Cement

10
 Cement

Cement
With operations in the Northern Cape, North West Province and Gauteng as well as in
Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland and a majority interest in the Tanga Cement Company
in Tanzania, we produce and deliver over five million tons of cement in bulk or bags across
southern Africa per year. We continuously monitor, review and improve our production
processes to ensure optimal efficiency with the lowest possible impact on the environment.

AfriSam’s cement
products have been
used in South Africa
for three quarters
of a century.

Cement operation locations

1 Vanderbijlpark
2 Bloemfontein
3 Brakpan
4 Dudfield
5 East London
6 Lichtenburg
7 Maseru
8 Matsapha
9 Queenstown
10 Roodepoort
11 Ulco

11
 Introduction Volume mixes

AfriSam cement products are the result of years of thorough To ensure that concrete made with our cement achieves the
research and development by a team of dedicated cement required workability and potential strength, the
technicians, with the performance of our composite cement following standard volume mixes are printed on each
products constantly monitored to maintain quality and Eco Building Cement and All Purpose Cement bag:
strength in compliance with the requirements of
SANS 50197. • Concrete: Mixes for different strength classes and
applications.
In addition to ISO 9001 certification of all manufacturing • Mortar: Mixes for Class 1 and 2 mortars.
and blending operations, all AfriSam cement has the SABS • Plaster: Mixes for interior and exterior plastering.
mark, and is subject to ongoing sampling, testing and
monitoring to rigorous standards. Both quality control and For example, using Eco Building Cement, the mix for
quality assurance systems are in place. See also Corporate. concrete for 10MPa foundations for a residential
application specifies four builder’s wheelbarrows of
As part of AfriSam’s dedication to best practice in the 19mm stone, four builder’s wheelbarrows of good quality
industry, a CO2 rating scheme has been implemented and sand and two 50kg bags of Eco Building Cement with
is maintained for all our cement products. The rating stamp sufficient water to just make the mix workable, ie
on each AfriSam cement bag indicates the carbon footprint 100mm slump.
of each cement relative to the world average as calculated
by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Cement products
In this edition of the AfriSam Technical Reference Guide, To simplify identification and make best use of the
CO2 ratings are based on calculation of 2011 values, and different product features, AfriSam Cement products are
a world average of 890kg CO2/ton. Request current CO2 identified by brand names, and by colour-coding on bags
footprint values from the AfriSam Centre of Excellence, or bulk transport seals.
eg for Green Star-rated projects.

In addition, a customer support service is offered to make

Table 2: AfriSam brand name products.
AfriSam’s product knowledge base available to professionals
involved in design, specification and construction where Brand name Classification
cement, aggregates and readymix or site-batched concrete
Rapid Hard Cement CEM I 52,5R
are used. The service is aimed at providing information and
High Strength Cement CEM II 42,5R
promoting good concrete practice. See also Corporate.
All Purpose Cement CEM II and CEM V 42,5N
For more information about the effect of good site practice Eco Building Cement CEM III A 42,5N
on concrete quality, see Concrete. Builders Pride CEM II and CEM V 32,5N
Roadstab Cement CEM II and CEM V 32,5N
Brochures giving guidance on using the products are
available on request. Slagment
Conbex GGBFS
For detailed information on product composition and Fillcem
performance, request current data from the AfriSam
Centre of Product Excellence.

12
 Cement

Rapid Hard Cement (RHC)

RHC is ideal for use in the Table 4: Typical chemical composition.
precast concrete industry
where faster demoulding
Chemical compound (% by mass, ignited basis)
times are required, as well
as for fast-track construction Loss on ignition 2.98
projects to facilitate earlier
SiO2 20.79
stripping of formwork, earlier
P2O5 0.07
bridge launching or higher
sliding rates. Al2O3 4.64
Fe2O3 2.69
The secret to its faster CaO 65.05
strength development is the milling of the cement to a
MgO 1.73
carefully controlled fineness as well as the inclusion of a
K2O 0.47
performance modifier.
TiO2 0.39
Features, applications and beneits Na2O 0.15
SO3 2.99
• High early strength: RHC is ideal for the precast Mn2O3 0.12
industry (faster demoulding), fast-track construction
projects (earlier stripping of formwork) and for bridge
launching with faster sliding rates. It can also be used Table 5: Typical performance in relation to
for post-tensioned and pre-stressed members. SANS 50197-1 criteria.

• Cold weather concreting: High early liberation SANS 50197-1

Typical
of heat due to hydration can offset the retardation Criterion requirement
performance
effect of low temperatures. Where durability is of class 52,5R
paramount importance, RHC can be further blended
Physical
on-site with GGBFS, Fly Ash (FA) or condensed silica
fume (CSF). Early (2-day)
≥30 33
strength, MPa
28-day strength, MPa ≥ 52.5 59
Table 3: Typical physical characteristics.
Initial setting time,
≥ 60 191
minutes
Physical characteristics Soundness:
Relative density, g/ml 3.12 Le Chatelier ≤10 1

Loose bulk density after consolidation, kg/l 1.26 expansion, mm

Chemical
Sulphate content, % ≤ 3.5 2.99
Chloride content, % ≤ 0.1 0.04

13

: 990
 High Strength Cement (HSC)
AfriSam High Strength Table 6: Typical physical characteristics.
Cement is a specially
developed composite cement Physical characteristics
for use in brick- and
Relative density, g/ml 2.96
block-making, reservoirs,
Loose bulk density after consolidation, kg/l 1.26
precast operations, structural
concrete, shotcrete and
mining operations. Table 7: Typical chemical composition.
The strength development of
this cement is more than Chemical compound CEM II CEM II
sufficient to allow normal (% by mass, ignited basis) A-M (L) A-M (V-L)
progress of building operations, and is ideal for use in
Loss on ignition 6.13 3.33
specialised applications.
SiO2 20.03 24.16
P2O5 0 0.11

Features, applications and beneits Al2O3 4.03 7.21

Fe2O3 2.59 2.71
• Versatility: Whether on its own, extended with CaO 63.79 59.36
selected mineral components or used with plasticisers, MgO 2.96 1.68
HSC can be used by concrete product manufacturers for K2O 0.71 0.53
readymixed or site batched concrete to produce a wide TiO2 0.24 0.51
range of cost effective solutions in terms of workability,
Na2O 0.10 0.16
strength and durability. Applications include flowable or
SO3 2.76 2.79
self-compacting concrete, and pumped concrete for
Mn2O3 2.06 0.11
slabs on the ground.

• High early-age strength: The typical high early Table 8: Typical performance in relation to
strength of HSC offers outstanding benefits in terms SANS 50197-1 criteria.
of time-saving and meeting production deadlines.
Applications include post-tensioned and prestressed CEM II CEM II
Physical SANS A-M (L)* A-M (V-L)
members, early stripping of formwork in fast-track 50197-1
properties Class Class
construction and concreting in cold weather. 52,5N 42,5R
Initial set, minutes > 60 145 160
• Workability and durability: The mineral Soundness, mm < 10 1 0
components used in HSC improve the durability
ISO mortar prism strength results
of concrete in aggressive environments such as
Early strength at
sewage treatment works and concrete structures ≥ 20 25 24
2 days, MPa
in marine environments. The extremely fine particles
Strength at
of the mineral components act as nuclei for the ≥ 42,5 ≤ 62,5 53
28 days, MPa
formation of calcium silicate, giving a fine-filler
Strength at
effect to produce a more dense and more >= 52,5 54
28 days, MPa
homogenous microstruture in the hardened Chemical testing
cement paste and in the aggregate-paste
Sulphate (SO3)
interfacial zones. ≤ 3,5 2,8 2,5
content, %
Chloride (Cl-), % ≤ 0,1 ≤ 0,1 ≤ 0,1
Note: Request specialist technical advice before
Typical concrete strength at a w:c of 0,67
concreting in aggressive environments.
1-day, MPa - 11,5 13
7-day, MPa 26 27
14
28-day, MPa 32 38

: 872
 Cement

All Purpose Cement (APC)

A specially engineered Table 9: Typical physical characteristics.
composite, high quality
cement for use in a wide Physical characteristics
variety of different building
Relative density, g/ml 2.79
and masonry applications.
Loose bulk density after consolidation, kg/l 1.19
Consistent strength,
workability and durability
give consistently excellent Table 10: Typical chemical composition.
results every time.
Chemical compound
CEM V A
(% by mass, CEM II B-L
(S-V)
Features, applications and beneits ignited basis)

Loss on ignition 9.43 1.78

• Economical mix design
SiO2 19.55 32.41

• Versatility: Applications include brick- and P2O5 0 0.17

block-making, reservoirs, swimming pools, precast Al2O3 3.91 12.96
operations and shotcrete, as well as structural concrete, Fe2O3 2.53 2.42
plaster and mortar. CaO 65.5 44.74
MgO 3.13 2.63
• Improved cohesiveness: The addition of GGBFS, K2O 0.57 0.67
FA or limestone to portland cement has a fine-filler
TiO2 0.22 0.75
effect, giving mortars and plasters made with APC
Na2O 0.07 0.21
improved water demand. This increases the
cohesiveness of the mix, and improves its workability. SO3 2.64 2.38
Mn2O3 2.12 0.30

• Reduced permeability: Mineral components

improve concrete density, reducing the potential of
Table 11: Typical performance in relation to
penetration of harmful substances such as oxygen,
SANS 50197-1 criteria.
moisture, carbon dioxide, chlorides or sulphates, thus
minimising the risk of corrosion and improving durability. Typical
SANS
performance
Criterion 50197-1
• Mass concrete structures: For low heat
class 42,5N CEM II B-L CEM V A(S-V)
of hydration.
Physical
APC has been specially formulated to use less water, thus Early (2-day)
≥10 17.45 15
increasing the workability and strength of the concrete. strength, MPa
28-day
≥ 32.5 ≤ 52.5 40.9 43
strength, MPa
Initial setting
≥ 60 175 259
time, minutes
Soundness:
Le Chatelier ≤10 0 1
expansion, mm

Chemical
Sulphate
≤ 3.5 2.38
content, %
Chloride
≤ 0.1 0.04
content, %
15

: 559
 Eco Building Cement (EBC)
EBC has a low impact on the Table 12: Typical physical characteristics.
environment due to the unique
combination of portland cement
Physical characteristics
and mineral components, as
well as the lower CO2 emissions Relative density, g/ml 2.94
associated with manufacturing. Loose bulk density after consolidation, kg/l 1.22

Available in user-friendly
20kg and 50kg packaging, Table 13: Typical chemical composition.
EBC is the ideal choice for the
environmentally conscious Chemical compound
home owner for ensuring dense, impermeable and durable CEM III A-M (L)
(% by mass, ignited basis)
concrete, mortar and plaster. EBC is also ideal for DIY
Loss on ignition 0.37
projects such as fishponds and other garden features.
SiO2 29.57

AfriSam’s Eco Building Cement is the most environmentally P2O5 0.05

responsible cement available, with a CO2 footprint almost Al2O3 9.19

half of the world average, a milestone achievement reached Fe2O3 1.66
without compromising product performance. The product is CaO 48.63
SABS approved and complies fully with the CEM III A 42,5N MgO 4.96
requirements given in SANS 50197. K2O 0.78
TiO2 0.52
Na2O 0.26
Features, applications and beneits SO3 2.89
Mn2O3 1.03
The cement offers consistent strength, workability and
durability, making it ideal for many concreting applications,
including structural concrete, mortar and plaster. Table 14: Typical performance in relation to
SANS 50197-1 criteria.
An AfriSam brochure giving mix designs for low, medium,
high and ultra-high strength mix designs for volume
batching using EBC, as well as brochures on plastering SANS 50197-1 Typical
Criterion
and bricklaying are available on request. class 42,5N performance

Physical
Early (2-day)
Advantages strength, MPa
≥10 16

28-day strength, MPa ≥ 42.5 ≤ 62.5 52

• Economical mix design for residential applications.
Initial setting time,
≥ 60 250
minutes
• Improved cohesiveness, therefore better workability, Soundness:
good site practice will ensure no segregation, Le Chatelier ≤10 1
honey-combing, etc. expansion, mm

Chemical
• Reduced permeability: Supplementary mineral Sulphate content, % ≤ 3.5 2.89
components improve concrete density, reducing the Chloride content, % ≤ 0.1 0.06
potential of penetration of harmful substances when
cured adequately.

16

: 442
17
 Roadstab Cement
Roadstab Cement is a specially Table 15: Typical physical characteristics.
engineered composite, high
quality composite cement for
Physical characteristics
use specifically in road
stabilisation, ensuring uniform Relative density, g/ml 3.05
distribution of the stabilising Loose bulk density when fluidised, kg/m3 1 100
agent throughout the Loose bulk density after consolidation, kg/m3 1 500
stabilised layer.
Table 16: Typical proportions.
Consistent stabilisation
properties give bound material
significant strength results for road sub-bases every time. CEM II B-L CEM V A
Mineral components, %
32,5 N (S-V) 32,5

Limestone 21 - 35 -
Features, applications and beneits FA - 18 - 30
GGBFS - 18 - 30
Roadstab Cement has been developed and tested to
achieve superior performance across a broad range of Table 17: Typical performance in relation to
road material types, reducing the plasticity of the soil and SANS 50197-1 criteria.
ensuring durability, stability and strength.

Typical
SANS
performance
Criterion 50197-1
Proven performance
class 32,5N CEM II B-L CEM V A(S-V)

Roadstab Cement’s binder composition fulfills the Physical

following requirements of a stabilising agent: 7-day strength,
≥16 >30 >20
MPa
• Reduces the plasticity of soil. 28-day
≥ 32.5 ≤ 5.5 42 42
• Ensures durability, stability and strength. strength, MPa
• Works across a range of different road materials. Initial setting
≥ 60 177 244
time, minutes

Roadstab Cement also allows for longer setting times in the Soundness:
Le Chatelier ≤10 1 1
32,5 strength class, even with soils with plasticity indices
expansion, mm
greater than 12, making it ideally suited for applications
Chemical
requiring longer placing and compacting times.
Sulphate
≤ 3.5 2.7 2.3
content, %
Chloride
≤ 0.1 0.01 0.04
content, %

Soil stabilisation is the process of mixing a stabilising agent such as Roadstab Cement with sub-standard
soil, then dampening and compacting the sub-base layer to provide a strong and durable road base, with
potential savings (materials, costs, future maintenance) in the road surfacing layers.

As stabilisation projects are generally site-speciic, the required spread (bags/kg per m2) of Roadstab Cement
must be based on laboratory testing of the in-situ soil.

For more information on soil stabilisation processes, see Concrete.

18

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 Cement

Slagment (GGBFS)
On its own, ground Slagment applications
granulated blastfurnace slag
(GGBFS) will not hydrate on Many readymixed concrete operations use Slagment in
contact with water or harden addition to cement as part of the cementitious or binder
at the same rate as portland material in their mix designs. Bulk Slagment is delivered
cement (CEM I), but requires to the plant by tanker, pumped into silos and then
the presence of an alkaline automatically weighed and batched at the same time
activator such as milled as the cement.
clinker to initiate its inherent
cementitious reactions. Slagment is also used in soil stabilisation, either on its own
or with lime and/or other cementitious material.
Commercially available composite cements contain a See Concrete.
percentage of secondary cementitious materials such as
GGBFS in varied amounts as prescribed by SANS 50197-1.
Table 18: Typical physical characteristics.
The advantages of using Slagment in concrete, either as
a component of composite cements or as part of the mix Physical characteristics
proportions in a site blend, include improved durability as a
Relative density, g/ml 2.89
result of:
Loose bulk density after consolidation, kg/m
3 1 000
Compact bulk density, kg/m3 1 200
• Improved impermeability.
• Improved freeze/thaw characteristics. Fineness (Blaine) cm2/g min 2 750

• Resistance to chemical attack. Absorption Not hygroscopic

• Reduced potential for alkali-aggregate reaction. Glass content, % min 67
• Lower heat of hydration.
• Reduced creep and shrinkage.
Table 19: Typical chemical composition
Chemical characteristics (major oxides).

The chemical compounds in Slagment are similar to those Chemical compound (% by mass, ignited basis)
in cement clinker, but the proportions of the constituents in
SiO2 39.2
the two materials are different.
CaO 37.5

In essence slags have complex mineralogical structures, Al2O3 13.2

but the chemical composition of GGBFS is generally MgO 7.8

very consistent, as the iron-making process and the S 1.1
composition of the slags are interdependent. Fortunately, K2O 0.9
slag requirements for quality iron coincide with those for MnO 0.8
good cementitious properties. FeO 0.5
SO3 0.3
P2O5 0.01
Slagment is the registered trade
name for GGBFS produced by
AfriSam. AfriSam’s Vanderbijlpark
plant produces over 800 000 tons
of GGBFS annually.

19

: 90
 Additional products based on GGBFS include:
• Conbex: A binder used for backfill in the mining • Fillcem: A binder designed for use with classified or
industry, generally for cut-and-fill or room-and-pillar unclassified mine tailing in backfill systems in deep
backfilling where high early strength gain is level mining. Fillcem can be used on its own or with
not required. Fillgel to produce rapid gelling and stiffening of
backfill slurry.

2
GGBFS and carbon footprints Reducing our
Carbon Footprint

Using supplementary cementitious materials such as Manufacturing cement uses energy (energy consumed
Slagment in our cement and/or in concrete makes during quarrying, as kiln feed and during grinding).
good sense in terms of energy eficiency, carbon No additional heat is required to produce GGBFS, thus
emissions and the effective use of a secondary conserving heat resources.
product that would otherwise be dumped in landill.
An added bonus is that concrete made with cement
Cement extenders dramatically reduce carbon containing GGBFS is more workable when fresh, and
emissions by reducing the clinker factor in cements. more durable and less permeable when hardened.
By replacing speciied proportions of cement with This affects not only cover to reinforcement and
GGBFS in different cement products, Slagment puts subsequent non-corrosion of the steel, but also
the secondary product of another manufacturing watertightness of dams, reservoirs, etc. Where
process to good use while reducing the carbon sulphate attack, chloride ingress, permeability and
footprints of the cements. The average emission or alkali-aggregate reaction are of concern, the
value of CEM I cement is 990kg CO2/ton, while the use of composite cement containing GGBFS
average emission value for Slagment is 90. and/or FA is recommended. See also Properties of
hardened concrete.
Using GGBFS has a positive effect on depletion of
inite natural resources (limestone, clay and shale) Extended durability also advantageously affects life
used to produce cement, and also reduces the cycle cost: durable buildings last longer. This in itself
amount of embodied energy required to manufacture has a spin-off, by not re-investing in materials and
a ton of cement. energy sooner than is necessary.

20
 Cement

Cement speciications
Technological advances in the production of cement, All AfriSam cements are SABS approved. In
such as performance modifiers, plant control systems addition, all cement bags bear the E-mark.
and alternative fuels, have given the cement producer
the flexibility to use a wider range of supplementary This assures the customer that:
cementitious materials. SANS 50197 allows the use of
GGBFS, FA and limestone in different proportions within • The performance of the cement is controlled.
specified limits with portland cement, to produce cement • The product complies with speciied performance and
with improved technically-acceptable properties. compositional requirements.
• A formal management and process control system
Requirements for the composition, rate of early strength is in place.
gain, 28-day mortar prism strength, and other physical and • The mass of each bag complies with tight tolerances.
chemical properties are defined by the specification for each
type and strength class of cement, and the product code is
required to indicate this.

All components of cement products manufactured and

Cement types available in South Africa
sold in South Africa are obliged by law to comply with the
• CEM I Portland cement.
following performance-based national specifications:
• CEM II Portland-composite cement.
• CEM III Blastfurnace cement.
• SANS 50197 for cements.
• CEM IV Pozzolanic cement.
• SANS 55167 for GGBFS.
• CEM V Composite cement.
• SANS 50450 for FA.
• SANS 1841 for bag mass compliance.

Table 20: Cement class strength requirements.

Comprehensive strength of mortar prisms, MPa Soundness

Strength Initial setting
Early Standard (expansion),
class time, minutes
mm
2-day 7-day 28-day
32,5N - ≥ 16 ≥ 32.5 ≤ 52.5 ≥ 75 ≤ 10

42,5N ≥ 10 0 ≥ 42.5 ≤ 62.5 ≥ 60 ≤ 10

52,5N ≥ 20 - ≥ 52.5 ≤ 42.5 - ≤ 10

CEM III A-M(L) 32,5 N

Type and Mineral Rate of

Strength class
composition component strength gain

Figure 1: Cement type and composition.

21
 SANS 50197 requirements: Composition Strength class

The range of proportions of each constituent material Cement is produced in 32,5; 42,5 and 52,5 strength classes.
is specified for each cement type, eg CEM II A-M (L)
consists of clinker with 6 to 20% GGBFS. Included in Standard strength tests are routinely conducted on mortar
the range of permitted mineral components may be up samples made with a standard sand and fixed water:cement
to 5% additional constituents. ratio, to define and verify the performance of different
strength classes of cement in terms of mortar strength,
setting time and expansion (soundness). The cement in each
Description Composition %
0 100 strength class must meet the requirements given in Table 20.
Portland cement CEM I 6
Note that cement strength classifications do not indicate
Portland CEM II A-M
20 potential concrete strength. To verify compliance with SANS
composite
50197-1 strength requirements, mortar prisms made under
cement CEM II B-M
35
carefully controlled laboratory conditions are tested in
accordance with SANS 50196-1 (see Figure 3).

CEM III A The actual strength of the concrete made with a cement
relates to cement performance, water:cement (W/C) ratio,
Blastfurnace 65
admixtures and properties of the actual aggregate used,
cement
CEM III B and is tested by carrying out compressive strength testing
80 on concrete cubes in accordance with SANS 5863.
See also Properties of hardened concrete.
CEM III C
95
11
CEM IV A
Pozzolanic 35 30
cement
CEM IV B
55
18 18
Composite
CEM V A
cement
30

GGBFS Clinker Limestone Fly Ash

Figure 2: Cement type and composition.

In practice the proportions of GGBFS (S), limestone (L)

and FA (V) are generally fixed within the limits of the
specification. Therefore the quantities of the mineral
Figure 3: Mortar prism test.
components do not vary significantly in the short term
and are continuously adjusted over time to ensure
consistency of performance, ie proportions of
supplementary cementitious materials in the different Our sales consultants can advise you, and will
products may vary within the specified limits. arrange to supply samples of the cements
available in the different geographical areas.

22
 Cement

Rate of strength gain

50

The suffix N or R at the end of the description of a cement 45

type indicates rate of early strength gain: Normal or Rapid. 40

Rapid requires a higher mortar prism compressive strength 35
at two days (see Table 20 and Figure 4).
30

25

20
CEM II A-M (V-L) 42,5 R
15 CEM II A-M (L) 42,5 R
CEM V A (V-S) 32,5 R
10 CEM II B-L 32,5 R
CEM III A 42,5 N
5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Age (days)

Figure 5: Same inal strength, different cements.

In spec Out of spec (Adapted from Memento Cement Beton) Any special requirements such as early strength of concrete
or durability requirements must be indicated in the project
Figure 4: Rate of strength gain for Normal specifications to ensure that the mix design takes these
and Rapid cement classes. requirements into account.

• The early rate of strength gain varies with different

Specifying the correct cement types of cement. If early strength is of importance for
early stripping of formwork or precast moulds, the
The proportions of different mineral components impart
concrete specification must indicate a minimum early
different properties to the cements and consequently to the
strength gain requirement, eg 8MPa at three days.
concrete (or other applications) made with these cements.
Prior to specifying cement type/product and entering into
• Specifying concrete to achieve long-term durability in
contractual negotiations, on-site trials using the specified
aggressive environments, eg marine wharfs, requires
aggregate and admixtures should be carried out to verify
special attention.
that the actual concrete, mortar or plaster made with the
cement performs as required in practice.
See also Concrete.

When selecting the most advantageous cement for a specific

application, the specifier, engineer or architect should:
Where sulphate attack, chloride ingress,
• Understand what SANS 50197, 55167 and 50450 permeability and/or Alkali-Aggregate
mean in terms of specified physical requirements in the Reaction (AAR) are of concern, composite
final product. cements containing GGBFS and/or FA
are recommended. See also Properties of
• Understand how these properties affect the properties hardened concrete.
of the fresh and hardened concrete (or other product)
required for the project.

• Apply this knowledge to the cements available in

different geographical areas.
23
• Factor in additional savings gained by using
alternative cement and/or aggregate types, or using
chemical admixtures.
 Cement manufacture
Feed Bins
Sampling Station

Quarry Crushing Plant (s) Raw Materials Storage and Preblending Corrective Materials

Homogenising and Electrostatic

Precipitator
Storage Silo
Cooler Dedusting

Coal

Raw Meal

Water
Air-to-Air
Cooler Coal
Mill

Cyclone
Preheater Conditioning Raw Mill
Rotart Kiln
Tower

Mineral Filter
Clinker Cooler Gypsum Components Bulk Dispatch Packing Machine Bag Palletisation

Cement Cement
Clinker Silo Silo
Storage

Cement Mill

Figure 6: Typical cement manufacturing process.

Materials used in the manufacture of cement Typical cement manufacturing process

Cement is manufactured from a carefully controlled mixture • Raw material preparation - mining
of calcium oxide, silica, alumina and iron oxide. Calcium is and crushing
generally obtained from limestone. Silica, alumina and iron Limestone is mined in open-cast quarries using drilling
are generally obtained from clay or shale and iron oxide. and blasting techniques. The limestone is then reduced
in size by crushing to smaller than 75mm particles.
To make cement with specific characteristics, these minerals The limestone is stacked onto special homogenising
must be carefully proportioned. These raw materials occur stockpiles to obtain as consistent material as possible.
naturally so their chemical make-up can vary, meaning a
great deal of care must be taken in their selection and in • Additives
post-mining blending. Depending on the mineral content of the limestone,
additional silica and/or iron oxide are added prior to
Special materials are often added to the base (portland) the milling process to ensure that the chemical
cement to modify its qualities. These materials include composition is within tight tolerances.
GGBFS, FA, Condensed Silica Fume (CSF) and limestone.

A small amount of gypsum is also added to the cement to

control the setting time of the final product.
24
 Cement

• Milling Cement milling

The various components are milled and dried in a Cement mills are rotating tubes filled with steel balls. A roller
vertical roller or mill. Heavy rollers are positioned over a press is sometimes used to assist in the size reduction process
rotating table and the coarse material is milled until it is before the clinker is fed into the mill to produce a very fine
fine enough to be conveyed by air to a homogenising grey powder. Vertical roller mills such as that newly installed
raw meal silo. at Roodepoort are a new development.

• The burning process Controlling the cement fineness assists in determining the rate
of strength gain rate of the cement in mortar and concrete.
The milled blended raw material is transported to the During milling, gypsum is added to control the cement’s
top of the kiln preheater tower. The kiln is fired by finely setting time.
ground coal or AFRs and is designed to maximise the
heat transfer from the ignited coal to the clinker. In the The base cement is stored in homogenising silos to ensure
preheater, the raw materials are heated rapidly to a the most consistent product possible.
temperature of about 800°C, where carbon dioxide is
driven off from the limestone. Blending

At this point, the required proportions of supplementary

CaCO3 + heat = CaO + CO2 cementitious materials such as GGBFS and/or FA are
blended with the cement to produce the final products.

Once this process is complete, the material drops into

the rotating kiln where its temperature is raised to The manufacture of Slagment (GGBFS)
1 450°C. At this stage the various minerals start to fuse
together to form predominantly calcium silicate crystals In the manufacture of iron, blastfurnaces produce molten
(clinker). This semi-molten material is then cooled as iron and liquid slag. The liquid slag floats on the top of the
rapidly as possible in a cooler and stored in a clinker silo pool of molten pig iron, and is periodically tapped from the
ready for final milling. furnace. The slag has potentially cementitious properties,
but these can only be achieved by quenching the very hot
Reactions during the cooling of clinker (1 450°C) material with water. This rapid cooling converts
the slag into an amorphous granular material or granulated
The cooling process plays a decisive role in the quality and blastfurnace slag.
grindability of the clinker. Rapid cooling stabilises the C3S
and improves the quality of the aluminate phases. The granulated particles are dried to less than 1%
moisture, and are then ground in a ball mill to a Blaine
2
Slow cooling leads to the transformation of C3S into free fineness of 3 500cm /g. This minimum specific surface
CaO and C2S with low hydraulicity. The kinetics of the area is tailored to match those of South African cements
cooling process play a major role in the subsequent and provide the optimal combination of reactivity,
grindability of clinker. Depending on the type of cooler in workability and economy.
use, the clinker is cooled from about 1 100˚C to between
50˚C and 300˚C.

25
 Chemistry of portland cement
Portland cement is a hydraulic binding material. When • Between 300 and 400˚C, clay raw material begins to
water is added to cement, hydration takes place and the dehydrate, ie the clay loses chemically bound H2O.
cement paste which is formed sets and hardens, producing • Between 400 and 600˚C, the dehydration
strong, hard and durable cement-based composite building process intensifies and finishes, and the clay mineral
materials such as concrete, mortar and plaster. undergoes structural modification.
• Between 500 and 700˚C, the MgCO3 decarbonates.
Portland cement is made by intergrinding clinker and a set • At 600 to 900˚C, the decarbonation of limestone
regulator (generally gypsum). CaCO3 takes place.
• At 900 to 1 000˚C, new crystalline phases such as spinel
Portland cement clinker and cristobalite are formed.

Clinker results from calcination at high temperature (1 300

to 1 450˚C) of a homogenous fine mixture consisting mainly
of limestone and clay (see Cement manufacture).
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 – Q (Q = 1 800 J/g)
Mineralogical composition of
portland clinker
Solid-solid reactions between 1 000
Portland cement clinker is an artificial stone composed and 1 450°C
mainly of minerals, also called clinker phases:
At this stage, the following solid phase reactions take place:
• Alite phase: Ca SiO or 3CaO.SiO (C S).
3 5 2 3

• Belite phase: Ca SiO or 2CaO.SiO (C S).

2 4 2 2 • CaO and SiO2 reactions
• Tricalcium aluminate phase: Ca3Al O or 3CaO.Al O (C A).
2 6 2 3 3 2CaO + SiO2 → 500 to 1 100˚C 2CaO. SiO2 (C2S)
• Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite phase: Ca Al Fe O10 or 4 2 2 C2S + CaO → 1 000 to 1 200˚C 3CaO. SiO2 (C3S)
4CaO.Al O .Fe O (C AF).
2 3 2 3 4 CaO + SiO2 → 1 100 to 1 300˚C CaO.SiO2 (CS)
• CaO and Al2O3 reactions
Pure clinker phases are products of high temperature 3CaO + Al2O3 → 600 to 1 100˚C C3A
reactions of a stoichiometric mixture of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 • CaO + Al2O3 and Fe2O3 reactions
and Fe2O3. CaO + C3A + Fe2O3 → 500 to 1 200°C C4AF

Industrial clinker minerals contain several minor impurities Solid-liquid reactions between 1 338
resulting from minor impurities in the raw materials and in and 1 450˚C
the fuels.
At these temperatures:
Reactions taking place during • The aluminates melt.
clinker formation • Alumino-ferrites phases are initiated.
• The liquid phase becomes 25 to 35% of the
From 100 to 1 000˚C, as the raw materials in the kiln are sintering mass.
heated, the following reactions occur: • Crystal growth of C2S and CaO is followed by an
intensification of their transformation into C5S.
• At 100 to 300˚C, the raw meal loses its physical and • Re-crystallisation and growth of C3S and C2S follows.
adsorbed water, H2O. • Volatile compounds are completely evaporated.

26
 Cement

Reactions during the cooling of clinker The role of water in the cement paste
The cooling process plays a decisive role in the quality and Water is a chemical reagent, reacting with the cement
grindability of the clinker. Rapid cooling stabilises the C3S phases to produce different hydrates.
and improves the quality of the aluminate phases.
Generally, the amount of water necessary for complete
Slow cooling leads to the transformation of C3S into free hydration is 20 to 22% of the mass of the cement.
CaO and C2S with low hydraulicity. The kinetics of the
cooling process play a major role in the subsequent For a cement paste with normal consistence, more water
grindability of clinker. than that involved as a “chemical reagent“ is required. This
supplementary water is used as a rheology agent and plays a
Depending on the type of cooler in use, the clinker is physical role by lubricating the cement paste. Supplementary
cooled from about 1 100˚C to between 80 and 300˚C. water evaporates, leaving pores in the concrete or voids
between the aggregate particles, which are detrimental to
The hydration products of portland cement are far from the mechanical strength and durability of concrete.
being the pure hydrates that we describe here. They
contain impurities, which may play an important role in
mortar or concrete, particularly when admixtures are used.

Table 21: Chemical composition of portland cement.

CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3 R 2O*

Main oxides, %
45 to 65 20 to 25 4 to 8 2 to 4 <5 < 3,5 <1

*R = 0.568K + Na

Table 22: Mineralogical composition of portland cement.

Percentage of C 2S C 2S C 3A C 4AF
Minimum 40 5 2 0
Maximum 70 25 15 15
Average 60 15 9 8

Hydration of the silicate phases There are two main types of CSH, depending on the
lime:silica ratio present in the cement:
The mechanisms involved in hydration of silicate phases can
be explained as: • CSH (I), if: 0.7 < CaO/SiO2 < 1
• CSH (II), if: 1.0 < CaO/SiO2 < 1.5
• C3S + 3H2O → CaO.SiO2.H2O (CSH ) + 3Ca(OH)2
• C2S+ H2O → CSH + Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 is one of the mechanisms through which
chemical attack of the concrete occurs. It reacts with
Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) fibres form a network in the different aggressive chemical agents, liquid or gas,
cement paste, leading to an impermeable, dense structure. causing damage to the concrete structures (see Properties
CSH is responsible for the strength of the cement paste, of hardened concrete).
mortar or concrete.

27
 The hydration of ferrite and aluminate phases Set regulators of cement other
than gypsum
In the absence of gypsum, the reaction between the
aluminate and ferrite phases and water is fast and The following chemical admixtures are used to accelerate
highly exothermic. or slow cement hydration reactions during concreting
operations, eg for specific placing and finishing
The reaction produces hexagonal calcium alumino-hydrates, requirements (see also Concrete).
C2AH8 and C4AH13. At ambient temperature these hydrates
are unstable and transform into cubic and thermally-stable • Retarders are generally used to slow cement hydration
calcium alumino-hydrates, C3AH6: reactions, eg where extended setting times are required
for special concrete applications. Hydroxycarboxylic
2C3A + 21H2O → C2AH8 + C4AH13 → 2C3AH6+ 9H2O. acids or salts and lignosulphonates are commonly used
organic retarders.
Hydration in the presence of gypsum
Some inorganic salts such as borates, phosphates, Pb
Gypsum is interground with clinker to regulate the setting and Zn salts are strong retarders.
process of cement.
• Accelerators shorten the setting time of cement and,
C3A + 3CaSO4.2H2O + 26H2O → C3A.3CaSO4.32H2O, in many cases, increase the rate of early strength
ettringite, tri-sulphoaluminate (TSA). development. Triethanolamine (TEA), oxalic acid and
gluconate are used as accelerators. However, their
The C4AF is believed to react in the same way as C3A to accelerating ability depends on the dosage.
produce a type of ettringite with iron content,
tri-sulpho-alumino-ferrite (TSAF). Inorganic salts such as carbonates and chlorides
accelerate the setting and hardening of cement
If the amount of C A present in hydrating cement is more Depending on the dosage, carbonates may also
3
than required and when gypsum is totally consumed, lead to a strong retardation.
ettringite reacts with C A and transforms into
3
mono-sulphoaluminate (MSA):

C3A.3CaSO4.32H2O + 2C3A + 4H2O → 3(C3A.CaSO4.12H2O) False set

Microstructure of the main product of In the presence of an excess of hemihydrate CaSO4.0.5H2O,

hydration: CSH cement undergoes another type of rapid set called “false
set” or the re-hydration of hemihydrate with a subsequent
Micro-calorimetry proves that the portland cement formation of gypsum CaSO4.2H2O.
hydration process is governed by the hydration of calcium
silicates. Thus CSH plays a major role in concrete or mortar. Intense mixing can reverse false setting, allowing the
cement paste, mortar or concrete to regain its original
plasticity. Strength development is not seriously affected.

Flash set

In the absence of gypsum or in the presence of an insufficient

amount of gypsum, cement undergoes a quick set generally
called “flash set”. The phenomenon is characterised by
intense evolution of the heat of hydration and loss of
workability, with subsequent poor strength development.

28
 Cement

Handling cement
Depending on customer requirements, our products are: Transporting bulk cement

• Loaded into road or rail bulk tankers for delivery to Road transport and rail transport both offer timeous
cement depots or customer silos. and convenient delivery of bulk cement.
• Loaded from cement depot silos into mini bulk silos for
delivery to construction-sites. Road transport
• Packed via sophisticated packing machines into 25kg
or 50kg bags, and palletised. The palletised bags To ensure reliable distribution throughout our market area,
are wrapped in plastic and dispatched on trucks to our road transport system consists of:
hardware stores, building yards or building sites.
• Thorough mass-measuring procedures for loading
Advantages of using bulk cement delivered in at plants and depots as well as off-loading on
tankers include: site ensuring that orders and deliveries can be
accurately reconciled.
• The elimination of loss through the breakage of bags. • An efficient computerised transport management system.
• The elimination of extra handling: direct transfer from
the transporting vehicle to the silo to the mixer. Rail transport
• Reduced labour complement on-site.
• Improved housekeeping, with no unsightly empty bags A close partnership exists between AfriSam Cement and
littering the site. Spoornet to ensure that trucks and tankers transported by rail
• Automatic irst-in, irst-out use of stock. are delivered to key distribution points around the country.
• Weatherproof storage: the cement will not be exposed
to moisture and will not hydrate even after relatively Handling bulk cement
long storage periods.
• Maximum security and control of stock. Storage of bulk cement either in the customer’s bulk silos
• Appropriate methods of transport and storage on-site. or in mini bulk silos provided by AfriSam Cement involves
close liaison between customer and supplier. Factors such as
Bulk cement product identiication providing adequate vehicle access, filters, foundations and
seals, etc need to be discussed in advance.
To ensure that the correct product and amount of cement is
received and offloaded into the correct silo, check that: • Vehicle access
The gross vehicle mass of a fully-loaded road cement
• The seals on the tanker are intact. tanker is up to 60t, the length may be 22m and the
• The colour of the seals corresponds with the assigned diameter of the turning circle is approximately
product colour. 20m. Good access to the off-loading point is essential,
• The number on the seal corresponds with the number and ideally, the left-hand side of the tanker should be
on the AfriSam Cement delivery note. adjacent to the silo connection coupling.

Tankers are sealed. Before accepting the load, check

that the seal is intact, and that the seal number
corresponds with that on the delivery note. Break
the seal and ensure that the tanker off-loads into the
correct silo.

29
 • Bulk silos • Steel supply pipes to silos
When establishing new bulk cement silos on-site, a These should always be kept as short as possible and
registered structural or civil engineer should ensure that should be either horizontal or vertical to keep tanker
adequate foundations provide structural stability under discharge times to a minimum. Pipes should enter the
all load combinations and weather conditions. silo tangentially and the air vent pipe should originate
from the centre of the silo. Each pipeline should be
Alternatively, the road tanker should be able to reverse clearly marked with the AfriSam colour code and name
so that the back of the tanker is next to the silo of the relevant cement product.
connection coupling.
• Silo ilters and silo safety pressure
A silo aeration system is recommended for all silos release valves
holding more than 50t. The air supplied to the silo for Inspection and maintenance of silo filters, safety valves
aeration should be clean and dry. It is normally only and air release pipes should be carried out at regular
necessary to aerate a silo at the beginning of a shift. intervals. Failure to do this can result in excess dust
The cement will then stay sufficiently fluid for being discharged from the silo, long discharge times
trouble-free extraction, provided that regular and, in the worst case, the silo exploding because of
extractions are made during the shift. pressure build-up during filling.

Silos are resupplied by bulk tanker in pay-loads Hot cement

of 34t.
Hot cement or even warm cement direct from the cement
• Mini bulk silos factory can be very fluid. A shut-off valve should be fitted
The mini bulk silo system (certain areas only) obviates between the silo and the screw feed when the friction
AfriSam Cement customers laying out working capital provided by the screw feed is not strong enough to stop
for conventional cement silos or cement storage sheds. free-flowing cement.

An AfriSam Cement vehicle delivers the silo to site. Stock control and reconciliation
Depending on the user’s specific requirements, the silo
may be empty or preloaded with up to 10t of The bulk density of cement varies considerably depending
cement. The vehicle places the silo on a pre-laid on whether it was freshly pumped into the silo or has been
concrete slab or on its own base plate extensions. allowed to consolidate overnight. Consequently, always
determine the “height of cement” in the silo when the
Make sure that the site is level and accessible by an cement is in the same state of fluidisation.
articulated bulk vehicle for silo delivery, collection or
filling. In all cases, ensure that ground conditions will To improve accuracy, determine cement levels in a silo at
support the loads induced by the silo footings or the the start of each working shift before any fluidisation or
vehicle tyres, even after prolonged rainfall. extraction of the cement takes place. Run silos empty as
often as possible. As soon as they are empty, reconcile
In addition to cost advantages, the silo can be the amount of cement used since the silo was last empty
padlocked to provide complete stock control and against the amount used in production.
security. An internal hand-operated paddle allows
accurate monitoring of stock holding levels so that Check that scales for weighing cement are calibrated
timeous reordering can take place to ensure beyond their normal operating range. A scale that
continuous production. is under-reading can rapidly lead to excess cement
being used.
Provision needs to be made for the silo-placing vehicle
to gain access to the site at the end of the contract to
remove the silo.
• Use leftover cement - do not scatter on-site.
30 • To avoid increasing CO2 levels, do not burn
empty cement bags. Put them in rubbish bins
to be used as landill.
 Cement

Cement is a non-renewable resource. Reducing our

2
Maximise its potential by: Carbon Footprint

Storing cement bags correctly: Using cement responsibly:

• Store bags in a closed shed or area – keep windows • Mix (or for readymixed concrete: order) only enough
and doors closed. concrete to keep up with your placing team.
• Store bags off the ground (eg. on pallets or • Place and compact before the concrete starts setting.
plastic sheeting). • If concrete starts setting/hardening before it can be
• Do not pack more than 12 bags high, and do not pack placed, do not use/remix: discard.
against outside walls. • Do not leave left-over mortar or plaster overnight and
• Remove and use bags in irst-in, irst-out sequence. then retemper (add cement, water) the next morning:
• Shelf-life is approximately three months (see date stamp mix only enough for use in the next few hours.
on bag).
• Discard cement with lumps you cannot easily break
by hand.

• Use barrier cream or safety gloves and

goggles when exposed to cement dust.
• Cement dust irritates the eyes. Irrigate
eyes with large amounts of water.
• Cement bags are heavy. Avoid neck and
back injuries by using appropriate bending
and lifting action.

Applicable speciication

SANS 1841:2008: Control of the quantity of contents in prepacked packages within the prescriptions of legal
metrology legislation
SANS 50197-1:2000: Cement. Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements,
Part 2: Conformity evaluation
SANS 50450:2011: Fly Ash for concrete Part 1: Definitions, specifications and conformity criteria,
Part 2: Conformity evaluation
SANS 55167:2011: Ground granulated blast furnace slag for use in concrete, mortar or grout.
Part 1: Definitions, specifications and conformity criteria, Part 2: Conformity evaluation

Test methods

SANS 50196-1:2006: Methods of testing cement. Part 1: Determination of strength

SANS 50196-2:2006: Methods of testing cement. Part 2: Chemical analysis of cement
SANS 50196-3:2006: Methods of testing cement. Part 3: Determination of setting times and soundness
SANS 50196-4:1993: Methods of testing cement. Part 4: Quantitative determination of constituents
SANS 50196-5:2009: Methods of testing cement. Part 5: Pozzolanicity test for pozzolanic cement 31
SANS 50196-6:1989: Methods of testing cement. Part 6: Determination of fineness
SANS 50196-7:2009: Methods of testing cement. Part 7: Methods of taking and preparing samples of cement