed across the in the inductor is 60 mA. This inductor is of
ring when its speed is v, is inductance
1) 1.389 H 2) 138.88 H
3) 0.138 H 4) 13.89 H
15. An inductor coil stores 32 J of magnetic field
energy and dissipates energy as heat as 320
W, when a current of 4A is passed through it.
The self inductance L and resistor R of the
coil are
1) L = 2H, R = 4 Ω
1) Zero
2) L = 4H, R = 5 Ω
2) Bvπr 2 / 2 and P is at higher potential
3) L = 4H, R = 20 Ω
3) and R is at higher potential
4) 2rBv and R is at higher potential 4) L = 0.5H, R = 20 Ω

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16. In which of the following devices, the eddy 21. In a circuit, L, C and R are connected in
current effect is not used? series with an alternating voltage source of
frequency f. The current leads the voltage by
1) Electromagnet
450. The value of C is:
2) Electric heater
1 1
3) Induction furnace 1) 2)
2πf (2πf L + R) πf (2πf L + R)
4) Magnetic braking in train

17. Alternating voltage V = 400 is 1 1

3) 4)
2 π f (2π f L − R) π f (2π f L − R)
applied across a resistance of 0.2kΩ . The
22. The instantaneous values of alternating
rms value of current will be equal to
current and voltages in a circuit are given as
1) zero 2)
 1 
3) 2 A 4) 2 2 A =I   sin (100 πt) ampere and
 2
18. In an AC circuit an alternating voltage
e = 200 2 sin 100t i s c o n n e c t e d t o a  1 
capacitor of capacity . The rms value=of e   sin (100 πt + π / 3) volt. The average
 2
the current in the circuit is
1) 100 mA power in Watts consumed in the circuit is
2) 200 mA
1) 2)
3) 20 mA
4) 10 mA 3) 4)
19. An inductance of negligible resistance, whose 23. In the circuit shown, the readings of voltmeters
reactance is at 200Hz is connected V1, V2 and V3 at resonance are given by
to 200 V, 50Hz power line. The value of
inductance is
1) 0.0175 H
2) 0.175 H
3) 1.75 H
4) 17.5 H
1) V1 = V2 − V3 = E 0
20. What is the value of inductance L for which
the current is a maximum in a series LCR E0
circuit with C= 10 µF and ω =1000rads ?
−1 2) V=
1 V=
3 , V=
2 0
2
1) 100 mH
2) 1 mH 3) V
=1 V=
3 E 0 , V=
2 0
3) Cannot be calculated unless R is known E0
4) V
=1 , V=
2 V=
3 0
4) 10 mH 2

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24. A coil of inductive reactance has a 28. Statement 1 : The emf developed in a
conducting loop placed in a
resistance of . It is placed in series with a time-varying magnetic field
condenser of capacitive reactance . The is proportional to the rate
combination is connected to an a.c. source of of change of magnetic flux
110 V. The power factor of the circuit is: through the loop
1) 0.56 2) 0.64 Statement 2 : The average power dissipated
3) 0.80 4) 0.33 by an AC circuit is equal to
the product of rms values of
25. A 220 V input is supplied to a transformer. The voltage and current.
output circuit draws a current of 2.0 A at 440
V. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80%, 1) Both statement 1 is true and statement 2
the current drawn by the primary windings of is correct
the transformer is 2) Both statement 1 is false and statement 2
1) 3.6 A 2) 2.8 A is incorrect.
3) Statement 1 is true and statement 2 is
3) 2.5 A 4) 5 A
wrong
26. The core of a transformer is laminated
4) Statement 1 is wrong and statement 2 is
because:
correct
1) energy losses due to eddy currents may
Integer Type
be minimised.
29. A straight conducting rod of length 2m moves
2) the weight of the transformer may be perpendicular to its length with velocity 3 m/s
reduced in a uniform magnetic field of 6.5 mT. The
3) rusting of the core may be prevented potential difference developed across the
rod in steady state (in mV) is
4) ratio of voltage in primary and secondary
may be increased 30. A series LCR circuit is connected to an
AC source 200V, 50 rad/s. If voltmeters
27. Assertion : When a strong magnet
connected across L and C show same
falls vertically through a
reading, the voltmeter reading across R in
long conducting pipe, its
volts is
acceleration is less than the
acceleration due to gravity LEVEL - II
Reason : As the magnet falls through 1. A square conducting loop of side 4cm is fold-
the pipe, eddy currents are ed at right angles into two halves arranged in
formed in the pipe according space such that one half is in X-Y plane and
to Faraday's law, which other half is in X-Z plane. The loop is in the
opposes the motion of the region of time varying magnetic field of induction

magnet. B − (2t 2 ˆi + 3tjˆ − 2k)T
ˆ . The magnetic flux-
1) Both A and R are true and R is the correct linked with the loop in weber at t = 2s is
explanation of A
1) zero
2) Both A and R are true. But R is not correct
explanation of A 2) 3.2 x 10-3

3) A is correct R is false 3) 16 x 10-4

4) A is incorrect R is true 4) 4.8 x 10-2

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2. A and B are two conducting rings placed 6. A circular conducting loop of area 2 x 10-2 m2
on either side of an infinitely long straight and resistance is placed with its plane
conducting wire as shown. If the current in perpendicular to a varying magnetic field B =
the wire is slowly decreased, the direction of (10t +4) mT. The rate at which thermal energy
induced current will be is generated in the loop is
1) 4 µW 2) 4 mW
3) 0.4 µW 4) 6 mW
7. A metal rod moves at a constant velocity
in a direction perpendicular to its length.
A constant uniform magnetic field exists in
space in a direction perpendicular to the
1) Clockwise in A and anticlockwise in B rod as well as its velocity. Select the correct
2) Anticlockwise in A and clockwise in B statements from the following.
3) Clockwise in both A and B 1) The rod is at the same potential
4) Anticlockwise in both A and B
2) There is an electric field in the rod
3. A square loop of side 4 cm is in the Y-Z
plane. The loop is in a region of time varying 3) Both ends are at the same potential
magnetic field of induction 4) The electric potential is highest at the centre

B= ( 4t 2 ˆi − 3tjˆ + 4k)T.
ˆ and decreases towards its ends
The magnitude of induced emf at t = 2s is 8. A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m
1) 6.4 mV 2) 16 mV long is rotated with a speed of 120 rev/minute
3) 2.56 V 4) 25.6 mV in a plane normal to the horizontal component
of earth’s magnetic field (BH = 4 x 10-5 T). The
4. The variation of induced current with time induced emf between the axle and the rim of
due to the change in magnetic flux in a coil the wheel is
of resistance is shown in figure. The
magnitude of change in flux through the coil 1) 3.14 x 10-5 V 2) 6.28 x 10-5 V
in weber is 3) 6.28 x 10-4 V 4) 3.14 x 10-3 V
9. A wire of fixed length is wound on a solenoid
of length l and radius r. Its self-inductance is
found to be L. If the same wire is wound on a
solenoid of length l/2 and radius r/2, its self-
inductance will be
1) 4 2) 8 1) L 2) 4L
3) 2 4) 6 3) 2L 4) 8L
5. A circular coil of area 2.5 x 10 m , 500 turns
-2 2
10. Two coils A and B have coefficient of mutual
and resistance is placed with its plane induction M = 2H. The magnetic flux through
perpendicular to the horizontal component of A changes by 4Wb in 10s due to the change
earth’s magnetic field. It is rotated about its in current in B. The change in current in B in
vertical diameter through 1800 in 0.25 s. The this time interval is
magnitude of induced current is (BH = 3 x 10-5 T)
1) 0.5 A 2) 2 A
1) 1.5 mA 2) 2.5 mA
3) 3 mA 4) 5 mA 3) 8 A 4) 1 A

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11. A bulb is rated at 100 V, 100 W. Find the 15. In the LCR circuit shown in figure the voltage
inductance of the choke coil that should be drop across resistance is:
connected in series with the bulb to operate
it at 200 V, 50 Hz ac is
π
1) H
3
2) 100 H
π
3) H
2
1) 100 V
3 2) 100 2V
4) H
π
100
3) V
12. The quality factor of a series LCR circuit with 2
L = 2 H, C = 32 µF and R = is
4) 200 V
1) 2.5 2) 5
3) 25 4) 0.5 LEVEL - III

13. A transformer is used to light a 140 W, 24V 16. In the situation described in figure, the polarity
lamp from 240 V ac mains. The current in of the capacitor is
the main cable is 0.7 A. the efficiency of the
transformer is
1) 48%
2) 63.8%
1) B positive with respect to A
3) 75%
2) A positive with respect to B
4) 83.3%
3) No charge on A and B
14. A straight conductor carries a time varying
current given by i=(3t+4)A. The induced 4 Polarity of A and B changes with time
current in the conducting loop C is (The plane
of the loop is ⊥ r to the plane of figure with 17. The radius of a circular loop is increasing at
the conductor at its centre) a constant rate of 2 mm/s. The loop is placed
in a uniform magnetic field 4T and has 1000
turns, with its plane perpendicular to the field.
The instantaneous emf induced on the loop
7
when its radius becomes cm is
22

1) Clockwise 1) 0.08 V
2) Anticlockwise 2) 0.16 V
3) Zero 3) 0.02 V
4) Alternating 4) 0.04 V

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18. A battery of emf 6V and negligible internal 21. A rectangular coil 20 cm x 10 cm having 100
resistance is connected in a circular conducting turns rotates in a magnetic field of induction
loop of area 2m2 and resistance . The coil 5 x 10-3 T with a frequency of 1200 rpm
is placed with its plane perpendicular to a about an axis perpendicular to the field. The
uniform magnetic field that decreases at a instantaneous emf in volt when the plane of
steady rate of 2T/s. The current in the loop is the coil makes an angle 300 with the field is

3
1) π
5

2
2) π
5
1) 0.4 A 2) 4 A
3) 2 A 4) 0.2 A π
3)
19. A conducting rod PQ is rotated with the end 5
P fixed with uniform angular velocity in a
uniform and perpendicular magnetic field of 4) 3π
induction B. M is the midpoint of PQ. If the
22. When a dc volt of 200 V is applied to a coil of
potential difference between P and Q is 10V,
the potential difference between M and Q is self inductance 2 3 H, a current of 1A flows
π

through it. But by replacing dc source with ac

source of 200 V, the current in the coil is
reduced to 0.5 A. The frequency of ac supply
is
1) 100 Hz 2) 75 Hz
1) 5 V 2) 7.5 V
3) 60 Hz 4) 50 Hz
3) 2.5 V 4) 3 V
23. In the series LCR circuit, the voltmeter reading
20. Two parallel frictionless conducting rails with a
V and ammeter reading I are
sliding connector of length l = 1m is situated in
a uniform magnetic field B = 2T perpendicular
to the plane of the rails. Resistance of the
connector is . Two resistances and
are connected as shown in figure. The
force required to keep the connector moving
with constant speed v = 2m/s is

1) V = 100V, I =2A
2) V = 100V, I = 5A
3) V = 400V, I =2A
1) 6 N 2) 4 N
4) V = 300V, I = 1A
3) 2 N 4) 1 N

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24. An LCR series circuit with resistance 28. Statement I : A bulb of resistance R is
is connected to an ac source of 200V and connected in series with an
angular frequency 300 rad/s. When only the inductor to an AC source.
capacitor is removed, the current lags behind If a ferromagnetic rod is
the voltage by 600. When only the inductor is inserted into the inductor, the
removed, the current leads the voltage by 600. bulb becomes dim.
Then the current and power dissipated in LCR
Statement II : The voltage across an
are respectively
inductor leads current
1) 1A, 200W 2)1A, 400W π
3) 2A, 200W 4) 2A, 400W through it by
2
25. A series LCR circuit with L = 1H, C = 1 µF
and R = 40 is connected across a variable 1) Both statement 1 is true and statement 2
frequency ac source. The angular frequency is correct
of the source at which the power transferred
to the circuit is half the power at the resonant 2) Both statement 1 is false and statement 2
frequency is is incorrect.
1) 700 rad/s 2) 980 rad/s
3) Statement 1 is true and statement 2 is
3) 1020 rad/s 4) Both 2 & 3
wrong
Assertion and Reason Type
1) Both Assertion and Reason are the true and 4) Statement 1 is wrong and statement 2 is
Reason is a correct explanation of Assertion. correct
2) Both Assertion and Reason are the true
Numerical Answer Type
but Reason is not a correct explanation of
Assertion. 29. The magnetic flux through a coil first increases
3) Assertion is true and Reason is false. and then decreases to zero according to the
formula φ ( t ) = 2t − 8t , where φ is in Wb and
2
4) Assertion is false and Reason is true.
26. Assertion : If some ferromagnetic
substance is filled inside a t is in s. The resistance of the coil is 100Ω .
solenoid, its coefficient of x
self-induction will increase. The total heat dissipated in the coil is J.
75
Reason : By increasing the current in
The value of x is
a coil its coefficient of self-
induction L can be increased. 30. A series LCR circuit is connected to an AC
27. Assertion : An ac voltage source of source of 220 V and 50 Hz as shown. If the
variable angular frequency readings of three
and fixed amplitude V
connected in series with voltmeters V1, V2 and V3 are 65 V, 415 V and
a capacitance C and an 204 V find the value of L.
electric bulb of resistance R
(inductance zero). When
is increased, the bulb glows
brighter.
Reason : As increases, the total
impedance of the circuit
decreases and hence the
current increases.

88
 Chapter
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
06

SYNOPSIS
Electromagnetic wave, is a wave radiated by an accelerated charge and which propagates through
space as coupled electric and magnetic fields, oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation of the wave.

 
=E E 0 sin ( kx − ωt )
 
=B B0 sin ( kx − ωt )

Maxwell developed the theory of E.M. Waves by introducing the idea of the displacement current
(ID). According to Maxwell, the displacement current is that current which comes into existence,
between the plates of a capacitor, whenever the electric field and hence the electric flux changes
with time.
d d d (E) d  V  ∈ A d (V) dv
ID =
∈0 ( φE ) =
∈0 ( EA ) =
∈0 A ∈0 A   =0
= c
=
dt dt dt dt  d  d dt dt

According to Maxwell, a changing electric field induces a magnetic field. The time varying electric
field between the plates of the capacitor is directed perpendicular to the plane of the plates and
the time varying magnetic field (produced by the electric field) is along the perimeter of a circle, in
a plane, parallel to the plates of the capacitor. Thus the time varying electric field and the magnetic
field are perpendicular to each other. The two fields combine to constitute the EM wave which
propagates in space in a direction perpendicular to the directions of both the fields.
The value of ID is numerically equal to the conduction current IC. Inside the capacitor, IC = 0 and i
= ID. Outside the capacitor, ID = O and i = IC.

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[NC 2026 BIOLOGY]

Magnetic field (B) : On a circular loop of radius r, kept between the capacitor plates of radius R is
µ0 ID r
given by B =
2πR 2

µ0 ID
Bmax = . Balong theaxis = 0
2πR
The EM waves are governed by Maxwell’s Equations
  q
1. ∫S = ∈0 (Gauss’ Law in Electrostatics)
E.ds

 
2. ∫ B.ds = 0 (Gauss’ Law in magnetism - shows that isolated monopole doesnot exist)
S

 
d
3. − ( φ ) (Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction)
∫ E.d = B
C
dt

   d 
4. ∫C  = µ0 I+ ∈0 dt ( φE ) (Ampere - Maxwell Law)
B.d

1
Hertz produced E.M. Waves (oscillating L.C. circuit υ = . J.C. Bose transmitted EM waves
2π LC

through short distances. Marconi transmitted EM waves through long distances. EM Waves are
transverse progressive waves. They carry energy and momentum. They do not require a medium
for the propagation. The variation of E and B have the same frequency and in phase. At any instant
the ratio of the amplitudes of electric and magnetic field is a constant and is equal to the velocity
 ∈0 
of EM waves  = C
 B0 
The velocity of EM waves in free space
1 1
c= = = 3 × 108 m / sec
µ 0 ∈0 −7
4π×10 × 8.85 ×10 −12

Velocity of EM waves in a medium

V=

where n = = refractive index of the medium

Propagation constant (Angular wave number)
2π 2π 2πυ ω ω
K
= = = = ∴c =
λ c c c K
υ

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- BIOLOGY]

Average energy density of electric field

1 1 1  E0 
UE = ∈0 E 02 = 2
∈0 ×2E rms = 2
∈0 ×E rms  E rms = 2 
4 4 2  
Average energy density of magnetic field

To show that <UE = UB>
1 1 1 1 1 1 B02
∈0 ( B0 c ) =
2 2 2 2 2
U E= ∈0 E 0= ∈0 B0 c = ×∈0 B0 × = = UB
4 4 4 4 µ 0 ∈0 4 µ 0
Total average energy density of an electromagnetic wave (U)
1 1
U av =U =×
2 U E =×
2 ∈0 E 02 =∈0 E 02 =
∈0 E 2rms
4 2

1 2 1 B2
OR, U =×
2 U B =×
2 B0 = B02 = rms
 4µ 0 2µ 0 µ0
Poynting vector S ()
The energy transported by electromagnetic waves per second per unit area is represented by a
 
 E×B
vector quantity called the poynting vector. It is denoted by S =
µ0
u
Momentum of E.M. waves = P =
c
u
For a perfectly absorbing surface, change in momentum =
c

2u
For a perfectly reflecting surface, change in momentum =
c
Intensity of radiation
Energy 1
=I = Energy density × c ∈0 E 02 × c
Area × time 2

1 2 1 E 02 1 E 02  1 2
OR =I B0 c
= =
2
× c =  ∈0 E 0  c
2µ 0 2µ 0 c 2µ 0 c 2 

P
Also, I= ; Where P = Power of the source
4πd 2
d = distance from the point source

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[NC 2026 BIOLOGY]

Electromagnetic spectrum
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations, according to their wavelength or frequency
is called electromagnetic spectrum.

γ -rays, X-rays, UV-rays, visible light, I.R. Rays, Microwaves, Radio waves
γ -rays. υ = 3 ×10−19 → 5 ×1020 Hz
They are highly energetic radiations and are emitted by radioactive nuclei. Detected by photographic
plate, Geiger tubes and ionisation chamber.
X-rays : υ = 1× 1016 → 3 × 1019 Hz

X-rays are produced when a target of high atomic number is bombarded by fast moving electrons.
They possess high penetrating power. They are used both for diagnosis and treatment.
U.V.Rays: υ = 8 × 1014 → 8 × 1016 Hz
They are part of solar spectrum. They can be produced by arcs of mercury and iron. They can be
detected by photocells and photographic film. U.V. rays can produce vitamin-D in the skin.
14 14
Visible light : υ = 4 × 10 → 8 × 10 Hz
Visible light is emitted due to atomic excitation. Human eye is sensitive to only visible part of the
EM. spectrum.
I.R. Rays:
υ = 3 ×1011 → 4 ×1014 Hz
Infrared radiations are “heat radiation” and therefore all hot bodies including the sun are sources
of infra-red-rays. They are detected by thermopiles . I.R. rays are responsible for “Green house
effect”.
Microwaves
υ = 3 ×108 → 3 × 1011 Hz
Microwaves are produced by oscillating electronic circuits (Klystron valve, Magnetron valve etc).
They are used in RADAR and also in ovens.
Radiowaves
υ = 3 ×103 → 3 × 1011 Hz
They are produced by oscillating electronic circuits. Radiowaves are used as carrier waves in radio
broadcasting and TV Transmission.

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QUESTIONS 4. Which of the following has zero average

value in a plane electromagnetic wave
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1) Kinetic energy

dφE
1. Dimensions of ε 0 is that of 2) Magnetic field
dt

1) Charge 3) Electric field

4) Both B and C
2) Potential
5. Consider an electromagnetic wave that
3) Capacitance propagates in the Z direction with an electric
field strength of 1 v/m pointing in the Y
direction. Then the direction and magnitude
4) Current of magnetic field pulse that travels along with
electric field is :
2. Out of the following options which one
can be used to produce a propagating 1) 3.33 × 10-9 T in y direction
electromagnetic wave ?
2) 3.33 × 10-9 T in z direction
1) A chargeless particle
3) 3.33 × 10-9 T in –ve x direction
2) An accelerating charge
4) 6.66 × 10-9 T in x direction

3) A charge moving at constant velocity 6. The electric part of an electromagnetic wave

in a medium is represented by EX = 0
4) A stationary charge
=E Y 2.5 N cos  2π×10 rad
c 
6

sec( −2
) (
t − π×10 rad x 
m  )
3. Which of the following equations was found
to be inconsistent and corrected by Maxwell? EZ = 0. The wave is

  q 1) Moving along + X - direction with

∫ = ∈0
1)  E.ds frequency 106 Hz and wavelength 100m

2) Moving along + X - direction with frequency

2) ∫ B.ds = 0 106 Hz and wavelength 200 m

  3) Moving along -X direction with frequency

3) ∫  = µ0 I
B.d
106 Hz and wavelength 200m

 d   4) Moving along + Y - direction with frequency

4) ∫ E.ds = −
dt ∫
B.ds
2π×106 Hz and wavelength 200m

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

7. A plane electromagnetic wave propagating in 9. A plane EM wave travels in free space along

the positive x- direction has a wave length of X direction. If the value of B (in tesla) at a
5.0 mm. The electric field is in the y -direction particular point in space and time is
and its maximum magnitude is 30V/m. 
1.2 × 10–8 k̂ . The value of E (in Vm–1) at that
Find suitable equations for the electric and
magnetic fields as a function of x and t.
point is

1) E (30v m ) sin  5.0mm

2π
( ct − x ) ,

1) 1.2 ĵ

2) 3.6 k̂
2π
B (10 T ) sin  5.0mm
−7
( ct − x )

3) 1.2 k̂

4) 3.6 ĵ
2) E ( m )
30v sin  2π ( ct + x )  ,
 5.0mm  10. In a plane electromagnetic wave propagating
in space has an electric field of amplitude
9 ×103 V / m , then the amplitude of the
2π
=B (10 T ) sin  5.0mm
−7
( ct + x )
 magnetic field is
−6
1) 2.7 × 10 T
3) E ( m )
30v cos  2π ( ct − x )  ,
 5.0mm  −3
2) 9.0 × 10 T
−4
3) 3.0 × 10 T
 2π
=B (10−7 T ) sin  ( ct − x )
 5.0mm  −5
4) 3.0 × 10 T

11. Given the wave function ( in SI unit ) for a

4) E (30v m ) sin  5.0mm
2π
( ct − x ) ,

wave to be

( x.t ) 10 sin π ( 3 × 10 x − 9 × 10 t ) .
3 6 14
ψ=
2π
B (10 T ) cos  5.0mm
−7
( ct − x )

The speed of wave is

1) 9 × 1014 ms −1
8. An electromagnetic wave passing through
vacuum is described by the equations 2) 3 × 108 ms −1

=E E 0 sin ( kx − ωt ) and 3) 3 × 106 ms −1

4) 3 × 107 ms −1
=B B0 sin ( kx − ωt ) .
12. The velocity of electromagnetic wave is along
Then : the direction of
1) E 0 k= B0 ω 2) E 0 ω = B0 k 1) B × E 2) E × B
3) B0 E 0 = ωk 4) E 0 = B0 3) E 4) B

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13. If µ r is the relative permeability and ∈r 17. Speed of e.m. waves through a medium
is the relative permitivity of a medium, the depends upon:
refractive index of the medium is given by: 1) only electric properties of the medium

1 µr 2) only magnetic properties of the medium

1) 2)
µ r ∈r ∈r 3) both electric and magnetic properties of
the medium

∈r 4) mechanical and thermal properties of the

3) 4) µ r ∈r medium
µr
18. The frequency of light wave in a material is
14. Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium o

at a speed of 2.5 x 108 m/s. If the relative 2 × 10 14 Hz wavelength is 5000 A . The

permeability of the medium is 0.2 its relative
permitivity is: refractive index of material will be :

1) 14.4 2) 7.2 1) 1.40 2) 1.50

3) 3.00 4) 1.33
3) 0.2 4) 1.8
1
15. If UE and Um be the electric and magnetic 19. Dimension of is
field energy densities in the electromagnetic µ0ε0
wave, then

1) UE = cUm L T
1) 2)
T L
2) Um = cUE

3) UE = Um L2 T2
3) 4)
T2 L2
Um
4) =c  
UE 20. The vectors E and B of e.m. wave is:

16. Which of the following is the property of a 1) along the same direction but out of phase
monochromatic plane electromagnetic wave by 900
in free space
2) along the same direction and in phase
1) The electric and magnetic fields have a
3) perpendicular to each other and in phase
π
phase difference of
2 4) perpendicular to each other and out of
2) The energy contribution of both electric phase by 900
and magnetic fields are equal
21. The total average energy density of e.m
3) The direction of propagation is in the waves whose electric field variation is given
  by E = (50 N/c) sin ( ω t - kx) will be nearly
direction of B × E
1) 10-8 J/m3 2) 10-6 J/m3
4) The pressure exerted by the wave is the
product of its speed and energy density 3) 10-10 J/m3 4) 10-12 J/m3

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

22. A plane e.m wave of intensity 10 w/m2 strikes 26. A plane EM wave is incident on a material
normally a small mirror of area 20 cm2. The surface. If the wave delivers momentum P
radiation force on the mirror will be and energy E, then

1) 6.6 × 10-11 N 1) P = 0, E = 0

2) 1.33 × 10-8 N 2) P ≠ 0, E ≠ 0

3) 6.6 × 10-8 N 3) P ≠ 0, E = 0

4) 1.33 × 10-10 N 4) P = 0, E ≠ 0

23. The sun delivers 104 W/m2 of electromagnetic 27. A wave of intensity falls on a surface kept in
flux to the earth’s surface. The total power a vacuum and exerts radiation pressure on
that is incident on a roof of dimensions it. Which of the following are wrong ?
(10 ×10 ) m 2 will be 1) Radiation pressure is I/C if the wave is
1) 10 W4 totally absorbed

2) 105W 2) Radiation pressure is I/C if the wave is

totally reflected
3) 106W
3) Radiation pressure is 2I/C if the wave is
4) 10 W7
totally reflected

24. The electric field in N/c in an electromagnetic 4) Radiation pressure is in the range
E 50sin ω t − x
wave is given by = c ( ) the I/C < p < 2 I/C for real surfaces

28. A plane electromagnetic wave is incident

energy stored in a cylinder of cross section on a plane surface of area A normally and
10 cm2 and length 100 cm along the axis will is perfectly reflected. If energy E strikes in
be time t then average pressure exerted on th
12 surface is (c = speed of light)
1) 5.5 × 10 J
−11
1) zero 2) E/Act
2) 1.1× 10 J
3) 2E/Atc 4) E/c
−11
3) 2.2 × 10 J
29. Light with an energy flux of 20 W/m2 falls on
−11
4) 1.65 × 10 J a non-reflecting surface at normal incidence.
If the surface has an area of 30m2, the
25. The r.m.s. value of the electric field of the light total momentum delivered (for complete
coming from the sun is 720N/C. The average absorption) during 30 minute is
total energy density of the EM wave is:
−5
1) 36 × 10 kg m / s
−9 3
1) 6.37 × 10 J / m
−4
2) 36 × 10 kg m / s
−12 3
2) 81.35 × 10 J/m
−4
−3 3 3) 108 × 10 kg m / s
3) 3.3 × 10 J / m
7
−6 3 4) 108 × 10 kg m / s
4) 4.58 × 10 J / m

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30. The electric field produced by the radiations 35. ‘Green House Effect’ is due to:
coming from 100 W bulb at a 3 m distance
is E. The electric field produced by the 1) UV radiations
radiations coming from 50 W bulb at the
2) infrared radiations
same distance is
3) X-rays
1) E/2 2) 2E

E 4) gamma - rays
3) 4) 2E
2 36. A charged particle oscillates in vacuum
about its mean equilibrium position with a
31. Frequency of x-rays, γ -rays and ultraviolet frequency of 109 Hz. The electromagnetic
waves produced
rays are respectively a, b and c. Then
1) will have frequency of 2 × 109 Hz
1) a < b, b < c
2) will have speed of 30 ms–1
2) a > b, b > c
3) will have a wave length of 0.3m
3) a > b, b < c
4) fall in the region of infrared waves
4) a < b, b > c
37. In an electromagnetic wave in free space
32. A Radar sends the waves towards a distant the root mean square value of the electric
object and receives the signal reflected by field is Erms = 6Vm-1. The peak value of the
the object. These waves are magnetic field is
1) Sound waves
1) 2.83 × 10-8T
2) X-rays
2) 0.70 × 10-8T
3) Microwaves
3) 4.23 × 10-8T
4) Light waves
4) 1.41 × 10-8T
33. Gamma rays are detected by
38. The condition under which a microwave
1) Thermopiles oven heats up a food item containing water
molecules most efficiently is
2) Ionisation chamber
1) Microwaves are heat waves, so always
3) Bolometers produce heating
4) Photo cells
2) Infra-red waves produce heating in a
34. The order of energy of X-rays (EX) radio microwave oven
waves (ER) and microwaves (EM), is given by
3) The frequency of the microwaves must
1) EX > EM > ER match the resonant frequency of the water
molecules
2) EX < ER > EM
4) The frequency of the microwaves has
3) ER > EM > EX no relation with natural frequency of water
molecules
4) EM < ER < EX

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39. An electromagnetic wave of frequency 3. An electromagnetic wave going through

υ =3.0MHz passes from vacuum into a =
vacuum is described by E y E 0 sin ( ωt − kx )

dielectric medium with relative permitivity Which of the following is independent of the
∈= 4.0 . Then wavelength
1) Wavelength is doubled and frequency 2
1) k 2) ω
becomes half

2) Wavelength is halved and frequency ω ω2

3) 4)
remains unchanged k k
3) Wavelength and frequency both remain 4. The electric and the magnetic field associated
unchanged with an e.m wave propagating along the +z
axis can be represented by
4) Wave length is doubled and frequency  
 E E= ˆ B0 ˆj
= 0 i, B
unchanged 1) 
40. The electric field associated with an em wave  
 E E= ˆ B0 ˆi 
in vacuum is given by E = 40cos(kz-6×108t)
=
2)  0 k, B

î where E, z and t are in volt/m, meter and  

 E E= ˆ B0 ˆi 
=
3)  0 i, B
seconds respectively. The value of wave
vector k is  
 E E= ˆ B0 kˆ 
=
4)  0 i, B
1) 2m-1 2) 0.5m-1
5. Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium
3) 6m-1 4) 3m-1 which has relative permeability 1.3 and
relative permitivity 2.14. Then the speed of
LEVEL II the electromagnetic wave in the medium will
1. An instantaneous displacement current of 2A be
can be established across 2µF capacitor,
1) 13.6 × 106 m/s
if the potential difference across the plates
changes at the rate of 2) 1.8 × 102 m/s
6
1) 2 × 10 v / sec 3) 3.6 × 108 m/s
6
2) 10 v / sec 4) 1.8 × 108 m/s
3) 2 v/sec 6. In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric
field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of
4) 1 v/sec
2.0 × 1010 Hz and amplitude 48 Vm-1. The
2. Maxwell introduced displacement current to wavelength of the wave is:
remove the conceptual contradiction in
1) 1.5 m
1) Gauss’s law in electrostatics
2) 1.5 × 10-1 m
2) Gauss’s law in magnetism
3) 1.5 × 10-2 m
3) Faraday's law
4) 1.5 × 10-3 m
4) Ampere’s law

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7. In an electromagnetic wave, the amplitude 11. Given below is a list of EM spectrum and its
of electric field is 1 V m , the frequency of mode of production . Which does not match

1) Gamma rays - Radioactive decay

wave is 5 × 104Hz. The wave is propagating
along z - axis. The average energy density
2) Infrared rays - Vibration of atoms and
of electric field in J is molecules
m3
1) 1.1 × 10–11 3) Radio waves - Rapid acceleration and
2) 2.2 × 10 –12 deceleration of electrons in conducting wires

3) 3.3 × 10–13 4) u- v- rays - Magnetron valve

4) 4.4 × 10–44 12. To which region of electromagnetic spectrum
8. EM waves is travelling along y-direction of the frequency 1 GHz corresponding?

the corresponding E vector at any time is 1) Ultraviolet rays

along the x-axis, the direction of B vector
at that time is: 2) Radio waves
1) y axis 3) Visible radiation
2) –x axis
4) X-rays
3) +z axis
13. The mean intensity of radiation on the
4) –z axis surface of the Sun is about 108 W/m2. The
9. The magnetic component of a polarised rms value of the corresponding magnetic
wave of light is field is closed to :

B
= x ( 4.0 ×10 T ) sin (1.57 ×10 m ) y + ωt 
−6 7 −1 1) IT 2) 102T

3) 10-2T 4) 10-4T
The intensity of light is:
1) 1.9 kW/m2 14. Magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic

=
wave is given by B B0 sin ( kx + ωt ) ˆjT
2) 3.8 kW/m2
3) 5.7 kW/m2 Expression for corresponding electric field
will be :
4) 7.6 kW/m2
Where c is speed of light
10. A radiation of energy E falls normally on a
perfectly reflecting surface. The momentum 
1) E B0 c sin ( kx + ωt ) kˆ V / m
=
transferred to the surface is:
1) E/c  B0
2) E
= sin ( kx + ωt ) kˆ V / m
C
2) 2E/c 
3) E = − B c sin ( kx + ωt ) kˆ V / m
0
3) Ec

4) E/c2 4) E = − B0 c sin ( kx − ωt ) kˆ V / m

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15. A large parallel plate capacitor with plate 18. A plane electromagnetic wave propagating
area 1m2 and separation between the plates in the X-direction has wavelength of 6.0 mm.
1mm is charged at the rate of 25v/s. If the The electric field is in the Y-direction and
dielectric between the plates, has a dielectric its maximum magnitude is 33 V m-1. The
constant 10, then the displacement current equation for the electric field as a function
is given by: of x and t is:

1) 25 µA  x
1) 11sin π  t − 
 c
2) 2.2 µA

3) 11 µA 11  x
2) 33sin π× 10  t − 
4) 1.1 µA  c

LEVEL III x

3) 33sin π  t − 
16. A parallel plate capacitor with plate area  c
A and separation between the plates d, is
charged by a constant current I. Consider 11  x
a plane surface of area A/2 parallel to the 4) 11sin π× 10  t − 
 c
plates and drawn simultaneously between
the plates. The displacement current through 19. A beam of light travelling along x-axis is
this area is: described by the electric field,
I =Ey ( 600Vm ) sin ω ( t − x / c )
−1
, then
1) I 2)
2 maximum magnetic force on a charge
q = 2e, moving along y-axis with a speed of
I I 3.0 × 107 ms-1 is (e = 1.6 × 10-19C)
3) 4) 1) 19.2 × 10-17 N
4 8
2) 1.92 × 10-17 N
17. A plane electromagnetic wave travelling in 3) 0.192 N
X- direction in free space has a wavelength
4) none of these
3mm,. The variation in the electric field in
the Y- direction with an amplitude of 50 20. The electric field of an electromagnetic wave
N/c. Which of the following represents the in free space is given by
equation for magnetic field in that wave = ( )
E 10 cos 107 t + kx ˆj V/m, where t and x
=
1) Bx 50sin 2π×1011 t − x
c( ) are in seconds and metres respectively. it
can be inferred that
By 16.66 ×108 sin 2π×1011 t − x
2)= c ( ) (1) the wavelength λ is 188.4 m
(2) the wave number k is 0.33 rad/m
(3) the wave amplitude is 10 V/m
=
3) Bz 50sin 2π×10 11
(t − x c ) (4) the wave is propagating along +x direction
which one of the following pairs of statements
Bz 16.66 ×10−8 sin 2π×1011 t − x
4)= c ( ) is correct ?
1) (3) and (4) 2) (1) and (2)
3) 92) and (3) 4) (1) and (3)

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21. A point source of electromagnetic radiation 25. Match the following:

has an average power output 800W. The
maximum value of electric field at a distance P) X- ray 1) Gauss’s law in
40 m from the source is magnetism
Q)   2) Longitudinal
1) 54.7 v m ∫ = 0
B.ds
R) Radio waves 3) Vitamin - D
2) 60.7 v m
S) Microwaves 4) Oscillating
electric circuit
3) 5.672 v m
5) RADAR
4) 5.477 v m 6) Sudden
deceleration
22. About 5% of the power of a 100W bulb is of high energy
converted to visible radiation. The average electrons
intensity of the visible radiation at a distance 7) Faraday's Law
of 10m from the bulb is:
1) P → 7; Q → 1;R → 4; S → 6
1) 0.4W/m2
−5 2
2) P → 6; Q → 1; R → 2; S → 3
2) 4 × 10 W / m
3) P → 6, Q → 1; R → 4; S → 5
−3 2
3) 4 × 10 W / m
4) P → 3; Q → 1; R → 4; S → 7
−1 2
4) 5 × 10 W / m
26. Light is incident normally on a completely
23. The electric field produced by the radiation absorbing surface with an energy flux of 25
coming from a 100W bulb at a distance of Wcm-2. If the surface has an area of 25cm2,
3m from the bulb is (in v/m) (Assume that the momentum transferred to the surface in
the efficiency of the bulb is 2.7% and it is a 49 min time duration will be
point source)
1) 6.3 × 10-3Ns
1) 3 2) 5
2) 1.4 × 10-6 Ns
3) 4.5 4) 12
3) 5.0 ×10-3 Ns
24. A perfectly reflecting mirror has an area of
4) 3.5 ×10-6 Ns
1cm2. Light energy is allowed to fall on it for
1 hour at the rate of 10w . The force that 27. If the magnetic field of a plane electromagnetic
cm 2 wave is given by (The speed of light = 3 ×108
acts on the mirror is:  
15 x 
m/s) B = 100 × 10-6 sin  2π× 2 × 10  t − 
−8   c  
1) 3.35 × 10 N
8
2) 6.7 × 10 N then the maximum electric field associated
with it is
−7
3) 1.34 × 10 N
1) 6 × 104 N/C 2) 3 × 104 N/C
−4
4) 2.4 × 10 N
3) 4 × 104 N/C 4) 4.5 104 N/C

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28. There are three wavelength 102m, 10–10m Integer Type

and 10–7m. find the respective names
29. A plane electromagnetic wave
1) Radio waves, microwaves, visible light Ez 100 cos ( 6 ×108 t + 4x ) v / m propagates
=

2) Microwaves, visible, x-ray in a medium of refractive index

30. The magnetic field in a travelling
3) γ -ray, x-ray, radio electromagnetic wave has a peak value
of 20 nT. The peak value of electric field
4) Radio waves, x-ray, visible strength is : (in V/m)

102
 Chapter
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL
07 INSTRUMENTS

SYNOPSIS
Curved Mirror
Relation between Radius of curvature (R) and Focal length (f)
R
f=
2
Mirror Equation
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
u = object distance
v = image distance
f = focal length
Linear magnification (m) equation
hi −v f − v f
m
= = = =
h0 u f f −u

hi = height of image
h0 = height of object

Refraction
The phenomenon of bending of light when it travels from one medium to another medium is known
as refraction.

When the ray passes from rarer to denser medium, the refracted by bends towards the normal and
when it passes from denser to rarer medium, the refracted ray bends away from the normal. When
light passes from one medium to another medium, the frequency and colour of light remains same
but the wave length and velocity of light changes.
Laws of refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence are in same plane
(ii) The ratio sin of angle incidence to sin of angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair or
media and for a given colour of light.

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For a given set of media, this constant is called the refractive index of the medium 2 with
respect to medium 1 (represented as 1n2)
sin i n
i.e. = constant = 2
sin r n1
or n1 sin i = n 2 sin r

n2 n1
If light passes from medium (1) to (2) the constant is 1 n2 = ; 2 n1 =
Also we can write
n1 n2
1
1 n2 =
2 n1
What happen if ray of light falls normally at the surface of separation of two media
The ray goes undeviate, ie. no refraction possible
sin i sin i sin 0
n= Here i =0; sin r = = =0 ∴ r =0
sin r n n

Absolute refractive index

Refractive index of a medium with respect to air or vacuum is called absolute refractive Index,
denoted by n or µ

Absolute refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of
angle of refraction when refraction takes place from air or vacuum to the medium.
sin i
n=
sin r

Since there is a change in the direction of light as it goes from one medium into another depends
on the speeds of light in the two media.
velocity of light in vacuum c
Refractive index of medium = =
velocity of light in medium v
Expression for the lateral shift when a ray of monochromatic light passing through a parallel
sided glass slab.

t
Lateral
= shift sin (i − r)
cos r

t = thickness i = angle of incidence

r = angle of refraction

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Critical angle

When a ray of light passes from denser to rarer medium, the refracted ray bends away from the
normal (as i increases, r also increases). At a particular angle of incidence, the refracted ray just
grazes the surface of separation. This angle of incidence is known as critical angle (C). At this case
angle of refraction is 900. At critical angle , r = 90
sin 90 1
=n =
sin C sin C
Relative critical angle
The critical angle of a medium B with respect to a rarer medium A is related to the refractive index
by the formula.
1
A nB =
sin A CB

where ACB is the critical angle of medium B with respect to A.

Some typical critical angles are listed below
Substance Refractive index Critical angle
Water 1.33 48.75o
Crown glass 1.52 41.14o
Dense flint glass 1.65 37.31o
Diamond 2.42 24.41o
Total internal reflection
If the angle of incidence is increased beyond the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected back to
the same medium obeying the laws of reflection (i = r). This is known as total internal reflection
The conditions for total internal reflection are
i) The light must travel from denser to rarer medium
ii) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
(c) Real and apparent depth: A fish at the bottom of a lake appears to be raised due to refraction.
Let I is the apparent position of the fish. AO is the real depth; AI is the apparent depth OI is the
displacement or shift of the image. (The fish is really at O).

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Refractive index of the medium

Real depth AO
=n =
App.depth AI
To find the shifts(S) in the position of the images
S = AO – AI
AO
S =AO − =AO (1 − 1/ n)
n
But AO = t, the real depth
 1
S t 1 − 
=
 n
Expression for refractive index of prism
A+D
sin  
2  where
n= 
sin (A / 2)

n = refractive index A = angle of prism D = angle of minimum deviation

Deviation produced by a thin prism
A thin prism is a prism of small refracting angle. For a prism d = i1 + i2 – A
sin i1 sin i 2 r1 + r2 = A
=n =
sin r1 sin r2
When A is small r1 and r2 are small. When r1 and r2 are small i1 and i2 will be small (sinq = q when
q is small)
sin i1 i1
n= = ∴ i1 = nr1
sin r1 r1
Similarly i2 = nr2 Substituting d = nr1 + nr2 – A
= n (r1 + r2) – A [r1+ r2 = A] d = A (n–1)
Thus deviation is independent of the angle of incidence.
The factors on which the angle of deviation produced by a thin prism depends are
d = A (n –1)
1. Refractive index of the medium 2. Surrounding medium 3. Angle of prism
If nv and nR the refractive indices for violet and red colours for a medium and n the average refractive
index,
nv − nR nv + nR
=The ω = where n
(n − 1) 2
The new Cartesian sign convention for reflection and refraction at spherical surfaces
This convention borrows the technique of fixing signs from co - ordinate geometry

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1. The pole of the spherical surface will be the origin O and the principal axis along the X - axis
2. All distances are measured from the pole. Distances measured in the direction of incidence will be
positive and opposite to the direction of incidence negative.
3. Distances measured perpendicular to the principal axis will be positive if measured upwards and
negative if measured downwards.
One advantage of this system is that, if the object is placed to the left of the spherical surface,
Cartesian convention of sign comes into operation.
Relation between u, v and R

n 2 n1 n 2 − n1
− =
v u R
R, +ve for convex surface
R, ­–ve for concave surface
n1 – Refractive index of the medium in which incident ray lies.
n2 - Refractive index of the medium in which refractive ray lies
The lens
A lens is a piece of transparent material with two refracting surfaces such that at least one is curved
and refractive index of its material is different from that of the surroundings.
Different types of lenses

Sign Convention
1. Whenever and where ever possible, rays of light are taken to travel from left to right
2. Transverse distances measured above the principal axis are taken to be positive while those below
it negative
3. Longitudinal distances are measured from optical centre and are taken to be positive if in the direction
of light propagation and negative if opposite to it.e.g., according to our convention in case of a:

while using the sign convention it must be kept in mind that:

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Ray diagrams

Formula for thin lens (Len’s maker’s formula)

1  1 1 
∴ = (n − 1)  −  − (4) and it is known as Len’s maker’s formula from (4 ) and (3)
f  R1 R 2 
1 1 1
= −
f v u
This is known as the Lens formula or the law of distances for a lens
Power of a lens
1 100 100
It is the reciprocal of focal length. P = and and is measured in dioptre (D). Power
f (m) f (cm) f (cm)

is positive for the converging lens and negative for diverging lens.

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QUESTIONS 6. The focal length of a concave mirror is f and

the distance from the object to the principal
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] focus is x. The ratio of the size of the image
to the size of the object is
1. Two vertical plane mirrors are inclined at an
angle of 60o with each other. A ray of light f +x f
travelling horizontally is reflected first from 1) 2)
f x
one mirror and then from the other. The
resultant deviation is
2
1) 60o 2) 80o f f 
3) 4)  
x x
3) 180o 4) 240o
2. A man runs towards a mirror at a speed of 10 7. A convex mirror of focal length 10 cm is placed
ms-1. The speed of the image with respect to in water. The refractive index of water is 4/3.
the man is: What will be the focal length of the mirror in
water
1) 20 ms-1 2) 10 ms-1
1) 10 cm
3) 5 ms -1
4) 30 ms -1
2) 40/3 cm
3. A ray reflected successively from two plane 3) 30/4 cm
mirrors inclined at a certain angle undergoes
a deviation of 300o. The number of images 4) None of these
observable are 8. An object 5 cm tall is placed 1 m from a
concave spherical mirror which has a radius
1) 10 2) 11
of curvature of 20 cm. The size of the image
3) 12 4) 13 is

4. A convex mirror of focal length f forms an 1) 0.11 cm 2) 0.50 cm

image which is 1/n times the object. The 3) 0.55 cm 4) 0.60 cm
distance of the object from the mirror is
9. A plane mirror makes an angle of 30o with
n −1  horizontal. If a vertical ray strikes the mirror,
1) (n – 1) f 2)  f find the angle between mirror and reflected
 n 
ray

n +1  1) 30o 2) 45o
3)  f 4) (n + 1) f
 n  3) 60o 4) 90o
10. An object of length 2.5 cm is placed at a
5. An object is placed in front of a convex
distance of 1.5 f from a concave mirror
mirror of focal length f. Find the maximum
where f is the magnitude of the focal length
and minimum distance of an object from the
of the mirror. The length of the object is
mirror such that the image formed is real and
perpendicular to the principle axis. The length
magnified
of the image is
1) 2f and infinity 1) 5 cm, erect
2) f and 2f 2) 10 cm, erect
3) f and zero 3) 15 cm, erect
4) None of these 4) 5 cm, inverted

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11. A candle flame 3 cm is placed at distance of 15. Assertion and reason type question
3 m from a wall. How far from wall must a 1) Both assertion and reason are true
concave mirror be placed in order that it may and reason is the correct explanation of
form an image of flame 9 cm high on the wall assertion
1) 225 cm 2) 300 cm 2) Both assertion and reason are true
and reason is not correct explanation of
3) 450 cm 4) 650 cm assertion
12. A thin rod of length f / 3 lies along the axis of 3) Assertion is true but reason is false
a concave mirror of focal length f. One end 4) Both assertion and reason are false
of its magnified image touches an end of the Assertion: When a glass slab is placed
rod. The length of the image is over coloured letters, the
1 least raised colour is red
1) f 2) f Reason: Refractive index of a medium
2
is greater for red
16. A point source of light is placed 4m below the
1 surface of water of refractive index 5/3. The
3) 2 f 4) f
4 minimum diameter of a disc which should be
placed over the source on the surface of water
13. A beam of monochromatic blue light of to cut off all light coming out of water is
wavelength 4200 A0 in air travels in water 1) 2m 2) 6m
 4 3) 4m 4) 3m
 µ =  . Its wavelength in water will be
 3 17. A ray of light passes through four transparent
media with refractive indices µ1 , µ 2 , µ3 and
1) 2800 A0 2) 5600 A0
µ 4 as shown in the figure. The surfaces of
3) 3150 A0 4) 4000 A0 all media are parallel. If the emergent ray
CD is parallel to the incident ray AB, we must
14. A vessel of depth 2d cm is half filled with a
have
liquid of refractive index µ1 and the upper
half with a liquid of refractive index µ 2
. The apparent depth of the vessel seen
perpendicularly is

 µ1µ 2 
1) d  
 µ1 + µ 2 

1) µ1 =µ 2 2) µ 2 =µ3
1 1 
2) d  + 
 µ1 µ 2  3) µ3 =µ 4 4) µ 4 =µ1

1 1  18. The ratio of thickness of plates of two

3) 2d  +  transparent mediums A and B is 6 : 4. If light
 µ1 µ 2  takes equal time in passing through them,
then refractive index of B with respect to A
will be
 1 
4) 2d   1) 1.4 2) 1.5
 µ1µ 2  3) 1.75 4) 1.33

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19. A rectangular slab of refractive index µ is 24. Figure given below shows a beam of light
placed over another slab of refractive index 3, converging at point P. When a concave lens
both slabs being identical in dimensions. If a of focal length 16 cm is introduced in the path
coin is placed below the lower slab, for what of the beam at a place O shown by dotted line,
value of µ will the coin appear to be placed at the beam converges at a distance x from the
the interface between the slabs when viewed lens. The value x will be equal to
from the top
1) 1.8 2) 2
3) 1.5 4) 2.5
20. When light rays are incident on a prism at an
angle of 45 o, the minimum deviation is
obtained. If refractive index of the material of 1) 12 cm 2) 24 cm
prism is 2 , then the angle of prism will be 3) 36 cm 4) 48 cm
1) 30
o
2) 40 o
25. An air bubble in a glass sphere ( µ = 1.5) is
3) 50
o
4) 60 o situated at a distance 3cm from a convex
surface of diameter 10 cm. At what distance
21. A prism ( µ =1.5 ) has the refracting angle of from the surface will be bubble appear ?

30o. The deviation of a monochromatic ray 1) 2.5 cm 2) –2.5 cm

incident normally on its one surface will be 3) 5 cm 4) –5 cm
0 26. A convex lens of focal length f produces a real
(sin 48 36 ' = 0.75)
image m times the size of the object. What will
1) 18o 36’ 2) 20o 30’ be the distance of the object from the lens
3) 18o 4) 22o 1’  m +1 
1)  f 2) (m − 1) f
22. Flint glass prism is joined by a crown glass  m 
prism to produce dispersion without deviation.
The refractive indices of these for mean rays
 m −1  m +1
are 1.600 and 1.500 respectively. Angle of 3)  f 4)
prism of flint prism is 10o, then the angle of  m  f
prism for crown prism will be
27. In a compound microscope, the focal lengths
1) 8o 2) 11o of two lenses are 1.5 cm and 6.25 cm an
3) 15o 4) 12o object is placed at 2 cm from objective and
the final image is formed at 25 cm from eye
23. A thin lens focal length f1 and its aperture has lens. The distance between the two lenses is
diameter d. It forms an image of intensity I.
1) 6.00 cm 2) 7.75 cm
Now the central part of the aperture upto
diameter d/2 is blocked by an opaque paper. 3) 9.25 cm 4) 11.00 cm
The focal length and image intensity will 28. A compound microscope has a magnifying
change to power 30. The focal length of its eye-piece is 5
f I I cm. Assuming the final image to be at the least
1) and 2) f and distance of distinct vision. The magnification
2 2 4
produced by the objective will be
1) +5 2) – 5
3f I 3I
3) and 4) f and 3) +6 4) – 6
4 2 4

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

29. The magnifying power of telescope is high if 3. A fish at a depth 'x' in water (of refractive
index µ ) observes a bird directly above it
1) Both objective and eye-piece have short in air at a height y. What is the apparent
focal length. distance of the bird as perceived by the
2) Both objective and eye piece have long fish?
focal length.  1  1
1) x + y  1 +  2) x + y  1 − 
3) The objective has long focal length and  µ  µ
eye piece has short focal length.
4) The objective has short focal length and  1
3) y + x 1 −  4) x + µ y
eye piece has long focal length.  µ
30. A thin double convex lens has radii of 4. A concave mirror of focal length f produces
curvature each of magnitude 40 cm and is an image n times the size of the object. If
made of glass with refractive index 1.65. Its the image is real, the distance of the object
focal length is nearly in cm is from the mirror is
LEVEL II (n − 1) f
1) ( n − 1) f 2)
n
1. An object is placed at a distance of 20cm from
a convex mirror of radius of curvature 0.5 m.
Which of the following statements are correct. 3) (n + 1)f 4) (n + 1)f
n
a) image formed is real and inverted 5. A thin rod of length f/3 is placed along the
b) the image formed is virtual and erect principal axis of a concave mirror of focal
length f, such that its image which is real
c) image formed is at 100cm behind the mirror and elongated, just touches the rod. The
magnification is
d) image formed is at 11.1cm behind the mirror
1) 4/3 2) 3/2
e) image is 0.55 time the size of the object 3) 5/2 4) 5/3
1) (a) only 6. A point object is at a height x above the
surface of water of refractive index 4/3 in a
2) both (b) and (c)
lake. A fish inside the lake observe the point
3) (a), (d) and (e) object at a height 32 cm from the surface of
water. The value of x is
4) (b), (d) and (e)
1) 32 cm 2) 20 cm
2. The radii of curvature of the surfaces of a 3) 24 cm 4) 36 cm
double convex lens are 20 cm and 40 cm 7. Light of wave length 6000A0 and yellow colour
respectively, and its focal length is 20cm.
4
What is the refractive index of the material of enters from air to water of refractive index .
the lens ? 3
The wave length and the colour of light in
5 4 water will be
1) 2)
2 3 1) 4500 A0 and blue
2) 4500 A0 and yellow
5 4 3) 6000 A0 and red
3) 4)
3 5 4) 4800 A0 and yellow

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8. A fish rising vertically to the surface of water in 13. A ray of light passes through an equilateral
a lake uniformly at the rate of 3ms–1 observe a prism (refractive index 1.5) such that angle
bird diving vertically towards water at the rate of incidence is equal to angle of emergence
of 9ms–1 vertically above it. If the refractive and the later is equal to 3/4th of the angle of
index of water is 4/3, the actual velocity of prism. The angle of deviation is
dive of the bird is
1) 600 2) 300
1) 4.5ms –1
2) 6 ms –1

3) 450 4) 1200
3) 9ms –1
4) 12ms –1

14. The magnifying power of a telescope is 9.

9. A ray of light in a denser medium strikes a rarer When it is adjusted for parallel rays the
medium at an angle of incidence i, the angle distance between the objective and eyepiece
of reflection and refraction are respectively r is 20cm. The focal length of lenses are:
and r1. If the reflected and refracted rays are
at right angles to each other, the critical angle 1) 10cm, 10cm 2) 15cm, 5cm
for the given pair of media is
3) 18cm, 2cm 4) 11cm, 9cm
1) sin-1 (tan r) 2) tan-1 (Sin r)
15. Two thin lenses are in contact and the focal
3) sin-1 (tan r1) 4) sin-1 (cot r) length of the combination is 80 cm. If the focal
10. The angle of a prism is ‘A’. One of its refracting length of one of the lenses is 20 cm, the power
surfaces is silvered. Light rays falling at an of the other lens will be
angle of incidence 2A on the first surface
1) 1.66 D 2) − 3 D
returns back through the same path after
suffering reflection at the silvered surface. 80
The refractive index µ , of the prism is
3) 80 D 4) –3.75D
1 3
1) cos A 2) tan A
2
LEVEL III
3) 2 sin A 4) 2 cos A 16. A ray of light travelling in glass of reflective
11. A glass prism of angle and refractive index 3/2 is incident on a horizontal glass-air
index 1.7 is immersed in a liquid of refractive surface at the critical angle C. If a thin layer
index 1.2. For parallel beam of incident light of water of refractive index 4/3 is now poured
passing through the prism, the angle of on the glass-air surface, the ray will emerge
minimum deviation is nearly into air at the water-air interface at an angle

1) 300 2) 450 1) 600 2) 900

3) 600 4) 900 3) 450 4) 300

12. Refractive indices for water and glass are 17. A ray of light passing through a prism
4 5 of refractive index 2 suffers minimum
and respectively. When light tends to go
3 3 deviation. It is found that the angle of
from glass to water, the critical angle is incidence is double the angle of refraction
inside the prism. The refracting angle of the
1) sin ( 4 / 3) 2) sin ( 5 / 3)
−1 −1
prism is
1) 0 2) 300
3) sin ( 25 / 7 ) 4) sin ( 4 / 5 )
−1 −1

3) 600 4) 900

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18. A compound microscope consists of an 21. How will the image formed by a convex lens
objective lens with focal length 1.0 cm, be affected if the upper half of the lens is
eyepiece of focal length 2.0 cm and a tube wrapped with a black paper?
length 20 cm. Find the magnification of the
microscope. (When image formed at infinity)

1) 100 2) 200

3) 250 4) 300

19. Light from a point source in air falls on a 1) The size of the image is reduced to one-half
convex spherical glass surfaces of refractive
index 1.5 and radius of curvature 20cm. If the 2) The upper half of the image will be absent
distance of the source of light from the glass
surface is 50cm, the distance of the image 3) The brightness of the image is reduced
form the surface will be
4) There will be no effect

1) 200cm 2) 50cm 22. A thin symmetrical double convex lens of

power P is cut into three parts, as shown in
figure. Power of A is:
3) 300cm 4) 240cm

20. A ray of light from air falls normally on the first

face of a prism of angle 60° and refractive
index 2 . On reaching the second face

A
P
1) 2P 2)
2

B C P
3) 4) P
3
1 ray will reflect back to the prism
23. When an object is placed at a distance 0.5m
from a double convex lens a real inverted
2) ray will graze the second face image twice the size of the object is formed.
The focal length of the lens is
3) ray will emerge out through the second
1) 3m
face
2) 1m
4) Nothing can be predicted since given data
3) 1/2m
is insufficient
4) 1/3m

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24. A divergent lens is placed in a vessel filled Given below are two statements :
with a liquid of refractive index 1.6. The lens In the light of the statements, choose the most
has a focal length of 10 cm when in air and appropriate answer from the options given
is made of a material of refractive index 1.4. below :
The focal length of the lens inside the liquid
1) Both Statement I and Statement II are
is
incorrect
1) –32 cm 2) 32 cm 2) Both Statement I and Statement II are
correct
3) –16 cm 4) 16 cm 3) Statement I is correct but Statement II is
incorrect
25. Match the following Column-I gives number 4) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is
of image formed, Column-II shows an correct
arrangement and an objects 26. Statement I : Focal length of an
equiconvex lens placed in air
Column I Column II is always equal to the radius
A) Number of p) of curvature of either face.
images-3 O Statement II: For an equiconvex lens the
radius of curvature of both
the surfaces is not same.
600
27. Statement I : The frequencies of incident,
B) Number of q) µ1 reflected and refracted beam
images-5 µ2
of monochromatic light
µ3
O µ2 incident from one medium to
µ1
another are same.
C) Number of r) µ1 Statement II : The reflected and
images-2 µ2
refracted rays are mutually
O perpendicular.
µ1 µ3
28. Assertion : A double convex lens
D) Number of s) (µ =1.5) has focal length 10
image-1 n1 n2
n1 n2 cm. When the lens is
O
immersed in water (µ =4 / 3),

t) its focal length become 40

cm.

1  µg − µ w   1 1 
=
Reason :   − 
f  µ w   R1 R 2 
1) A-q, B-p, C-r, D-t
1) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct
2) A-p, B-q, C-s, D-t 2) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect
3) Both (A) and (R) are correct (R) is the
3) A-q, B-p, C-r, D-t
correct explanation of (A)
4) A-q, B-p, C-r, D-s,t 4) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not
the correct explanation of (A)

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Integer Type 30. A light ray is incident, at an incident angle θ1 ,

on the system of two plane mirrors M1 and
29. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed M2 having an inclination angle 750 between
in front of convex mirror with principal axis them (as shown in figure). After reflecting
coinciding each other. The distance between from mirror M1 it gets reflected back by the
mirror M2 with an angle of reflection 300.
the lens and mirror is 10 cm. A point object The total deviation of the ray will be _____
is placed on principal axis at a distance of degree.
60 cm from the convex lens. The image
formed by combination coincides the object
itself. The focal length of the convex mirror is
____ cm

116
 Chapter

08 WAVE OPTICS

SYNOPSIS

1. Wave front Intensity Amplitude

1 1
a. Spherical Iα Aα
r2 r
1 1
b. Cylindrical Iα Aα
r 2
c. Plane I α r0 A α r0

2π
2. Relation between phase difference and path difference ∆φ
= ∆L
λ
3. Amplitude of the resultant wave

A= A12 + A 22 + 2A1A 2 cos φ

I α A2

2 2
ie I α A1 + A 2 + 2A1A 2 cos φ

I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos φ

(=I + I )
2
( A1 + A 2 )
2
I max 1 2
=
4.
( I− I) ( A1 − A 2 )
2 2
I min
1 2

2 φ
5. I = Imax cos
2
W1 I1 A12
6. = = ( W → slit width )
W2 I 2 A 22

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CLASS (CLASS
(XI) XII)- PHYSICS
[NC 2026 BIOLOGY]

7. For constructive interference φ= 2nπ ( n= 0,1, 2,3...)

∆L = nλ ( n = 0,1, 2,3....)

8. For destructive interference =

φ ( 2n − 1) π (=
n 1, 2,3...)

λ
∆L= ( 2n − 1) ( n= 1, 2,3...)
2

9. In YDSE for constructive interference dsin θ = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3...)

λ
and for destructive interference dsin θ = (2n–1) ( n = 1, 2,3...)
2

Distance to the nth bright fringe from central maximum

nDλ Dλ
y nb
= = ( n 0,1, 2,3...) and to the nth dark fringe ynd = (2n – 1) ( n = 1, 2,3...)
d 2d

Dλ β λ
Fringe width, β = ; Angular fringe width θ= =
d D d

I max − I min 2 I1I 2

=
10. Fringe visibility V =
I max + I min I1 + I 2

11. nλ =a constant n1λ1 = n 2 λ 2

∆β λ
12. =
∆D d

1 β
13. If YDSE is performed in a medium β =
µ

14. If transparent sheet is introduced in the path of one of the two waves

D β
y=
0 ( µ − 1) t ; y=
0 ( λ − 1) t
d λ

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CLASS (XI)(CLASS XII)
[NC 2026 PHYSICS
- BIOLOGY]

15. Diffraction
Position of the secondary minimum a sin θ = nλ ( n = 1, 2,3...)

Position of the secondary maximum

λ λ x Dλ
a sin=
θ ( 2n − 1) ( n − 1, 2,3...) First sec. min 0= = i.e. x=
2 a D a

2λ
Angular width of the central maximum 2θ =
a

2Dλ
=
Linear width of the central maximum 2x ( 2θ ) D
a
The first minimum for the diffraction pattern of circular aperture of diameter d is located by
1.22λ
sin θ =
d
17. Polarization
I0
Malu’s law (Cosine squared law) I2 = I1 cos2 θ I1 =
2

if θ = 90 (ie polaroids are crossed) I2 = 0 if θ = 0 I2 = I1

Brewsters law
nd 1
= tan θB ; tan θB=
nr sin c

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

QUESTIONS 1
4. In a YDSE intensity at a point is th of
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
4
maximum intensity. Angular position of this
1. Count the number of correct statements: point is:
i. According to Newton’s Corpuscular theory, −1 λ
the speed of light is lesser in denser medium 1) sin  
d
ii. α − ray, β − ray and γ − ray generates a
−1  λ 
plane wavefront 2) sin  
 2d 
iii. Origin of spectra can be explained by
Huygen’s construction of wavefront
−1  λ 
iv. From a line of source, if amplitude of wave 3) sin  
at a distance r is A, then amplitude of distance
 3d 
2r is A/2
−1  λ 
v. The frequencies of incident, reflected 4) sin  
and refracted beam of monochromatic light  4d 
passing from one medium to another are the
5. The necessary condition for an interference
same
by two sources of light is that:
1) 1 1) two point sources should have same
2) 3 amplitude and wavelength

3) 4 2) two sources must be coherent

3) amplitude must be equal
4) 5
4) two sources must be point sources
2. Ratio of intensities of two waves is given by
4 : 1. The ratio of the amplitudes of the waves 6. The following sources are coherent light
is: sources:
1) Two mercury lamps of same wattage
1) 1 : 1
2) two sodium lamps of same wattage
2) 2 : 1
3) two flourescent lamps of the same
3) 4 : 1 wavelength and same power
4) 1 : 4 4) two phase locked He-Ne lasers
3. Two coherent monochromatic light beams 7. Interference of light waves from two coherent
of intensities I and 4I are superposed; the sources is possible for:
maximum and minimum possible intensities 1) unpolarised light waves only
in the resulting beam are:
2) polarised light waves only if their polarisation
1) 5I and I is in the same direction
2) 5I and 3I 3) polarised light waves only if their polarisation
is in the opposite direction
3) 9I and I
4) Both 1 and 2
4) 9I and 3I

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8. In YDSE, the angular width of a fringe formed 11. The maximum number of possible interference
on a distant screen is 1o. The wavelength of maxima for slit separation equal to twice the
light used is 6000Ao. The spacing between wavelength in YDSE, is:
the slits is approximately:
1) infinite
1) 1 mm
2) five
2) 0.05 mm
3) three
3) 0.03 mm
4) zero
4) 0.01 mm
12. The distance between the first dark and bright
9. Bichromatic light is used in YDSE having band formed in YDSE with band width B is:
wavelengths λ1 =400nm and λ 2 =700nm .
1) B 4
Find the minimum order of λ1 which overlaps
with λ 2 . 2) B
1) 7
3) B 2
2) 4
3) 14
4) 3B 2
4) 8
10. Which of the following statements are correct
about YDSE?
 o

i) Water is filled in the space between the slits 13. In YDSE, using red light  λ =6600 A  , 60
 
and the screen, then fringe width decreases
and fringe pattern shifts upwards
fringes are seen in the field of view. How many
ii) One of the slits is painted over, so that it fringes will be seen by using violet light
transmits only light waves having intensity half  o

of the intensity of light waves through other  λ =4400 A  .
slit, as a result of this dark fringe get brighter  
and bright fringes get darker. 1) 10
iii) If monochromatic light is replaced by white
2) 20
light, fringe closest to central bright fringe is
violet. 3) 45
iv) One slit is covered by red filter and other 4) 90
is covered by green filter, coloured fringes are
14. In YDSE, the two slits are separated by 0.1
observed on the screen.
mm and they are 0.5m from the screen. The
v) If a beam of electron is used in YDSE and wavelength of light used is 5000A o. The
velocity of electron is increased, fringe width distance between the 7th maxima and 11th
decreases minima on the screen is:
1) ii, v 1) 8.75 mm
2) only v 2) 6.75 mm
3) i, ii, iii, iv, v 3) 4 mm
4) ii, iii 4) 2 mm

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15. The interference fringes for sodium light 20. The diffraction effect can be observed in
 o
 λ =5890 A  in double slit experiment have 1) only sound waves
 
2) sound as well as light waves
an angular width of 0.2o. For what wavelength
will the width be 10% greater?
3) only light waves
1) 5479Ao
4) only ultrasonic waves
2) 6479Ao
3) 3479Ao 21. Yellow light is used in single slit diffraction
experiment with slit width 0.6mm. If yellow
4) 4479Ao
light is replaced by X-rays, then the pattern
16. Two coherent sources of intensity 1 : 4 will reveal:
produce an interference pattern. The fringe
visibility will be: 1) that the central maximum is narrower
1) 1 2) 0.8
2) no diffraction pattern
3) 0.6 4) 0.4
3) more number of fringes
17. The angular fringe width of fringes formed
with sodium light of wavelength 5890Ao is
0.2o. If the whole arrangement is immersed 4) less number of fringes
in water, then the angular width of the fringes
will become: 22. Condition for diffraction is

1) 0.11o
1) a λ = 1
2) 0.15 o

3) 0.22o 2) a λ >> 1
4) 0.1o
3) λ a >> 1
18. A laser beam is used for carrying out surgery
because
4) a λ << 1
1) is highly monochromatic
2) is highly coherent 23. To obtain 5 maxima of the double slit pattern
within the central maximum of single slit
3) is highly directional pattern, the width of slit has to be
4) can be sharply focussed
(Given λ =600nm, D=1m, d=1mm)
19. What causes changes in the colours of the
soap or oil films for the given beam of ligtht? 1) 0.1 mm
1) angle of incidence
2) 0.2 mm
2) angle of reflection
3) thickness of film 3) 0.3mm

4) polarisation 4) 0.4mm

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24. In a Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit of 27. Two polaroids are crossed to each other. If
width d with incident light of wavelength one of them is rotated through 60o, then what
5500Ao, the first minima is observed at an percentage of the incident unpolarised light
angle 30o. The first secondary maxima is will be transmitted by the polaroids?
observed at an angle θ equals
1) 25%

−1  1  2) 37.5%
1) sin  
 2 3) 50%
4) 75%
−1 1 28. When unpolarised light is incident on a plane
2) sin  
4 glass plate at Brewster’s angle, then which of
the following statement is correct?
1) Reflected and refracted rays are completely
−1 3
3) sin   polarised with their planes of polarisation
4 parallel to each other.
2) Reflected and refracted rays are completely
polarised with their planes of polarisation
−1
 3 perpendicular to each other
4) sin  
 2  3) Reflected light is plane polarised but
transmitted light is partially polarised
25. Ray optics is valid if
4) Reflected light is partially polarised but
1) characteristic dimension is much greater refracted light is plane polarised
than wavelength of light is used
Numerical
2) characteristic dimension is much less than 29. The Brewster’s angle for the glass-air interface
wavelength of light used is 54.74o. If a ray of light going from air to glass
strikes at an angle of incidence 45o, then the
3) characteristic dimension is independent of angle of refraction is
diffraction
o
(Given tan 54.74 = 2 )
4) nothing can be said
30. A ray of light is incident at polarising angle
26. Light of wavelength λ is incident on a slit of such that its deviation is 24o, then angle of
incidence is
width d and distance between screen and slit LEVEL - II
is D. Then width of maxima and width of slit
will be equal, if D is equal to: 1. Light waves travel in vacuum along the X-axis.
Then the wave front is :
d2 d2 1) X=constant
1) 2)
2λ λ
2) Y=constant
2d 2 d2 3) Z=constant
3) 4)
λ 4λ 4) X+Y+Z = constant

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

2. If the distance between a point source and 6. What is the path difference in case of
screen is doubled then intensity of light on destructive interference?
the screen will become
1) nλ
1) Four times
2) n ( λ + 1)
2) Double
( n + 1) λ
3) Half 3)
2
4) One-fourth
3. In Young Double slit experiment, the two slits ( 2n + 1) λ
acts as coherent sources of same intensity I0 4)
2
and wave length λ . In another experiment
with the same setup they act as incoherent. 7. What happens to the fringe patten when the
The ratio of intensity of light at the midpoint Young’s double slit experiment is performed
of the screen in the first case to second case in water instead or air then fringe width
is
1) Shrinks
1) 3:1 2) Disappear
2) 4:3 3) Unchanged
3) 2:1 4) Enlarged
4) 5:1 8. In Young’s double slit experiment, the aperture
screen distance is 2m. The fringe width is
4. In Youngs Double slit Experiment wavelength 1mm. Light of 600 nm is used. If a thin plate
of 500 nm, d = 1mm and D=1 m is arranged, of glass (mu = 1.5) of thickness 0.06 mm is
The minimum distance from the central placed over one of the slits, then there will be
maxima for which the intensity is half of the a lateral displacement of the fringes by
maximum intensity
1) 0 cm 2) 5 cm
−4
1) 2 × 10 m 3) 10 cm 4) 15 cm
−4
2) 1.25 × 10 m 9. If two coherent sources are placed at a
−4
distance 3λ from each other, symmetric to
3) 4 × 10 m the centre of the circle shown in figure
−4
4) 2.5 × 10 m
( R >> λ ) , then number of bright fringes
5. In young’s double slit experiment, distance shown on the screen placed along the
between two sources is 0.1 mm. The circumference is
distance of screen from the sources is 20
cm. Wavelength of light used is 5460A0. Then
angular position of the first dark fringe is
1) 0.080
2) 0.160
3) 0.200 1) 16 2) 12

4) 0.3130 3) 8 4) 4

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 LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

10. In YDSE, the fringes are displaced by a 13. A ray of unpolarised light is incident on the
distance Y when a glass plate of refractive surface of a glass plate of refractive index
index 1.5 is introduced in the path of one of 1.54 at polarising angle. Then the angle of
the interfering beams. If this plate is replaced refraction is (Given tan 57°=1.54)
by another plate of the same thickness but
1) 33° 2) 57°
of refractive index 1.75, the fringes will be
displaced by 3) 43° 4) 67°

2Y 7Y o
14. Light of wavelength 6328A is incident
1) 2)
3 6 normally on a slit having a width of 0.2mm.
The width of the central maximum measured
from minimum to minimum of diffraction
3Y 6Y pattern on a screen 9 meters away will be
3) 4)
2 7 about:

11. In the Young's double-slit experiment, the 1) 0.72 degree

intensity of light at a point on the screen where 2) 0.36 degree
the path difference is λ is K( λ being the wave
3) 0.18 degree
length of light used). The intensity at a point
where the path difference is λ / 4 will be 4) 0.09 degree

1) K/2 15. In a Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit

of width d with incident light of wavelength
2) K
, the first minima is observed at an
3) K/4 angle 300. The first secondary maxima is
observed at an angle equals.
4) Zero
−1  1 
12. The interference pattern is obtained with two 1) sin  
coherent light sources of intensity ratio n. In  2
I −I
the interference patter, the ratio max min

will be I + I −1 1
max min
2) sin  
4
n
1)
( n + 1)
2
−1 3
3) sin  
4
2 n
2)
( n + 1)
2
−1
 3
4) sin  
 4 
n 16. In YDSE, the slits are illuminated by
3)
n +1 monochromatic light. The entire set up is
now immersed in pure water. The percentage
change in fringe width is
2 n 1) 50% 2) 75%
4)
n +1 3) 40% 4) 25%

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LT-2026 (CLASS XII) PHYSICS

LEVEL - III 21. The Brewster’s angle for the glass-air

interface is 54.740.If a ray of light going from
17. A single slit is located effectively at infinity
air to glass strikes at an angle of incident 450,
infront of a lens of focal length 1 m and it is
then the angle of refraction is
illuminated normally with light of wavelength
600 nm. The first minimum on either side of o
(Given tan 54.74 = 2 )
the central maximum are separated by 4 mm
the width of the slit is (in mm) 1) 600

1) 0.1 2) 0.2 2) 350

3) 0.3 4) 0.4 3) 300

18. Direction of the first secondary maximum in 4) 54.740

the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern at a single 22. Two polaroids are crossed to each other. If
slit is given by (a is the width of the slit) one of them is rotated through 600, then what
λ percentage of the incident unpolarised light
1) a sin θ = will be transmitted by the polaroids?
2
1) 25%
3λ 2) 37.5%
2) a sin θ =
2 3) 50%
4) 75%
3) a sin θ = λ
23. Unpolarized light of intensity 32 Wm -2
λ passes through three polarizers such that
4) a cos θ =
2 transmission axis of the first and second
polarizer makes an angle 300 with each other
19. A beam of light of wavelength 600nm from and the transmission axis of the last polarizer
a distant source falls on a single slit 0.1mm is crossed with that of the first. The intensity
wide and the resulting diffraction pattern is of final emerging light will be
observed on a screen 2m away. The distance
between first dark fringes on either side of 1) 32 Wm-2
central bright fringe is 2) 3 Wm-2
1) 1.2 cm 3) 8 Wm-2
2) 1.2 mm 4) 4 Wm-2
3) 2.4 cm 24. Unpolarized light falls first on polarizer (P) and
4) 2.4 mm then on analyzer (A) . If the intensity of the
th
20. At the first minimum adjacent to the central 1
transmitted light from the analyzer is of
maximum of a single slit diffraction pattern 8
the phase difference between the Huygen’s the incident unpolarized light. What will be the
wavelet from the edge of the slit and the angle between optic axes of P and A
wavelet from the mid point of the slit is
1) 30°
π π
1) 2) 2) 45°
8 4
3) 0°

π 4) 60°
3) 4) π
2

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25. Suppose θ is the polarising angle for a 28. Unpolarized light falls on two polarizing sheets
placed on the top of the other. If the intensity
th
transparent medium and V is the speed of 1
light in that medium, then of the final transmitted light is the intensity
4
of original unpolarized light, then the angle
1) θ = tan
−1
( C)
V between the characteristics directions of the
sheets is....

2) θ =cot V C
−1
( ) 29. A regular width of central maxima in a single
slit diffraction pattern is measured. The slit is
0

3) θ =sin
−1
( C)
V illuminated by a light of wavelength 6000 A .

When the slit if illuminated by light of another

4) θ =cos
−1
( C)
V wavelength, the angular width decreases by
0
30%. The wavelength of this light will be ... A
26. Velocity of light in a medium is 3 ×108 m / s
Assertion-Reason
then angle of polarization for this medium will
be 1) If both Assertion and Reason are true and
the Reason is the correct explanation of the
1) 45° Assertion
2) If both Assertion and Reason are true and
2) 30° the Reason is no the correct explanation of
the assertion
3) 60° 3) If Assertion is true but Reason is false
4) If Assertion and Reason both are false
4) 53°
5) If Assertion is false but reason is true

Numerical type 30. Assertion : Thin film such as soap

bubble or a thin layer of oil
on water show beautiful
27. A thin paper of thickness 0.02 mm having a colours when illuminated by
refractive index 1.45 is pasted across one of white light.
the slits in YDSE. How many fringes will cross
through the centre if an identical paper piece Reason : It happens due to the
is pasted on the other slit also wavelength of interference of light reflected
light used is 600 nm. from upper and lower face of
the thin film.

127
 Chapter
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER
09 AND RADIATION

SYNOPSIS
Introduction
At normal conditions most of the gases do not conduct electricity. However, it can be made conducting
by (i) applying a very high voltage (ii) by reducing the pressure of the gas to a very low value, or
(iii) by irradiating the gas with certain radiations such as γ -rays, x-rays, u-v rays etc. The process

of splitting up gas molecule into +ve and –ve ions is called ionisation. If the ionisation is taking
place in a tube having +ve and –ve electrodes the arrangement is called a discharge tube. Then
+ve and –ve ions move in opposite directions constituting an electric current called ionisation
current. The flow of electric current through gases is called discharge of electricity through gases.
The experiments with discharge tubes led to the discovery of x-rays by Roentgen in 1895 and
cathode rays (electron) by J.J Thomson in 1897.
Electrons and Photons
Experimental studies on conduction of electricity through gases at low pressures led to the discovery
of electrons by J. J. Thomson.
c 
1. The specific charge  value  of the electron is determined by Thomson as 1.76 ×1011 C/kg
m 
2. The charge of the electron is determined by Millikan as 1.602 × 10-19 C
3. The mass of the electron is then calculated as 9.11 × 10-31 kg
4. The electron is the integral part of all constituents of matter in all forms and the charge carried
by it is considered as the basic unit charge
According to Planck’s quantum theory, light consists of tiny packets of energy called quanta or
photons of energy h υ and momentum h/ λ .
Electron Emission
Free electrons in the metals are responsible for their electrical conductivity. But, the free electrons
normally, can not escape from the metal. A certain energy is required for the emission of electron.
The minimum energy required to escape an electron from a metal surface is called the work
function φ0 of that metal, and is expressed in eV (electron volt)
[One eV is the KE acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through a p.d of 1 volt ie,
1eV = 1.602 × 10-19C × 1V = 1.602 × 10-19J].

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Metal φ0 in eV Metal φ0 in eV
Cs 2.14 Al 4.25
K 2.30 Cu 4.65
Na 2.75 Ag 4.75
Ca 3.20 Ni 5.15
Pb 4.25 Pt 5.65
The minimum energy required for the electron emission can be supplied by one of the following
methods (i) By heating (thermionic emission) (ii) By applying very strong electric field of the order
of 108 V m-1 (field emission) (iii) By irradiating the surface with light rays of suitable frequencies
(Photoelectric emission)
Photoelectric Emission : Discovered by Hertz. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the
surface of the metals when irradiated with radiation( γ rays, X-rays, U.V rays or visible rays) of

suitable frequency is called Photoelectric emission.

Experimental Study

The minimum negative potential V0 given to the anode for which the photo current stops or becomes
zero is called the cut-off or stopping potential. At this conditions, the maximum KE of the emitted
1
electron mv 2max = eV0
2
Effect of intensity of light

Photoelectric current i or number of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional to intensity of

light.

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Effect of p.d between A and B

1. Saturation current value increases with intensity I of incident light

2. Cut-off potential V0 is independent of intensity
Effect of Frequency

1. Saturation current is same for all frequencies when intensity remains constant
2. Below saturation value photoelectric current depends on frequency - the higher the frequency
the larger the current.
3. Stopping potential is different for different frequencies - the higher the frequency the greater
(-ve value) the stopping potential.
Frequency and stopping potential

The graph with stopping potential against frequency is a straight line for all metals. These lines
h
are parallel and are having same slope (h is Planck’s constant and e is the charge of electron).
e
Frequency υ0 is called the threshold frequency the minimum frequency for photo electric

emission.

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- BIOLOGY]

Einstein’s Equation
The electron absorbs the entire energy of only one photon. Part of this is used as work function
( φ0 = hυ0 ) and the rest remains as KE.

1
Then mv 2max = hυ − hυ0
2

1
Also mv 2max= h ( υ − υ0 =
) eV0
2
Discussion
1. Velocity and hence KE of photoelectrons depends on the frequency υ of incident lights.
2. If υ ≤ υ0 there is no emission of photoelectrons
3. When intensity of light increases number of photoelectrons emitted increases and hence
photoelectric current increases
4. When frequency of light increases stopping potential increases (-ve value).
1
5. If V0 is the stopping potential, mv 2max = eV0 = hυ − hυ0
2

h h
V0= υ − υ0
e e
h
is the slope of the graph between V0 and υ
e
Photocell : is a device used to convert light energy to electrical energy. There are three types of
photocells. Viz (i) photo emissive cell (ii) photo voltaic cell and (iii) photo conductive cell.
Photo emissive cell

It consists of a glass tube containing a cathode C and anode A. When light incident on C
photoelectrons are emitted and are collected by A producing a current in the circuit. The change
in intensity of light produces corresponding change in photoelectric current in the circuit.
Photocells are used in burglar alarms, automatic switching arrangements, reproduction of sound
in cinemas, automatic counting devices etc.

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Particle nature of Radiation - According to Planck, light consists of tiny packets of energy called
h h h
quanta or photons of energy value hυ and momentum P mc
. Momentum of photon = = or =
λ
λ λ mc

λ is the attribute of a wave while mc is an attribute of particle. This shows the dual nature of

radiation.
1) Interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called
photons.

2) Each photn has energy E (= hυ ) and momentum p = hυ c ( ) and speed C, the speed of light.
3) All the photons of a particular frequency υ of wavelengths λ have the same energy

(
E = hυ = hc )  hυ h 
p= =
λ and the same momentum  c λ  . Photon energy is independent of intensity
of radiation.
4) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
5) Frequency of photon gives the radiation,a definite energy (or colour) which doesn’t change.
When photons travel through different media.
6) Velocity of the photon in different media is different ( due to change in its wavelength)
7) The rest mass of a photon is zero
8) In a photon-particle collision, the energy and momentum are conserved. However the number
of photons may not be conserved in a collision.
Wave nature of particle
From the particle nature of radiation, Louis de Broglie, argued that what is true for radiation must
be true for particles also. ie, for a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v a wave must be
associated with it. This wave is called de Broglie wave or matter wave. The wave length of de
h
Broglie wave, λ =
mv
de Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron

2cV
Velocity of electron accelerated through a p.d of V volts. v =
m

h h 12.27 o
de Broglie wavelength of the electrons =
λ = = A
mv 2mcV V
o
For V = 100 volts, λ =1.227A
This was verified by Davisson and Germer.
It is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an electron at the same time
exactly. ∆x∆p ≈ h .

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QUESTIONS 7. The photoelectric effect is based up on

conservation of
LEVEL I [HOMEWORK]
1) momentum
1. The specific charge of a proton is
2) mass
9.6 ×107 C / kg . The specific charge of an
3) energy
alpha particle will be
4) angular momentum
7 7
1) 9.6 × 10 C / kg 2) 19.2 × 10 C / kg 8. In photoelectric effect, the number of
7
3) 4.8 × 10 C / kg
7
4) 2.4 × 10 C / kg photoelectrons emitted is proportional to

2. Cathode rays are 1) intensity of incident beam

1) Streams of positive ions 2) frequency of incident beam
2) Streams of negatively charged particles 3) velocity of incident beam
3) Streams of nuclei 4) work function of photocathode
4) Streams of neutron 9. A metal work function 3.3 eV is illuminated by
3. Millikan’s experiment established that light of wavelength 300 nm. The maximum
K.E. of photoelectron emitted is
1) electric charge is conservative in nature
−34
(taking h = 6.6 × 10 Js )
2) electric charge is additive in nature
1) 0.413 eV 2) 0.825 eV
3) electric charge is quantised in nature
4) electric charge is transferable in nature 3) 1.65 eV 4) 1.32 eV

4. Work function is 10. The kinetic energy of electron is E when light

has wavelength λ . To increase kinetic energy
1) maximum possible energy required by an to 2E, the incident light must have wavelength
electron
hc hcλ
2) energy of electrons in valence shell 1) 2)
Eλ − hc Eλ + hc
3) minimum energy required by an electron
to move out of metal surface hλ hcλ
3) 4)
4) maximum energy which is given to electron Eλ + hc Eλ − hc
to move it out of metal surface
5. Work function value is 11. Photon of energy 4.2 eV is incident on a metal
of work function 2eV. Maximum kinetic energy
1) same for all electrons of photoelectron ejected:
2) different for all electrons 1) 2 eV 2) 2.2 eV
3) decreased after emission of few electrons 3) 2.4 eV 4) 2.6 eV
4) increased after emission of few electrons 12. The stopping potential in an experiment
6. Wave theory of light could not explain on a photoelectric effect is 1.5V. What is
1) interference the maximum kinetic energy of the photo
electrons emitted
2) diffraction
1) 2eV 2) 3eV
3) reflection
3) 1.5eV 4) 1eV
4) photo electric effect

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13. Experiment study of photoelectric effect 19. Frequency of photons having energy of 66eV
shows that is
1) Photocurrent α intensity of light −15
1) 8 × 10 Hz
2) Saturation current α intensity of light −15
2) 12 × 10 Hz
3) Photoemission occurs only at frequency 15
greater than threshold frequency 3) 16 × 10 Hz
−15
4) All of the above are correct 4) 20 × 10 Hz
14. In the photoelectric experiment, if both the 20. The energy of photon of light of wavelength
intensity and frequency f incident light are 450nm is
doubled, the saturation photoelectric current −10
1) 4.4 × 10 J
1) Remains constant
−19
2) 2.5 × 10 J
2) is halved
−17
3) is doubled 3) 1.25 × 10 J
−17
4) becomes four times 4) 2.5 × 10 J
15. The mass of photon in motion is 21. Macroscopic objects like a moving cricket
ball does not show any wave like properties
1) hυ 2) hυ because
c2
1) de Broglie’s hypothesis is not true
3) hυ c 4) Zero 2) de-Broglie’s hypothesis is true only for
electrons
16. If h is Planck’s constant, find the momentum 3) de-Broglie’s hypothesis is true only for
o
photons
of a photon of wavelength 0.01A
4) Wavelength associated with macroscopic
1) 1012h 2) 1010h
object is small
3) 109h 4) 1011h
22. What is the de-Broglie wavelength associated
17. A particle with rest mass m0 is moving with with an electron accelerated through a
velocity c. What is the de-Briglie wavelenth potential difference of 100 volt?
associated with it? o
1) 1.227 A 2) 1.227 nm
1) 0 2) h m c
0

o
3) h mv 4) h mc 3) 12.27 A 4) 12.27nm
23. Mass of a particle is 400 times than that of
18. Photocell is a device used to an electron and charge is double that of an
electron. The particle is accelerated by a
1) store electrical energy
potential difference of 5V. If particle is initially
2) store photons at rest then its final KE will be
3) convert photon energy to electric energy 1) 5eV 2) 10eV
4) adjust the intensity of light 3) 100eV 4) 2000eV

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24. Cathode rays are produced, when the 30. What is the momentum of photon of energy
pressure is of the order of 3MeV in kgms-1?
1) 2cm of Hg 2) 0.1 cm of Hg −21
1) 1.6 × 10 kgms
−1

3) 0.01 mm of Hg 4) 1mm of Hg −21 −1

2) 2.5 × 10 kgms
25. Wave nature of electrons is exploited in
−21 −1
3) 1.8 × 10 kgms
1) mass -spectrometer
−23 −1
2) coolidge tube 4) 10 × 10 kgms
3) synchrotrons 31. The magnitude of de-Broglie wavelength ( λ )
4) electron microscope
of electron (e), proton (p), neutron and alpha
26. The velocity of the particle is increased three
particle ( α ) all having the same energy of
time then percentage decreases in its de-
Broglie will be
1MeV, in the increasing order will follow the
1) 53.3% 2) 66.6% sequence
3) 99.9% 4) 33.2% 1) λ c , λ p , λ n , λ α 2) λ c , λ n , λ p , λ α
27. Electron micrscope works on which principle?
3) λ α , λ n , λ p , λ c 4) λ p , λ c , λ α , λ n
1) Particle nature of electron
32. According to de-Broglie’s relation if velocities
2) Wave nature of electron of particle infinite, wavelength will be
3) Particle nature of light
1) ∞ 2) small
4) Wave nature of light
3) large 4) zero
28. de-Broglie wavelength associated with an
electron accelerated through a potential
33. In a photoelectric effect experiment, the
difference v is λ . What will be its wavelength graph of stopping potential V versus
reciprocal of wavelength obtained is shown
when the accelerating potential is increased in the figure. As the intensity of incident
to 4V? radiation is increased
1) λ 4 2) λ 3

3) 2λ 4) λ 2

29. What is the momentum of an electron beam

o
of wavelength 4 A ?
−24 −1
1) 1× 10 kgms 1) Slope of the straight line get more steep
−24 −1
2) 2.2 × 10 kgms 2) Straight line shifts to left
−24 −1
3) 1.65 × 10 kgms 3) Graph does not change
−23 −1
4) 10 × 10 kgms
4) Straight line shifts to right

135
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34. The log graph between the energy E of an 3. A beam of wavelength λ and intensity L falls
electron and its de-Broglie wavelength λ will over a clean surface of sodium metal. If N
be photoelectrons are emitted with kinetic energy
E, then

1) N α L and E α L
1) 2)
1
2) N α L and E α
λ
3) N α λ and E α L

1 1
4) N α and E α
λ L
4. Two streams of photons, possessing energies
3) 4)
equal to five and ten times the work function
of metal are incident on the metal surface
successfully. The ratio of maximum velocities
35. A particle is dropped from a height H. The of the photo electron emitted, in the two cases
de-Broglie wavelength of the particle as a respectively will be
function of height is proportional to
1) 1:2 2) 1:3
1) H 2) H1/2
3) 2:3 4) 3:2
3) H0 4) H-1/2
LEVEL II 5. The figure shows the variation of photoelectric
current with anode potential for a photon
1. An electron initially at rest is accelerated sensitive surface for three different radiations.
through a potential difference of 200V, so that Let Ia, Ib and Ic be the intensities and fa, fb and
6
it acquire a velocity of 8.4 × 10 m / s . The fc be the frequencies for the curves a, b and
c respectively.
value of e/m of electrons is
12 11
1) 2.76 × 10 c / kg 2) 1.76 × 10 c / kg
12 11
3) 0.76 × 10 c / kg 4) 2.76 × 10 c / kg
2. In millikan’s oil drop experiment an oil drop
having charge q gets stationary on applying
a potential difference v between two plates
separated by a distance ‘d’. The weight of the
drop is 1) fa = fc and Ia = Ic

d 2) fa = fb and Ia = Ib
1) qvd 2) q.
v
3) fa = fb and Ia ≠ Ib
q v
3) 4) q. 4) fb = fc and Ia ≠ Ib
vd d

136
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6. The threshold frequency of a metal is f0 . 11. Which of the following moving particles
When the light of frequency 2f0 is incident (moving with same velocity) has largest
on the metal plate, the maximum velocity of wavelength of matter waves?
electrons emitted is v1. When the frequency of
1) Electron 2) α − particle
the incident radiation is increased to 5f0, the
maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v2. 3) Proton 4) Neutron
Find the ratio of v1 and v2.
12. T h e m o m e n t u m o f a p h o t o n o f a n
1) 2:1 2) 4:1 −29 −1
electromagnetic radiation is 3.3 × 10 kgms
3) 1:2 4) 3:4
7. Ultra violet light of wavelength 310nm is used What is the frequency of the associated
in an experiment of photo electric effect with wave?
lithium [work function φ =2.5eV ] find energy 13
1) 1.5 × 10 Hz
of photon in joule
12
−19 2) 7.5 × 10 Hz
1) 1.2 × 10 J
8
−19 3) 6 × 10 Hz
2) 6.4 × 10 J
3
−19
3) 4.2 × 10 J 4) 3 × 10 Hz
−19 13. An electron of mass m and a photon have
4) 5 × 10 J
same energy E. The ratio of de-Broglie
o
wavelengths associated with them is:
8. Light of wavelength 2000 A falls on an
aluminium surface. In aluminium 4.2eV 1 1
1 E  2
 E  2
are required to remove an electron from 1)   2)  
its surface. What is its K.E in eV of fastest c  2m   2m 
photoelectrons?
1) 4eV 2) 3eV 1
1 1  2m  2

3) 2eV 4) 5eV 3) c ( 2mE ) 2

4)  
λc  E 
9. The work function of silver and sodium are 4.6
and 2.3eV respectively. The ratio of the slope 14. If the momentum of electron is changed by
of the stopping potential versus frequency plot P, then the de-Broglie wavelength associated
for silver to that of sodium is, with it changed by 0.5%. The initial momentum
of electron will be
1) 2 2) 1/2
3) 2.3 4) 1 1) 200P 2) 400P

10. Maximum KE of a photoelectric electron is 3) P/200 4) 100P

E when the wavelength of light incident on it −9
15. The wavelength of a 1keV photon is 1.24 × 10
is . If the energy becomes four times when
wavelength is reduced to one third, then the what is the frequency of 1MeV photon?
work function of the metal is
15
1) 1.24 × 10
3hc hc
1) 2) 20
λ λ 2) 2.4 × 10
18
hc hc 3) 1.24 × 10
3) 4)
2λ 3λ 4) 2.4 × 10
23

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LEVEL III 18. A point source of light is at a distance of 0.2m

from a photoelectric cell. The cut off voltage
and saturation current are respectively 0.6V
16. The stopping potential for photoelectrons from
and 18mA. If the same source is placed 0.6m
a metal surface is V1 when monochromatic
away from the cell then ,
light of frequency ν1 is incident on it.
The stopping potential becomes V2 when 1) stopping voltage will be 0.2V
monochromatic light of another frequency is 2) stopping voltage will be 0.8V
incident on the same metal surface. If h be
the planck’s constant and e be the charge of 3) saturation current will be 6mA
an electron, then the frequency of light in the 4) saturation current will be 2mA
second case is
19. Monochromatic light of frequency 6 × 1014 Hz
is produced by a laser. The power emitted is
e 2 × 10-3 W. The number of photons emitted
1) v1 − ( V2 + V1 ) on the average by the source per second is :
h
1) 5 × 1016
e
2) v1 + ( V2 + V1 ) 2) 5 × 1017
h
3) 5 × 1014
e
3) v1 − ( V2 − V1 ) 4) 5 × 1015
h
20. A source S1 is producing, 1015 photons per
o
e second of wavelength 5000 A . Another
4) v1 + ( V2 − V1 )
h
15
source S2 is producing 1.02 × 10 photons per
17. When photon of energy 4.25 eV strike the
surface of a metal A, the ejected photoelectrons
have maximum kinetic energy TA eV and o

de-Broglie wavelength λ A . The maximum second of wavelength 5100 A . Then (power

kinetic energy of photoelectrons liberated from
another metal B by photon of energy 4.70 eV of S2) / (Power of S1) is equal to :
is T B = (TA – 1.50) eV. If the de-Broglie 1) 1.00
wavelength of these photoelectrons is
2) 1.02
λ B = 2λ A , then which of the following is
3) 1.04
wrong: 4) 0.98
21. Electrons used in an electron microscope are
1) The work function of A is 2.25 eV accelerated by a voltage of 25kv. If the voltage
is increased to 100kv then the de- Broglie
2) The work function of B is 4.20 eV wavelength associated with electrons would
1) increase by 2 times
3) TA = 2.00 eV 2) decrease by 2 times
3) decrease by 4 times
4) TB = 2.75 eV
4) increase by 4 times

138
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22. An electron of mass m with an initial velocity Numerical type


=v v 0 ˆi ( v 0 > 0 ) enters an electric field
26. The work function for a certain metal is 4.2eV.
 Will this metal give photoelectric emission for
E = −E 0 ˆi [E0 = constant > 0] at t = 0. If λ 0 is incident radiation of wavelength 330nm? The
15
threshold frequency is ........ × 10 Hz
its de-Broglie wavelength initially, then its de-
Broglie wavelength at time t is 27. When light of wavelength 400nm is incident
λ0 on the cathode of a photocell. The stopping
1) potential recorded is 6V. If the wavelength
 eE 0  of the incident light is increased to 600nm,
1 + t
 mV0  calculate the new stopping potential.

Assertion - Reason type

1 + eR 0  a) If both assertion and reason are correct
2) λ 0  t
 mV0  and the reason is a correct explanation of the
assertion
3) λ 0
b) If both assertion and reason are correct
4) λ 0 t but reason is not a correct explanation of the
23. Momentum of particle radiating energy with assertion
−10 0
wavelength of 1.5 × 10 A is
c) If the assertion is correct but reason is
1) 1.4 × 10
−11
kg − m / s incorrect
−14
2) 2.4 × 10 kg − m / s d) If both the assertion and reason are
−14 incorrect
3) 3.4 × 10 kg − m / s
−14
4) 4.4 × 10 kg − m / s 28. Assertion : In photoelectric emission
all emitted electrons do not
24. de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron at 270C is have same kinetic energy
λ . What will be its wavelengths at 9270C
Reason : The kinetic energy of
λ λ
1) 2) photoelectrons varies
9 4 between zero to maximum
value because of the range
λ of frequencies present in the
3) 4) 2λ
2 incident light

25. A particle of mass 5m at rest decays into 29. Assertion : Photoelectric saturation
two particles of masses 2m and 3m having current increases with the
non - zero velocities. The ratio of de-Broglie increase in frequency of
wavelengths of the particles is incident light
3 2 Reason : Energy of incident photons
1) 2)
2 3 increases with increase
the frequency and as a
1 result photoelectric current
3) 4) 1
3 increase

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30. Match the following

Column I Column II
Emission of electron
Field
A) from the surface of P)
emission
metal on heating
Emission of
electron from the
surface of metal Secondary
B) Q)
when radiation of emission
suitable wavelength
falls on it
Emission of electron
from the surface of
Thermionic
C) metal when strong R)
emission
electric field is
applied on metal
Emission of
electrons from the
surface of metal Photoelectric
D) S)
when high energy emission
electron fall on
metal surface
ABCD ABCD
1) 2)
PQRS QRSP

ABCD ABCD
3) 4)
RSPQ SPQR

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ATOMS AND NULCEI
10

SYNOPSIS

Atomic Structure and Spectrum

The first atom model was proposed by Thomson. The model failed to explain the origin of spectral
lines from the atom and the large angle scattering of α -particles. Then Rutherford proposed another

model of atom. According to Rutherford, the atom consists of a central core called atomic nucleus,
where the mass and positive charge of the atom are concentrated and the electrons are moving
round the nucleus in circular orbits. This model explained large angle scattering of α - particles.

1 Ze.2e
The distance of closest approach r0 =
4π ∈0 1 mv 2
2

1 Ze 2
Impact parameter=
b is given by b cot ( θ / 2 )
4π ∈0 1 mv 2
2

N 0 nt ( 2Ze 2 )
2
1 1
=
Number of atoms scattered at an angle θ, N θ or, N θ α 4
4 ( 4π ∈0 ) r 2 ( mv
2
)
2 2 sin ( θ / 2 )
4
sin ( θ / 2 )
0

Rutherford measured the size of the nucleus as of the order 10–15 m (ie, fm) and atoms as of the
order of 10–10m (ie, A0). But, the model failed to explain the origin of spectral lines from the atoms.

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Bohr Atom Model

Bohr modified Rutherford atom model by introducing certain postulates.

1. Every atom consists of the central nucleus and the electrons are revolving round the nucleus in
specified orbits. The centripetal force required for the motion is given by

mv 2 1 Ze 2
=
r 4π ∈0 r 2

mv 2 1 e2
For hydrogen Z = 1; ∴ = . 2 ................ (1)
r 4π ∈r r

2. The electrons can revolve only in orbits for which the angular momentum is an integral multiple of
h
2π
h
ie; mvr = n ................................. ( 2 )
2π
3. Electrons revolving in the orbit do not radiate energy.

4. Energy is radiated when the electrons jump from an outer orbit to inner orbit. The energy radiated
is given by, hυ= E 2 − E1................... ( 3)

Calculations for hydrogen atom Z = 1

Radius of the orbit rn

∈0 h 2 2
Sq. eq (2) and devide by eq. (1) r rn=
= .n ........ ( 4 )
πme 2
or ; rn = 0.53n A ......................... ( 5 )
2 0

Velocity of electon vn

e2 c 1
v v=
Dividing eqn. (1) by eq (2) = n .
2 ∈0 h c n

1 c
or, v n = ................................ ( 6 )
137 n
e2 1
= = α is called fine structure constant.
2 ∈0 hc 137

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Period of revolution of the electron Tn

2πrn
Period Tn
= α n 3 ........................ ( 7 )
vn

Energy of electron in the orbit En

1 e2 1 e2
KE = ; PE = −
8π ∈0 r 2 4π ∈0 r 2

−1 e 2
TE =KE + PE =E =E n =
8π ∈0 r 2

−me 4 1
E E=
Substituting for r,= n . ................... ( 8 )
8 ∈02 h 2 n 2

1 1
− mc 2 α 2 .
In terms of fine structure constant E n =
2 n2

1
In eV, E n = −13.6. ................... ( 9 )
n2

For n = 1 ie; ground state, E1 =

−13.6eV, KE =
13.6eV, PE =
−27.2eV
Spectral lines

From eqn (3) h=

υ E n 2 − E n1

c 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
ie; hυ = h = mc α  2 − 2  or, = υ = R  2 − 2  ...................... (10 )
λ 2  n1 n 2  λ  n1 n 2 
λ is the wavelength, υ wave number
1 2 2
R
R is Rydberg constant, = = 1.097 ×107 m −1
mc α
2

For hydrogen like atoms

1
rn= .rn of H, Vn= Z × Vn of H
Z

1 1
Z2 × E n of H,
En = Z2 × of H
=
λ λ

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Spectral series
1. For Lyman Series (U.V. rays) n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5...............
2. For Balmer series (Visible rays) n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5,.................
3. For Paschen series (Infra red rays) n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6, ..............
4. For Bracket series (Infra red rays) n1 = 4, n2 = 5, 6, 7, ...............
5. For Pfund series (Far infrared rays) n1 = 5, n2 = 6, 7, 8, ..............
Spectrum - Emission spectra and Absorption spectra
Emission spectra are of three types
1. Line spectrum : is obtained when substances in atomic state are excited.
Eg : H spectrum, Hg spectrum, Sodium lamp
2. Band spectrum : is obtained when substance is in molecular state are excited.
Eg : O2, N2, CO2
3. Continuous spectrum : is obtained when matter in bulk is excited
Eg : Carbon arc, copper arc, hot filament lamp.
Absorption spectra is obtained when a composite light is passing through a less intense medium
and the transmitted light is examined through a spectro graph. If the medium is in atomic state,
absorption line spectrum is obtained and if the medium is in molecular state absorption band
spectrum is obtained.
Fraunhofer Lines: If the solar rays are examined through a prism spectrometer large number of dark
lines are observed in the bright back ground of solar spectrum. These lines are called Fraunhofer
lines. These lines are due to absorption of energy by the atoms of the elements present in the
photosphere around the sun.
ATOMIC NUCLEI
Atomic nucleus is the central part of every atom. Its size is of the order of 1 fm or 10–15 m. The
mass of the nucleus is more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom and is expressed in atomic mass
unit (a.m.u) or simply u.
1 12
1amu
= of mass of 6 C
= 1.66 ×10−27 kg. When 1 a.m.u is fully converted into energy, the energy
12
produced is 1.49 x 10–10 J. (931 MeV)
A A
The nucleus of an atom is represented by Z X or Z X
Where Z is the atomic number ie, number of protons and A is the atomic mass number ie, total
number of protons and neutrons
4 3
Nuclear size : The nucleus is assumed to be almost spherical. Its volume πR αA
3
R 3αA or R R 0 A=
∴= 1/3
; R 0 1.2fm to 1.3fm

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mass µA
Nuclear density =
:ρ = = 2.29 ×1017 kg / m3
volume 4 πR 0 A
3
3

Conservation Laws : The sum of mass-energy, the momentum and the total charge are conserved
before and after any nuclear interactions.
Binding Energy and mass defect

=BE mass defect × c 2

BE= ( Zm + ( A − Z ) m
p n − M N ) c2

M N → mass of nucleus

The importance of BE curve is that it led to the possibility of release of energy during nuclear fission
and fusion.
Nuclear forces : Nuclear forces are the strongest attractive forces and are existing between
nucleons - which are independent of charge, short range, non central, non-conservative and not
obeying inverse square law. The nuclear forces are dependent on spin or angular momentum of
nuclei. According to Yukawa, the exchange of π mesons is responsible for nuclear forces.
Nuclear fission: is the process of splitting the nucleus of a heavy atom in to two nuclei of nearly
equal mass with release of large energy.
235
Eg : 92 U + 0 n1 →56 Ba144 + 36 Kr 89 + 30 n1 + 200MeV
The three neutrons released can produce further fission and the process is going on, resulting in
chain reaction. An uncontrolled chain reaction results in explosion (atom bomb) and a controlled
chain reaction gives controlled release of energy and is achieved in nuclear reactors. The main
parts of a nuclear reactor are (1) nuclear fuel (U235 or Pu239) (2) Moderators - (heavy water, parafin)
and control rods (Boron, Cadmium)
Nuclear Fusion : is the fusion of two light nuclei into a single nucleus with release of large energy.
This requires large KE and hence very high temperature of the order of 107 K. So, fusion process
is taking place in the sun and the stars. Then, the process is also called thermonuclear process.

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QUESTIONS 7. The acceleration of electron in the first orbit

LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] of H atom is

1. Wavelength of light emitted from second orbit 4π 2 m

1)
to first orbit in a hydrogen atom is h3

1) 2)

3) 4) 2)
2. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom
is -13.6 eV. the kinetic energy of the electron
in this state is
3)
1) 27.2 eV
2) 13.6 eV
3) 6.8 eV
4) 122. 4 eV 4)

3. If radius of first Bohr orbit is r, then the radius

of second Bohr’s orbit will be 8. In Bohr’s model of atom which of the

1) 2r 2) 8r following is an integral multiple of ?

3) 4r 4) 2 2r 1) Kinetic energy
4. In Rutherford’s model, if v is velocity of electron 2) Radius of an atom
and r is its orbital radius, then in case of a
3) Potential energy
hydrogen atom r is
4) Angular momentum
e2 e2
1) r = 2) r = 9. Energy required for the electron excitation
8πε 0 mv 2 8πε 0 v
in Li++ from the first to the third Bohr orbit is
1) 12.1 eV
e2 e2
3) r = 4) r = 2) 36.3 eV
4πε0 mv 2 4πε 0 v
3) 108.8 eV
5. If the radius of the first Bohr orbit of the H
atom is 5.29 × 10-11 m, the radius of the 4) 122.4 eV
second orbit will be
10. If R is the radius and A is the mass number,
1) 21.16 × 10-11 m then log R versus log A graph will be
2) 10.58 × 10-11 m 1) a straight line 2) a parabola
3) 15.87 × 10 -11
m 3) an ellipse 4) none of these
4) 2.64 × 10 -11
m 11. If 13.6 eV energy is required to ionise the
6. The ratio of minimum wavelengths of Lyman hydrogen atom, then energy required to
and Balmer series will be remove an electron from n = 2 is
1) 1.25 2) 0.25 1) 10.2 eV 2) 0 eV
3) 5 4) 10 3) 3.4 eV 4) 6.8 eV

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12. The energy of a hydrogen like atom in its 18. If R is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen,
ground state is -54.4 eV. It may be then the wave number of the first line in the
Lyman series is
1) Hydrogen 2) Helium (He+)
3) Deuterium 4) Lithium (Li++)
1)
13. An of energy bombards 2) 2R

a heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. The

distance of closest approach for alpha 3)
particle will be proportional to
4)
1) V 2)
19. A radioactive nucleus A finally transforms into
3) 4) a stable nucleus B. Then A and B can be
1) Isobars
14. When an electron makes transition from n = 2) Isotones
4 to n = 2, then emitted line spectrum will be
3) Isotopes
1) First line of Lyman Series
4) None of these
2) Second line of Balmer series
3) First line of Paschen series 20. Radius of nucleus is 3 fermi. The radius

4) Second line of Paschen series of nucleus will be

15. The ground state energy of H-atom is -13.6 1) 5 fermi
eV. What is the potential energy of the 2) 6 fermi
electron in this state ?
3) 7 fermi
1) 0 eV 2) -27.2 eV
4) 11.16 fermi
3) 1 eV 4) 2 eV
21. The penetrating power is maximum for
16. For which one of the following Bohr model
is not valid ? 1)
1) Hydrogen atom
2)
2) Singly ionized helium atom (He+)
3)
3) Deuteron atom
4) None of these
4) Singly ionized neon atom (Ne+)
22. The binding energy of deuteron is 2.2 MeV
17. Frequency of revolution of an electron
and that if is 28 Mev. If two deutrons
revolving in nth orbit of H atom is proportional
to are fused to form one , then the energy
released is
1) 19.2 MeV
1) Independent of n 2)
2) 23.6 MeV

3) n 4) 3) 25.8 MeV
4) 30.2 MeV

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23. Which of the following are suitable for the 28. Matrix Match
fusion process ?
Colum I Colum II
1) Light nuclei A) Moderator p) Boron
2) Heavy nuclei B) Nuclear q) Critical
fuel
3) Element must be lying in the middle of the
C) Control r) Uranium-235
periodic table
rods
4) Middle elements, which are lying on D) Multiplication s) Heavy water
binding energy curve. factor =1
24. The radius of germanium (Ge) nuclide is
1) A-s; B-r; C-p; D-q
measured to be twice the radius of .
2) A-q; B-s; C-r; D-p
The number of nucleons in Ge are
3) A-s; B-p; C-r; D-q
1) 72
4) A-p; B-q; C-r; D-s
2) 73
29. Binding energy per nucleon in heavy nuclei
3) 74 is of the order of

4) 75 1) 8 MeV 2) 8 eV
3) 80 eV 4) 80 MeV
25. In an atom bomb, the reaction which occurs
is 30. Assertion : Energy is released in nuclear
fission
1) Thermonuclear reaction
Reason : Total binding energy of the
2) Uncontrolled fission fission fragments is larger
than the total binding energy
3) Controlled fission of parent nucleus
4) Fusion 1) If both assertion and reason are correct
and reason is the correct explanation of the
26. A nuclear reactor delivers a power of 10w. assertion
Find fuel consumed by the reactor per hour,
if its efficiency is 20% 2) If both assertion and reason are correct
and reason is not the correct explanation of
1) 2 × 10-6g/h the assertion
2) 9 × 10-12 g/h 3) If assertion is correct but reason is
incorrect
3) 8 × 10-9 g/h
4) If both assertion and reason are incorrect.
4) 2 × 10-9 g/h
LEVEL - II
27. Mass equivalent to energy 931 MeV is 1. In which of the following systems will the
radius of the first orbit (n=1) be minimum ?
1) 6.02 × 10-27 Kg
1) Deuterium atom
2) 1.66 × 10-27 Kg
2) Hydrogen atom
3) 16.66 × 10-27 Kg
3) Doubly ionised lithium
4) 6.02 × 10 -29
Kg 4) Singly ionised helium

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2. Maximum frequency of emission is obtained 7. Energy levels of A, B and C of a certain atom

for the transition corresponding to increasing values of energy
1) n = 2 to n = 1 ie, . If and are

2) n = 6 to n=2 wavelength of radiations corresponding to

transitions C to B, B to A and C to A
3) n = 1 to n= 2
respectively, which of the following relation
4) n = 2 to n = 6 is correct ?
3. The total energy of an electron in the first 1)
excited state of hydrogen atom is about -3.4
eV. Its kinetic energy in this state is 2)
1) 3.4 eV
2) 6.8 eV 3)

3) -3.4 eV 4)
4) -6.8 eV 8. When electron jumps from n=4 level to n=1
level, the angular momentum of electron
4. In terms of Rydberg constant R, the changes by
wavenumber of the first Balmer line is
1) R 1)
2) 3R
3) 5R/36
2)
4) 8R/ 9
5. In Rutherford’s experiment the number of
alpha particles scattered through an angle
3)
of 900 is 28 per minute. Then the number of
particles scattered through an angle of 600
per minute by the same nucleus is
1) 28 per minute 4)
2) 112 per minute
9. The electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from
3) 12.5 per minute the ground state to the higher energy state
4) 180 per minute where its velocity is reduced to one-third of
its initial value. If the radius of the orbit in the
6. If the electron in the hydrogen atom ground state is r, the radius of new orbit will
jumps from third orbit to second orbit, the be
wavelength of the emitted radiation in terms
of Rydberg constant is 1) 3r
2) 9r
1) 2)
3)

3) 4) None of these 4)

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10. The graph of log (R/R 0 ) versus log A 13. In a nuclear fusion reaction, two nuclei A and
(R = radius of a nucleus and A = its mass B fuse to produce a nucleus C, releasing
number) is an amount of energy ∆E in the process.
If the mass defects of the three nuclei are
1) A straight line
∆M A , ∆M B and ∆M C respectively, then
2) A parabola which of the following relations holds ? Here
c is the speed of light
3) An ellipse
∆E
4) None of the above 1) ∆M A + ∆M B = ∆M C −
C2
11. Binding energy per nucleon versus mass
number curve for nuclei is shown in figure. ∆E
w, x, y and z are four nuclei indicated on 2) ∆M A + ∆M B = ∆M C +
the curve. The process that would release C2
energy
∆E
3) ∆M A − ∆M B = ∆M C −
C2

∆E
4) ∆M A − ∆M B = ∆M C +
C2

14. 200 MeV of energy may be obtained per

fission of U235. A reactor is generating 1000
KW of power. the rate of nuclear fission in
the reactor is
1) 1000 2) 2 × 108
1) Y 2Z
3) 3.125 × 1016 4) 931
2) W X+Z
Assertion and Reason
3) W 2Y
1) If both assertion and reason are true
4) X Y+Z and reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion.
12. In a hypothetical system, a particle of mass
M and charge - 3q is moving around a very 2) If both assertion and reason are true and
heavy particle having charge q. Assuming reason is not the correct explanation of the
Bohr’s model to be true to this system, the assertion.
orbital velocity of mass M when it is nearest
to heavy particle is 3) If assertion is true, but reason is false.
4) If assertion is false, but reason is true.
3q 2 3q 2
1) 2)
2ε0 h 4ε0 h 15. Assertion : In n = 2, energy of electron in
hydrogen like atoms is more
compared to n = 1.
3q 3q
3) 4) Reason : As n increases, kinetic
2ε0 h 4ε0 h energy increases.

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LEVEL - III 21. A nucleus of mass number 189 splits into

two nuclei having mass number 125 and 64.
16. An electron of a stationary hydrogen atom
The ratio of radius of two daughter nuclei
passes from the fifth energy level to the
respectively is :
ground level. The velocity that the atom
acquired as a result of photon emission will 1) 4:5 2) 5:4
be:
3) 25:16 4) 1:2
24hR 25hR 235
1) 2) 22. When a uranium isotope 92 U is bombarded
25m 24m 89
with a neutron, it generates 36 kr , three

25m 24m neutrons and :

3) 4)
24hR 25hR 91 101
1) 40 Zr 2) 36 Kr
17. The transition from the state n = 3 to n = 1 103 144
3) 36 Kr 4) 56 Ba
in a hydrogen like atom results in ultraviolet
radiation. Infrared radiation will be obtained 23. A certain mass of Hydrogen is changed
in the transition from: to Helium by the process of fusion. The
mass defect in fusion reaction is 0.02866
1) 2 → 1 2) 3 → 2
a.m.u.The energy liberated per a.m.u. is
3) 4 → 2 4) 4 → 3
(Given :1 a.m.u = 931 MeV)
18. Let T1 and T2 be the energy of an electron
1) 26.7 MeV
in the first and second excited states of
hydrogen atom, respectively. According to 2) 6.675 MeV
the Bohr’s model of an atom, the ratio T1: T2
3) 13.35 MeV
is :
4) 2.67 MeV
1) 4:1 2) 4:9
24. The amount of 1 mg of matter converted into
3) 9:4 4) 1:4
energy gives
19. In the spectrum of hydrogen, the ratio of the
1) 9 J 2) 9 ×103 J
longest wavelength in the Lyman series to
the longest wavelength in the Balmer series 3) 9 ×105 J 4) 9 ×1010 J
is
25. When an α particle of mass ‘m’ moving with
9 27 velocity v bombards on a heavy nucleus of
1) 2)
4 5 charge Ze, its distance of closest approach
from the nucleus depends on m as

5 4 1) m
3) 4)
27 9 1
2)
20. The wavelength of the first line of Lyman m
series for hydrogen atom is equal to that
of the second line of Balmer series for a 1
hydrogen like ion. The atomic number Z of 3)
m
hydrogen like ion is
1) 3 2) 4 1
3) 1 4) 2 4)
m2

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26. Ionization potential of hydrogen is 13.6 eV. 28. Assertion : Bohr had to postulate that
If it is excited by a photon of energy 12.1 the electrons in stationary
eV, then the number of lines of emission orbits around the nucleus do
spectrum will be not radiate.
Reason : According to classical
1) 2 physics all moving electrons
radiate.
2) 4 1) If both assertion and reason are correct
and reason is the correct explanation of the
3) 6 assertion
2) If both assertion and reason are correct
4) 3 and reason is not the correct explanation of
the assertion

Statement Type Question 3) If assertion is correct but reason is

incorrect
27. Statement I : Nuclear force is charge in 4) If both assertion and reason are incorrect.
dependent and long ranged Numerical type
29. A single electron orbits around a stationary
Statement II : In pair production and pair nucleus of charge +ze, where z is constant
annihilation total charge is and ‘e’ is the magnitude of electronic charge.
conserved It requires 40.8 ev to excite the electron from
second Bohr orbit to fourth Bohr orbit. The
1) Statement I and statement II are correct. value of z is
30. Consider the following reaction.
2) Statement I correct, statement II wrong. 258 b
A 
α
→ B 
β
→ C 
α
→D
130 a
3) Statement I wrong, statement II correct.

b
4) Both statement I and II are wrong. Find
a

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
11

SYNOPSIS
Conductors have large number of free electrons. Good conductors : silver, copper, gold.
Insulators have very few free electrons. Good insulators : Mica, glass, paper.
Semiconductors have conductivity much less than that of conductors but slightly more than that
of insulators.
Outermost energy band in solids is conduction band; Band gap energy is the difference between
the energies of conduction band and valence band.
Types of Semiconductor
1) Intrinsic Semiconductor eg: pure silicon or pure germanium
2) Extrinsic Semiconductor eg: Impure Semiconductor
Difference between Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Semiconductor in pure form. It Pure semiconductor is doped
1 contains only one element like with impurity to increase the
Si or Ge conductivity.
There are two type; N-type and
There is only one type
2 P-type depending on the nature
semiconductor
of the material.
Number of electrons and holes
In N-type, number of electrons
are equal n= n= n i where ni
3 e h are greater than number of
holes and vice versa in P-type
is intrinsic carrier concentration.
4 Electrical conductivity is small. Electrical conductivity is high.
Conductivity is mainly increased
Conductivity is increased with
5 with increase in doping
increase in temperature.
concentration.
Conductivity at particular By adding impurity, conductivity
6 temperature is constant and at particular temperature can be
cannot be changed changed.
7 Almost no practical use Used in electronic devices

Table 1.1

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Types of extrinsic semiconductors :

1) N - type semiconductors 2) P-type semiconductors

• Doping is the process of adding impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor.

Distinguish between N-type and P-type semiconductors

N-type P-type
Intrinsic semiconductor with penta Intrinsic semiconductor with
1
valent impurity. trivalent impurity.

2 Impurities are N, P, As, Sb, Bi Impurities are B, Al,Ga, In, Tl

Impuritiy atoms are called donor
Impurity atoms are called acceptor
3 impurity which donate extra
atom which provide extra holes.
electrons
It has excess of electrons but It has excess of holes but
4
electrically neutral electrically neutral

n e > n h ; electrons are called

n h > n e ; holes are called majority
5 majority charge carriers and
charge carriers and electrons are
holes are called minority charge
called minority charge carriers
carriers.

Donor energy level is just below Acceptor energy level is just

6
the conduction band above the valence band

Fermi level shifted towards Fermi level shifted towards

7
conduction band valence band

Electrons are due to both doping

Holes are due to both doping and
8 and thermal generation but
thermal generation but n h ≈ N A
ne ≈ ND
Holes are only due to thermal Electrons are only due to thermal
9
generation generation

10 Ie >> I h and I ≈ Ie I h >> Ie and I ≈ I h

11 n i2 n i2 n i2 n i2
n=
h ≈ ne
= ≈
ne ND nh NA

Table 1.2

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PN junction diode:

P N

PN junction formation:

• Two important process during PN junction formation are diffusion and drift.

• During formation of PN junction, due to concentration gradient, hole diffused from P to N and
electrons diffused from N to P. This motion results in diffusion current.

• As the diffusion of charge carriers continue, a layer of positive charge developed on N - side and a
layer of negative charge developed on P - side. This space charge region is called depletion
region.

• Larger the doping, smaller is the width of the PN junction.

• Due to the oppositively charged immobile ions, and electric field is directed from positive charge to
the negative charge ie, from N - side to P - side.

• Motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is drift current which is opposite to the direction of
diffusion current

• In a P-N junction under equilibrium there is no net current.

• Barrier potential prevents the further motion of majority charge carriers.

Biasing of PN juction:

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Comparission of biasing:
Forward bias Reverse bias
Positive terminal of cells is
Positive terminal of cells is
connected to N region and
1 connected to P-region and negative
negative terminal is connected to
terminal is connected to N-region
P-region
External voltage (V) opposes the External voltage (V) support the
2
internal voltage (V0) internal voltage (V0)

3 Effective voltage is V − V0 Effective voltage is V + V0

4 Depletion width decreases Depletion width increases
5 Diffusion current flows from P to N Drift current flows from N to P
Current due to majority charge Current due to minority charge
6
carriers carries
7 Current is in milli ampere order Current is in micro ampere order
Forward current rapidly increase at Reverse current rapidly increase
8
knee voltage or threshold voltage at breakdown voltage
9 It offers low resistance It offers high resistance
For ideal diode it is equivalent to For ideal diode it is equivalent to
10
short circuited path open circuited path.

Table 2.1
V–I characteristics of a PN junction diode:

∆V
Forward resistance rf = is very small. For an ideal PN junction the forward resistance is zero
∆I

∆V
Reverse resistance rr = is large. For Germanium diode it is 40kΩ . For silicon diode it is
∆I
1000kΩ . When the reverse biasing is larger than a certain value, the PN junction breaks down.

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There are two types of junction breakdown:

1) Avalanche break down

2) Zener breakdown

Avalanche breakdown is due to collision. Avalanche breakdown takes place in lightly doped diodes

Zener breakdown takes place in heavily doped diodes.

Application of PN junction diode

Half wave rectifier:

The output of a half wave rectifier is in the form of ripples. In a half wave rectifier the ripple frequency

is equal to the input frequency. The number of ripples per second is called ripple frequency.

Full wave rectifier:

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Comparission of rectifiers:
Full wave rectifier Full wave rectifier
NAME Half wave rectifier
(Centre-Tapped) (Bridge)
Number of
1 1 2 4
diodes
Center taped
2 Transformer Ordinary transformer Ordinary transformer
transformer

i/p wave
3
form

o/p wave
4
form

o/p
5 i/p frequency 2 x i/p frequency 2x i/p frequency
frequency

6 efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

7 ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

8 Irms I0 I0 I0
2 2 2

9 Erms E0 E0 E0
2 2 2

10 Idc or Iavg I0 2I0 2I0

π π π
11 E0 2E 0 2E 0
E dc or E avg
π π π
Table 2.2
Filter circuits are circuits used to remove the ac components in the output of a rectifier. In forward
biased diodes the current is due to diffusion. Forward current is due to majority carriers. In reverse
biased diodes the current is due to drifting of electrons and holes.

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Special purpose PN juction diodes

1 Name Zener diode Photo diode LED Solar cell

2 Symbol

Operating
3 IIIrd Quadrant IIIrd Quadrant Ist Quadrant IV th Quadrant
region

4 Biasing Reverse biasing Reverse biasing Forward biasing No biasing

1. To measure
Convert light
Voltage intensity of light Convert electrical
5 Application to electrical
regulator energy to light
energy
2. Photodetector
6 Doping Heavily doped Lightly doped Heavily doped Lightly doped

7 Depletion width Narrow Wide Narrow Wide

8 Characteristics

1. Carrier
1. Carrier generation
Process during Field ionization generation Radiative 2. Carrier
9
operation or field emission 2. Carrier recombination separation
separation 3. Carrier
collection

Where :IR - Infra red, R - Red, A - Amber, Y - Yellow, G - Green, B - Blue

Table 2.3

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Zener Diode

• Deplition width is less than 10–6 m

6
• Electric field of the junction is high about 5 × 10 V / m

• After reverse voltage Vz , zener voltage remains constant even though current through the zener
diode varies over a wide range.

• Field ionization or field emission : when reverse voltage, V = Vz, the electric field strength is high
enough to pull valance electrons from the host atom on the P side which are accelerated to N
side. These electrons account for the high current at break down. This emission of electrons
from host atom due to high electric field is known as internal field emission.

• The electric field required for field ionization is of the order of 106V/m

Zener diode as voltage regulator:

Vi − Vz Vz
(i) Is = (ii) I L =
Rs RL
(iii) I Z= IS − I L (iv) Pz = Vz I z

V − Vz V − Vz
=
(v) Rs =
Is I z + IL
• If input voltage increases, current through Rs and zener diode also increases. This increases
voltage drop across Rs without any change in voltage drop across zener. This is because in
the break down region, zener voltage remains constant even though current through zener
changes.

• If we decrease input voltage, current through Rs and zener decrease without any change in
voltage across zener.

• Any increase/decrease in the input voltage results in increase/decrease of voltage drop across
Rs without any change in voltage across zener diode, thus it act as a voltage regulator.

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Opto electric PN junction diode

(i) Photo diode:

• It fabricated with a transparent window to allow the light to fall on it

• When photodiode is illuminated with light (photon) with hυ > Eg , then electron-hole pair

generates, near the depletion region.

• Due to electric field at junction, electrons and holes are separated before they recombine.
[electrons are collected on N - side holes are connected on P-side]

• Magnitude of photo current depends on intensity of incident light

• On illumination of light, fractional change in majority carriers would be much less than that
in minority charge carriers. ie, fractional change due to the photo effects on minority carrier
dominated reverse bias current is more easily measurable than forward bias.

(ii) LED

• Due to forward bias, minority carrier concentration at the junction increases. Thus they are
recombine with majority carrier and energy is released in the form of photon with energy equal
to or slightly less than the band gap.

• Intensity of light from LED increases as forward current increases and reaches a maximum at
a critical value, further increase in forward current results in decrease of light intensity.

• V-I characteristics of LED is similar to that of silicon but threshold voltage is much higher and
different for each colour

• For fabrication of visible LED the energy gap must lie between 1.8 eV and 3 eV.

• GaAs1-x Px and for LED of different colours

• GaAs0.6P0.4 (Eg ≈ 1.9 eV) and for Red LED

• GaAs (Eg ≈ 1.43 eV) for infra red LED

• LED used in remote controls, burglar alarm system

• advantages (i) low operational voltage and less power

       (ii) fast action, no warm up time required

       (iii) nearly monochromatic

       (iv) long life and ruggedness

       (v) fast on-off switching

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(iii) Solar cell

• Top layer is made to be thin for generation near the depleation area
• Junction area has kept larger for handling more power
• Materials with band gap close to 1.5 eV (between 1eV – 1.8 eV) are ideal for solar cell fabrication
eg: Si (1.12 eV), GaAs (1.43 eV), Cd Te (e.45 eV) CuInSe2(1.04 eV)
• Sunlight is not required for a solar cell. Any light with photon energy greater than the band gap
can be used.

Digital Electronics
• In digital electronics we use only digital signals
• Digital signal is a pulse wave form, in which discrete values of voltage are possible
• We use binary numbers to represent digital signal ie 0 (say 0V) and 1 (Say 5V)

• In digital system, we follows boolean

algebra
boolean multiplication boolean addition
0x0=0 0+0=0
0x1=0 0+1=1
1x0=0 1+0=1
1x1=1 1+1=1

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Logic Gates
• Logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical relationship between the input and output
voltages
• Logic gates are basic building blocks of digital electronics
• Logic gate also represented by boolean expressions [We use capital letters of english alphabet
for representing variables of boolean expression]
• Operation of logic gate is indicated in a table known as truth table. It is the tabular represen-
tation of all the possible combination of inputs and their corresponding outputs.
Basic logic gates
• There are three basic logic gates. AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate.
• We can realize all the boolean expression with the combination of these three logic gates.
Basic logic gates
1 Name AND OR NOT

Electrical
2
Analogue

3 Truth table

Boolean
4 X = A.B X= A + B X=A
expression

5 Symbol

6 Law

Table 4.1

• De Morgan’s law : ( i ) A + B =
A.B
(ii) ( i ) A.B= A + B
• Identities : (i) A + AB = A
(ii) A . (A+B) = A
(iii) (A+B) (A+C) = A + BC

(
(iv) A A + B =)
AB

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Universal logic gates

• There are two universal logic gate, NAND gate and NOR gate.
• We can realize all the boolean expression using repeated use of universal logic gates. ie we can
realize other basic gates like OR, AND, NOT etc with these gates. Hence it is considered as basic  
building blocks of other gates.
• NAND gate is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate similarly NOR gate is an OR gate followed  
by a NOT gate
Universal logic gates
1 Name NAND NOR

2 Structure

3 Symbol

Boolean
4 X = A.B X= A + B
expression

5 Truth table

Electrical
6
analogue

Table 4.2

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Exclusive logic gates

• There are two exclusive logic gate XOR gate and XNOR gate
1 Name XOR XNOR

2 Symbol

Boolean
3 X= A ⊕ B X=
A⊕B X =
AB
expression X AB + AB
= X AB + AB
=

4 Truth table

Table 4.3

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4.3 Realization of other gates using universal logic gates

No. of
gate NAND NOR
used

Table 4.4

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QUESTIONS 4. The energy band diagram of three

LEVEL I [HOMEWORK] semiconductors is given they are respectively

1. In a semiconductor at room temperature

1) Lowest energy level of conduction band
is lower than highest energy level of valence
band
1) N, Intrinsic, P
2) Conduction bands and valence band are
overlap each other 2) P, Intrinsic, N

3) The valence band is partially empty and 3) N, P, Intrinsic

conduction band is partially filled
4) P, N, Intrinsic
4) Valence band is completely filled and
5. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole
conduction band is completely empty
concentrations of 6 x 108 m–3. On doping with
2. Forbidden energy gap for Si is 1.12 eV and a certain impurity, the electron concentration
that for Ge is increases to 9 x 1012 m–3. The new hole
concentration in the sample is
0.72 eV. Therefore, it can be concluded that
1) 4 x 104 m–3
1) More number of electron-hole pair will
be generated in Si than in Ge at room 2) 3 x 104 m–3
temperature
3) 2 x 104 m–3
2) Less number of electron hole pair will
4) 104 m–3
be generated in Si than in Ge at room
temperature 6. The probability of electrons to be found
in the conduction band of an intrinsic
3) Equal number of electron hole pair will be
semiconductor at a finite temperature
generated in both at lower temperature
1) increases exponentially with increasing
4) Equal number of electron hole pair will be
band gap
generated in both at higher temperature
2) decreases exponentially with increasing
3. Which of the following statement is not true
band gap
about intrinsic semiconductor?
3) decreases with increasing temperature
1) The hole behaves as apparent free particle
with effective positive charge 4) is independent of the temperature and the
band gap
2) Number of free electrons ne is equal to
number of holes nh , that is ne = nh= ni 7. A Si specimen is made in to P-type
semiconductor by doping on an average
3) Motion of hole is a convenient way of
one indium atom / 6×107 silicon atoms. If the
describing the actual motion of bound
number density of atoms in Si be 6×1028/m3
electrons
what is the indium atom/cm3
4) At equilibrium rate of thermal generation
1) 1012 2) 1015
greater than the rate of recombination of
charge carriers 3) 1018 4) 1020

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8. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor 12. In forward biasing of the P-N- junction
increases when electromagnetic radiation of
wavelength shorter than 2500nm is incident 1) The positive terminal of the battery is
on it. Find the band gap of the semiconductor. connected to P - side and the depletion
1) 8 × 10-20 eV region becomes thick

2) 0.5 eV
2) Direction of applied voltage is same as
3) 1.6 eV the direction of barrier potential
4) 2.5 eV
3) Effective barrier height under forward bias
9. A P-type semiconductor has acceptor levels is V0 + V, were V0 is barrier potential and V
57 meV above the valence band. The is applied voltage
maximum wavelength of light required to
create a hole is:
4) At the junction boundary, on each side,
1) 11.61 x 10 -3
A
0 minority carrier concentration increases due
to minority carrier injection
2) 57 x 10 -3 A0
3) 217100 A0 13. For a forward bias P-N junction
4) 57 A0
1) P region is positive and current is due to
10. A hole diffuses from the p-side to the n-side both electrons and holes
in a p-n junction. This means that
1) a bond is broken on the n-side and the 2) P region is positive and the current is due
electron freed from the bond jumps to the to holes
conduction band
2) a conduction electron on the p-side jumps 3) P region is negative and the current is due
to a broken bond to complete it to electrons

3) a bond is broken on the n-side and the

electron freed from the bond jumps to a 4) P region is negative and current is due to
broken bond on the p-side to complete it both electrons and holes

4) a bond is broken on the p-side and the 14. The dominant mechanisms for motion of
electron freed from the bond jumps to a charge carriers in forward and reverse
broken bond on the n-side to complete it biased silicon P-N junctions are
11. A PN junction diode is not connected to any
circuit, then 1) drift in forward bias, diffusion in reverse
1) The potential is the same every where bias

2) The P type side is a higher potential than 2) diffusion in forward bias, drift the reverse
the N type side bias
3) There is an electric field at the junction
directed from N type side to P type side 3) diffusion in both forward and reverse bias
4) There is an electric field at the junction
directed from P type side to N type side 4) drift in both forward and reverse bias

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15. Carbon, Silicon and Germanium atoms have 18. If in a PN junction diode, a square input signal
four valence electrons each. Their valence of 10V is applied as shown
and conduction bands are separated by
energy band gaps represented by (Eg)C, (Eg)
Si
and (Eg)Ge respectively. Which one of the
following relationships is true in their case:

( ) < (E )
1) E g C g Ge ( ) > (E )
2) E g C g si

Then output signal across RL will be

( ) = (E )
3) E g C g Si ( ) < (E )
4) E g C g Si

16. The circuit shown in the figure contains two 1)

diodes each with a forward resistance of 50
ohm and with infinite reverse resistance. If
the battery voltage is 6V, the current through
the 100 ohm resistance (in ampere) is

2)

3)

1) zero
2) 0.02
3) 0.03 4)
4) 0.036
17. The V-I characteristic of a diode is shown 19. With an ac input from 50Hz power line, the
in the figure. The ratio of forward to reverse ripple frequency is
bias resistance is:
1) 50Hz in the dc output of half wave rectifier
as well as full wave rectifier

2) 100Hz in the dc output of half wave rectifier

as well as full wave rectifier

3) 100Hz in the dc output of half wave rectifier

and 50Hz in the dc output of full wave rectifier

1) 10 2) 10–6 4) 50Hz in the dc output of half wave rectifier

and 100Hz in the dc output of a full wave
3) 100 4) 106 rectifier

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20. A full wave rectifier circuit along with the 23. The current in forward bias is known to
output is shown in figure. The contribution(s) be more than current in the reverse bias.
from the diode 1 is (are) But photodiodes are used in reverse bias
because
1) Forward current is independent of the
intensity of illumination
2) Forward current increase more rapidly
than reverse current due to illumination
3) Reverse current is independent of intensity
of illumination
4) Fractional change due to the photo effect
on the minority carriers dominated reverse
1) C current is more easily measurable than the
majority carrier dominated forward current
2) A,C
24. For the given combination of gate, if the logic
states of inputs A, B, C are as follows A = B
3) B,D = C = 0 and A = B = 1, C = 0 then the logic
states of output O are
4) A,B,C,D

21. Which one of the following represents

forward bias diode?
1) 0, 0 2) 0, 1
1) 3) 1, 0 4) 1, 1
25. The following configuration of the gates are
2) equivalent to

3)

4) 1) NAND
2) NOT
22. Choose the wrong statement about solar cell
3) OR
1) It converts solar energy into electricity 4) NOR

2) No external bias is applied 26. What will be the input of A and B for the

Boolean expression ( A + B ).( A.B ) =

1
3) It is operated photovoltaic mode
1) 0, 0 2) 0, 1
4) an external bias applied 3) 1, 0 4) 1, 1

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27. The output of the following circuit is 30. The resistivity of a pure semiconductor is
0.5Ω If the electron and hole mobility be 0.39
m2/N-s and 0.19 m2/V-s respectively, then
calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration
2.16×10x. Find the value of x

LEVEL II

1. Which of the following is wrong about a

conductor?
1) A + B 2) A ⊕ B
1) Lowest energy level of conduction band
3) AB 4) AB is lower than highest energy level of valance
28. Choose the only false statement from the band
following
2) Conduction band and valance band
1) The resistivity of a semiconductor overlap each other
increases with increase in temperature
3) The valence band is partially empty and
2) Substance with energy gap of the order conduction band is partially filled
of 10eV are insulators
4) The valence band is completely filled and
3) In conductors the valence and conduction conduction band is completely empty
bands may over lap
2. The ratio of the concentration of electrons to
4) The conductivity of a semiconductor
that of the holes in a semiconductor is 7 5
increases with increases in temperature
29. Statement I: To get a steady dc output
from the pulsating voltage and the ratio of currents is 7 4 . Then what is
received from a full wave
rectifier we can connect a the ratio of their drift velocities
capacitor across the output
parallel to the load RL 1) 4 7 2) 5 8

Statement II: To get a steady dc output

from the pulsating voltage
received from a full wave 3) 4 5 4) 5 4
rectifier we can connect an
inductor in series with RL 3. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole
concentrations of 6 x 108 m–3. On doping with
In the light of the above statements, choose a certain impurity, the electron concentration
the most appropriate answer from the increases to 9 x 1012 m–3. The new hole
options given below: concentration in the sample is
1) Both Statement I and Statement II are 1) 4 x 104 m–3
false
2) 3 x 104 m–3
2) Both Statement I and Statement II are true
3) Statement I is false but Statement II is true 3) 2 x 104 m–3

4) Statement I is true but Statement II is false 4) 104 m–3

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4. The given energy band diagram represents 7. Assume the diodes are ideal, the current
through D1 and D2

1) 0.5mA, 0
2) 5mA, 0
3) 5mA, 5mA
4) 0.5mA, 0.5 mA
1) N - type semiconductor at T = 0k
8. An ac signal of 50 Hz frequency is the input of
2) P - type semiconductor at T > 0K
a half wave rectifier using single diode. The
3) N - type semiconductor at T > 0K output frequency after full wave rectification
4) P - type semiconductor at T = 0K is

5. A PN junction diode is not connected to any 1) 25 Hz

circuit, then 2) 50 Hz
1) The potential is the same every where 3) 100 Hz
2) The P type side is a higher potential than 4) 200 Hz
the N type side
9. The given graph represents V-I characteristic
3) There is an electric field at the junction for a semiconductor device
directed from N type side to P type side
4) There is an electric field at the junction
directed from P type side to N type side
6. Of the diodes shown in the following
diagrams, which one is reverse biased

1) Which of the following statement is correct?

1) It is for a photodiode and points A and B
represent open circuit voltage and current
respectively
2) 2) It is for an LED and points A and B
represent open circuit voltage and short
circuit current respectively
3) It is V-I characteristic for solar cell where
point A represents open circuit voltage and
3) point B short circuit current
4) It is V-I characteristic for solar cell and
points A and B represent open circuit voltage
and current respectively
4)

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10. V-I characteristics of some PN junction 13. In the following circuit the output y becomes
devices are given: zero for inputs

1) A = 1 B = 1 C = 0
2) A = 0 B = 0 C = 0
3) A = 0 B = 1 C = 1
4) A = 1 B = 1 C = 1
14. Input and output wave forms of a logic gate
are given. Identify the gate
i) Fig 1 represent V-I characteristics of solar
cell with A and B represent open circuit
voltage and open circuit current
ii) Fig 2 represent V-I characteristics of LED
with A, B, C are corresponding to Green, Red
and Infra-red colour respectively
iii) Fig 3 represents the V-I characteristics of
photo diode with I3 > I2 > I1
1) (iii) only correct
2) (ii) only correct 1) OR 2) AND
3) (i) only correct 3) NAND 4) NOR
4) (i) and (iii) are correct 15. The given circuit has two ideal diodes
connected as shown in the figure below. The
11. The following configuration of the gates are
current flowing through the resistance R1 will
equivalent to
be:

1) NAND 2) NOT
3) OR 4) NOR
12. The inputs of NAND gates are shorted. This 1) 1.43 A
gate is equivalent to 2) 3.13 A
1) OR gate 2) AND gate 3) 2.5 A
3) NOT gate 4) XOR gate 4) 10.0 A

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LEVEL III 19. The breakdown in a reverse biased p-n

junction is more likely to occur due to
16. The diode used in the circuit shown in fig.
has a constant voltage drop at 0.5 V at all 1) large velocity of the minority charge
currents and a maximum power rating of 100 carriers if the doping concentration is small
milliwatt. What should be the value of the
resistance R connected in series and with 2) strong electric field in depletion region if
diode for obtaining maximum current? the doping concentration is large
3) strong electric field in depletion region if
the doping concentration is small
4) Both 1 and 2
Assertion-Reason
1) 2Ω 1) if both A and R are true and R is correct
2) 4Ω explanation of A

3) 6Ω 2) if both A and R are true but R is not the

correct explanation of A
4) 10Ω
3) if A is true but R is false
17. In a Zener regulated power supply a Zener
diode with VZ = 6V is used for regulation. 4) if both A and R are false
The load current is found to be 4 mA and
unregulated input is 10V. The value of series 20. Assertion : A pure semiconductor
resistance RS is has negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
(Zener current is five times load current)
Reason : On raising the temperature,
1) 167Ω more charge carriers are
2) 140Ω released, conductance
increases and resistance
3) 1kΩ decreases.
4) 196 Ω 21. The circuit has two oppositely connected
18. In the figure the current through the diode is ideal diodes in parallel. What is the current
(use ideal diode approximations) flowing in the circuit?

1) 1.71 A
1) 1 mA
2) 2.00 A
2) 10 mA
3) 2. 31 A
3) 9 mA
4) 0 mA 4) 1.33 A

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22. Which of the following gives a reversible 25. Statement I: To get a steady dc output
operation? from the pulsating voltage
received from a full wave
A Y
1) rectifier we can connect a
B capacitor across the output
parallel to the load RL
2) A Y Statement II: To get a steady dc output
from the pulsating voltage
received from a full wave
A
3) Y rectifier we can connect an
B inductor in series with RL
A Y In the light of the above statements, choose
4)
B the most appropriate answer from the
options given below:
23. The current i in the network is:
1) Both Statement I and Statement II are
false
2) Both Statement I and Statement II are true
3) Statement I is false but Statement II is true
4) Statement I is true but Statement II is false
26. A Si specimen is made into P-type
semiconductor by dopping on an average
one indium atom /6×107 silicon atoms. If the
number density of atoms in Si be 6×1028/
1) 0.6 A m3. What is the indium atom/cm3
2) 0.3A 1) 1012 2) 1015
3) 0 A 3) 1018 4) 1020
4) 0.2 A 27. In the following circuit the equivalent
resistance between A and B is
24. Pure Si at 500K has equal number of
electron (ne) and hole (nh) concentrations to
1.5×1016 m-3. Doping by indium increases nh
to 4.5×1022 m-3. The doped semiconductor is
of:
1) p-type having electron concentration
ne = 5×109 m-3
2) n-type with electron concentration
ne = 5×1022 m-3
3) P-type with electron concentration 1) 2)
ne = 2.5×1010 m-3
4) n-type with electron concentration 3) 4)
ne = 2.5×1023 m-3

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28. In the combination of the following gates the Numerical

output Y can be written in terms of inputs A
29. In the figure the approximate value of V0
and B as:
across the diode is ..... V

1) 30. In the figure the current through the diode is

(use ideal diode approximations) ..... mA

2)

3)

4)

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