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Innovative Food
Processing Technologies:
Advances in
Multiphysics Simulation
Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and
Cornelis Versteeg EDITORS

A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication

The IFT Press series reflects the mission of the Institute of Food Technologists—to advance the science of
food contributing to healthier people everywhere. Developed in partnership with Wiley-Blackwell, IFT
Press books serve as leading-edge handbooks for industrial application and reference and as essential texts
for academic programs. Crafted through rigorous peer review and meticulous research, IFT Press publica-
tions represent the latest, most significant resources available to food scientists and related agriculture
professionals worldwide.
Founded in 1939, the Institute of Food Technologists is a nonprofit scientific society with 22,000 individual
members working in food science, food technology, and related professions in industry, academia, and
government. IFT serves as a conduit for multidisciplinary science thought leadership, championing the use
of sound science across the food value chain through knowledge sharing, education, and advocacy.
IFT Press Advisory Group
Casimir C. Akoh
Christopher J. Doona
Jung Hoon Han
David B. Min
Ruth M. Patrick
Syed S.H. Rizvi
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Yael Vodovotz
Mark Barrett
Karen Nachay
Margaret Kolodziej
IFT Press Editorial Board
Malcolm C. Bourne
Dietrich Knorr
Theodore P. Labuza
Thomas J. Montville
S. Suzanne Nielsen
Martin R. Okos
Michael W. Pariza
Barbara J. Petersen
David S. Reid
Sam Saguy
Herbert Stone
Kenneth R. Swartzel

A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication

This edition first published 2011 © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and Institute of Food Technologists

Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical
and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing.

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ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-1754-5/2011.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and
product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their
respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This
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advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Innovative food processing technologies: advances in multiphysics simulation / [edited by] Kai Knoerzer ... [et al.].
p. cm.—(IFT Press series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8138-1754-5 (hardback)
1. Food industry and trade–Mathematical methods. 2. Food industry and trade–Simulation
methods. I. Knoerzer, Kai.
TP370.9.M38M85 2011
664'.020113–dc22
2010044300

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF 9780470959411; Wiley Online Library
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Disclaimer
The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of
the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness
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written and when it is read.

1 2011
Titles in the IFT Press series
• Accelerating New Food Product Design and Development (Jacqueline H. Beckley, Elizabeth J. Topp, M. Michele
Foley, J.C. Huang, and Witoon Prinyawiwatkul)
• Advances in Dairy Ingredients (Geoffrey W. Smithers and Mary Ann Augustin)
• Bioactive Proteins and Peptides as Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals (Yoshinori Mine, Eunice Li-Chan, and
Bo Jiang)
• Biofilms in the Food Environment (Hans P. Blaschek, Hua H. Wang, and Meredith E. Agle)
• Calorimetry in Food Processing: Analysis and Design of Food Systems (Gönül Kaletunç)
• Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention (YiFang Chu)
• Food Carbohydrate Chemistry (Ronald E. Wrolstad)
• Food Ingredients for the Global Market (Yao-Wen Huang and Claire L. Kruger)
• Food Irradiation Research and Technology (Christopher H. Sommers and Xuetong Fan)
• Foodborne Pathogens in the Food Processing Environment: Sources, Detection and Control (Sadhana Ravishankar,
Vijay K. Juneja, and Divya Jaroni)
• High Pressure Processing of Foods (Christopher J. Doona and Florence E. Feeherry)
• Hydrocolloids in Food Processing (Thomas R. Laaman)
• Improving Import Food Safety (Wayne C. Ellefson, Lorna Zach, and Darryl Sullivan)
• Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation (Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano,
Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg)
• Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce (Xuetong Fan, Brendan A. Niemira, Christopher J. Doona, Florence E. Feeherry,
and Robert B. Gravani)
• Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods (Robert W. Hutkins)
• Multivariate and Probabilistic Analyses of Sensory Science Problems (Jean-François Meullenet, Rui Xiong, and
Christopher J. Findlay
• Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Food Systems (Hongda Chen)
• Natural Food Flavors and Colorants (Mathew Attokaran)
• Nondestructive Testing of Food Quality (Joseph Irudayaraj and Christoph Reh)
• Nondigestible Carbohydrates and Digestive Health (Teresa M. Paeschke and William R. Aimutis)
• Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food (Howard Q. Zhang, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, V.M.
Balasubramaniam, C. Patrick Dunne, Daniel F. Farkas, and James T.C. Yuan)
• Nutraceuticals, Glycemic Health and Type 2 Diabetes (Vijai K. Pasupuleti and James W. Anderson)
• Organic Meat Production and Processing (Steven C. Ricke, Michael G. Johnson, and Corliss A. O’Bryan)
• Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food (Jung H. Han)
• Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions (Ross C. Beier,
Suresh D. Pillai, and Timothy D. Phillips, Editors; Richard L. Ziprin, Associate Editor)
• Processing and Nutrition of Fats and Oils (Ernesto M. Hernandez and Afaf Kamal-Eldin)
• Processing Organic Foods for the Global Market (Gwendolyn V. Wyard, Anne Plotto, Jessica Walden, and Kathryn
Schuett)
• Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: A Global Perspective (Clare M. Hasler)
• Resistant Starch: Sources, Applications and Health Benefits (Yong-Cheng Shi and Clodualdo Maningat)
• Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development (Howard R. Moskowitz,
Jacqueline H. Beckley, and Anna V.A. Resurreccion)
• Sustainability in the Food Industry (Cheryl J. Baldwin)
• Thermal Processing of Foods: Control and Automation (K.P. Sandeep)
• Trait-Modified Oils in Foods (Frank T. Orthoefer and Gary R. List)
• Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications (Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr.,
Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)
• Whey Processing, Functionality and Health Benefits (Charles I. Onwulata and Peter J. Huth)
Contents

Preface, ix
Contributors, xiii

1. Introduction to Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Background, Advantages,

Issues, and Need for Multiphysics Modeling, 3
Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, Abdul Ghani Albaali, Pablo Juliano, and Kai Knoerzer

2. The Need for Thermophysical Properties in Simulating Emerging Food Processing

Technologies, 23
Pablo Juliano, Francisco Javier Trujillo, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, and Kai Knoerzer

3. Neural Networks: Their Role in High-Pressure Processing, 39

José S. Torrecilla and Pedro D. Sanz

4. Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied in High-Pressure Processing Scale-Up, 57

Cornelia Rauh and Antonio Delgado

5. Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied in High-Pressure High-Temperature Processes:

Spore Inactivation Distribution and Process Optimization, 75
Pablo Juliano, Kai Knoerzer, and Cornelis Versteeg

6. Computer Simulation for Microwave Heating, 101

Hao Chen and Juming Tang

7. Simulating and Measuring Transient Three-Dimensional Temperature Distributions

in Microwave Processing, 131
Kai Knoerzer, Marc Regier, and Helmar Schubert

8. Multiphysics Modeling of Ohmic Heating, 155

Peter J. Fryer, Georgina Porras-Parral, and Serafim Bakalis

9. Basics for Modeling of Pulsed Electric Field Processing of Foods, 171

Nicolás Meneses, Henry Jaeger, and Dietrich Knorr

10. Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied in Pulsed Electric Field Preservation

of Liquid Foods, 193
Nicolás Meneses, Henry Jaeger, and Dietrich Knorr
vii
viii Contents

11. Novel, Multi-Objective Optimization of Pulsed Electric Field Processing

for Liquid Food Treatment, 209
Jens Krauss, Özgür Ertunç, Cornelia Rauh, and Antonio Delgado

12. Modeling the Acoustic Field and Streaming Induced by an Ultrasonic Horn Reactor, 233
Francisco Javier Trujillo and Kai Knoerzer

13. Computational Study of Ultrasound-Assisted Drying of Food Materials, 265

Enrique Riera, José Vicente García-Pérez, Juan Andrés Cárcel, Victor M. Acosta,
and Juan A. Gallego-Juárez

14. Characterization and Simulation of Ultraviolet Processing of Liquid Foods Using

Computational Fluid Dynamics, 303
Larry Forney, Tatiana Koutchma, and Zhengcai Ye

15. Multiphysics Modeling of Ultraviolet Disinfection of Liquid Food—Performance Evaluation

Using a Concept of Disinfection Efficiency, 325
Huachen Pan

16. Continuous Chromatographic Separation Technology—Modeling and Simulation, 335

Filip Janakievski

17. The Future of Multiphysics Modeling of Innovative Food Processing Technologies, 353
Peter J. Fryer, Kai Knoerzer, and Pablo Juliano

Index, 365

Color plate section appears between pages 208 and 209.

Preface

The food industry is an increasingly competitive and carbon and water footprint of food processing, thus
dynamic arena, with consumers now more aware of playing an important role toward environmental sus-
what they eat and, more importantly, what they want tainability and global food security.
to eat. Important food quality attributes such as Apart from the underlying thermo- and fluid-
taste, texture, appearance, and nutritional content dynamic principles of conventional processing, these
are strongly dependent on the way the foods are innovative technologies incorporate additional
processed. Multiphysics dimensions, for example, pressure
In recent years, with the aim to improve, or waves, electric and electromagnetic fields, among
replace, conventional processing technologies in others. To date, some of them still lack an adequate,
order to deliver higher-quality and better consumer- complete understanding of the basic principles of
targeted food products, a number of innovative tech- intervening in temperature and flow evolution in
nologies, also referred to as “emerging” or “novel” product and equipment during processing. Their
technologies have been proposed, investigated, proper application, development and optimization of
developed, and in some cases, implemented. These suitable equipment and process conditions still
technologies take advantage of other physics phe- require a significant amount of further knowledge.
nomena such as high hydrostatic pressure, electric Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is already
and electromagnetic fields, and pressure waves. established as a tool for characterizing, improv-
Some of the most promising innovative technolo- ing, and optimizing traditional food processing
gies, in various stages of development and adoption, technologies. Innovative technologies, however,
are discussed in this book, namely high-pressure provide additional complexity and challenges for
processing (also in combination with heat), micro- modelers because of the concurrent interacting
wave processing, ohmic heating, pulsed electric Multiphysics phenomena. In order to differentiate
field processing, ultrasound processing (liquid- and Multiphysics modeling from CFD modeling, the word
airborne), ultraviolet light (UV) processing, and “Multiphysics” will be capitalized throughout the
enhanced continuous separation. book.
These innovative technologies provide the oppor- Four symposia were organized at two consecu-
tunity not only for the development of new foods tive Annual Meetings of the Institute of Food
but also for improving the safety and quality of Technologists (IFT) in 2008 and 2009 (New Orleans
conventional foods through milder processing. and Anaheim, respectively) to gather Multiphysics
Different physical phenomena, utilized by these modeling experts in innovative technologies to
technologies, can potentially reduce energy and water present and discuss the latest advances in their
consumption and therefore assist in reducing the respective fields. These symposia highlighted the

ix
x Preface

importance and key role of Multiphysics modeling generalized visual programming approach referred
to further advance the development of each innova- to as macroscopic modeling. In Chapters 4 and 5,
tive technology and facilitate their introduction into “conventional” CFD modeling approaches for high-
the food industry. pressure processes at both low and high temperatures
Written by international experts from world-class are discussed and their application for equipment
research centers, academia, and industry, this book design, scale-up, and optimization are highlighted.
explains and discusses how Multiphysics model- Also described is their application to present the
ing—that is, the simulation of the entire process process outcomes in terms of safety and quality
comprising the actual equipment, varying process of the processed foods. Chapter 6 and 7 covers
conditions, and the thermophysical properties of the the extension of classical CFD with a further
food to be treated—can be applied in the develop- Multiphysics dimension, electromagnetic radiation,
ment, optimization, and scale-up of innovative food and the implementation for designing and character-
processing technologies. The most recent research izing microwave heating processes. Chapter 7 also
outcomes are shown to demonstrate benefits to discusses various temperature mapping techniques
process efficiency and the impact on scalability, and introduces the use of magnetic resonance
safety, and quality. imaging (MRI) for the determination of microwave-
The first part of this book includes two chapters induced three-dimensional heating patterns. In
introducing the rationale of the book and some Chapter 8, historical and new developments of
common themes to all chapters. Chapter 1 is the Multiphysics modeling applied to ohmic heating are
introductory chapter outlining the range of innova- presented. Chapters 9, 10, and 11 are devoted to
tive processing technologies covered, briefly describ- modeling of pulsed electric fields processing, cover-
ing the technologies and making the case for the ing the basics of the technology, its application for
necessity of Multiphysics modeling for their design, predicting liquid food pasteurization, and the “mul-
development, and application. Chapter 2 discusses tiobjective” optimization of the technology for liquid
the importance of determining the relevant (common food processing. Chapters 12 and 13 present two
and technology-specific) thermophysical properties distinctly different ultrasound applications. Chapter
and their essential role for accurate model 12 covers liquid-borne ultrasound, including a review
prediction. on its use in food processing, followed by an exten-
The second part of the book is an extensive col- sive review of the mathematics and physics involved
lection of chapters devoted to the various case studies in this technology, and this is concluded with a novel
on the modeling of innovative food processing approach of modeling ultrasound-induced stream-
technologies. For clarity and convenience, they are ing. Chapter 13 details the use of airborne ultrasound
divided into subsections focusing on high-pressure for the improvement of drying processes at low tem-
processing (Chapters 3–5), technologies utilizing peratures. The complex mathematics is described
electric and/or electromagnetic effects (microwave, and the chapter is concluded by experimental studies,
ohmic heating, and pulsed electric field processing; highlighting the advantages and commercial poten-
Chapters 6–11), processes using ultrasound waves tial of this innovative drying technology. Chapters
(in liquids or air) (Chapters 12 and 13), ultraviolet 14 and 15 both describe UV processing for liquid
light (UV) processing (Chapters 14 and 15), and food disinfection/pasteurization as an effective alter-
finally, one chapter on innovative chromatographic native to thermal treatments. Chapter 14 focuses on
separation technologies (Chapter 16). the characterization of several alternative reactor
Chapter 3 discusses two fundamentally different designs by Multiphysics modeling, whereas Chapter
modeling approaches to characterize high-pressure 15 compares the performance of different commer-
(low-temperature) systems. It introduces the reader cially available reactors using Multiphysics model-
to the very promising modeling technique known as ing and the introduction of the concept of “disinfection
artificial neural networks (ANN), as well as the more efficiency.” The final technology chapter (Chapter
 Preface xi

16) introduces an innovative continuous separation The editors wish to thank all collaborators in this
process based on the chromatographic simulated book for their excellent contributions, and the time
moving bed principle. It outlines the procedure of and effort they have devoted to making this book a
modeling these types of technologies and highlights comprehensive interdisciplinary reference source
the advantages over conventional column or bed- for engineers, technologists and scientists, and
based separation processes. researchers from academia and industry alike. We
Chapter 17 is the take-home message of this believe that the value of this book is not limited to
book, which concludes with a summary on what was food engineering; it is also useful for other branches
presented in the chapters before and provides an of process and chemical engineering. We would also
outlook on future trends in Multiphysics simulation like to thank the Institute of Food Technologist’s
of innovative food processing technologies. Three Nonthermal Processing Division, the International
questions are posed: (1) What can be usefully Division, and the Food Engineering Division for
modeled today?; (2) What extra data is needed?; sponsoring the session symposia that led to the
and (3) How much detail is needed, or Where development of this book.
shall we stop? This chapter is not intended to
provide definitive answers to these questions, but Kai Knoerzer
it suggests some future research directions and Pablo Juliano
places where research ought to or is expected to Peter Roupas
arrive. Cornelis Versteeg
Contributors

Víctor M. Acosta Hao Chen

Grupo de Ultrasonidos de Potencia Department of Biological Systems Engineering
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Washington State University
(CSIC) Pullman, WA 99164-6120
Serrano, 144, E28006 (Currently with Microsoft, Redmond, WA)
Madrid, Spain
Antonio Delgado
Abdul Ghani Albaali Institute of Fluid Mechanics
Princess Sumaya University for Technology Friedrich-Alexander University
P.O. Box 1438 Erlangen-Nuremberg
Al-Jubaiha 11941 Cauerstrasse 4, D-91058 Erlangen
Jordan Germany

Serafim Bakalis Özgür Ertunç

Centre for Formulation Engineering Institute of Fluid Mechanics
School of Chemical Engineering Friedrich-Alexander University
University of Birmingham Erlangen-Nuremberg
Birmingham B15 2TT Cauerstrasse 4, D-91058 Erlangen
United Kingdom Germany

Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas Larry Forney

Department of Biological Systems Engineering School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Washington State University Georgia Institute of Technology
Pullman, WA 99164-6120 311 Ferst Drive, N.W.
Atlanta, GA 30332
Juan Andrés Cárcel
Grupo de Análisis y Simulación de Procesos Peter J. Fryer
Agroalimentarios (ASPA) Centre for Formulation Engineering
Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos School of Chemical Engineering
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia University of Birmingham
Camí de Vera s/n, E46022, Valencia Birmingham B15 2TT
Spain United Kingdom

xiii
xiv Contributors

Juan A. Gallego-Juárez Jens Krauss

Grupo de Ultrasonidos de Potencia Institute of Fluid Mechanics
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Friedrich-Alexander University
(CSIC) Erlangen-Nuremberg
Serrano, 144, E28006, Madrid Cauerstrasse 4, D-91058 Erlangen
Spain Germany

José Vicente García-Pérez

Kai Knoerzer
Grupo de Análisis y Simulación de Procesos
CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences
Agroalimentarios (ASPA)
671 Sneydes Road
Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos
Werribee, VIC 3030
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Australia
Camí de Vera s/n, E46022, Valencia
Spain
Nicolás Meneses
Henry Jaeger Department of Food Biotechnology and Food
Department of Food Biotechnology and Food Process Engineering
Process Engineering Technische Universität Berlin
Technische Universität Berlin Koenigin-Luise-Str. 22
Koenigin-Luise-Str. 22 D-14195 Berlin
D-14195 Berlin Germany
Germany
Huachen Pan
Filip Janakievski
Institute of Mechatronic Engineering
CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences
Hangzhou Dianzi University
671 Sneydes Road
310018 Hangzhou
Werribee, VIC 3030
China
Australia

Pablo Juliano Georgina Porras-Parral

CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences Centre for Formulation Engineering
671 Sneydes Road School of Chemical Engineering
Werribee, VIC 3030 University of Birmingham
Australia Birmingham B15 2TT
United Kingdom
Dietrich Knorr
Department of Food Biotechnology and Food
Cornelia Rauh
Process Engineering
Institute of Fluid Mechanics
Technische Universität Berlin
Friedrich-Alexander University
Koenigin-Luise-Str. 22
Erlangen-Nuremberg
D-14195 Berlin
Cauerstrasse 4, D-91058 Erlangen
Germany
Germany
Tatiana Koutchma
Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Marc Regier
Agri-Food Canada Fachhochschule Trier
93 Stone Road West University for Applied Sciences
Guelph, ON, N1G 5C9 Schneidershof, 54293 Trier
Canada Germany
 Contributors xv

Enrique Fernando Riera Franco de Sarabia José S. Torrecilla

Grupo de Ultrasonidos de Potencia Department of Chemical Engineering
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Universidad Complutense de Madrid
(CSIC) Avenida Complutense s/n
Serrano, 144, E28006, Madrid 28040 Madrid
Spain Spain

Pedro D. Sanz Francisco Javier Trujillo

Malta Consolider Team CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences
Department of Processes 11 Julius Avenue
ICTAN, CSIC North Ryde, NSW 2113
c/ José Antonio Novais, 10 Australia
28040 Madrid
Spain Cornelis Versteeg
CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences
Helmar Schubert 671 Sneydes Road
Universitaet Karlsruhe (TH)/Karlsruhe Institute of Werribee, VIC 3030
Technology (KIT) Australia
Institute of Engineering in Life Sciences
Dept. I: Food Process Engineering Zhengcai Ye
Karlsruhe, Germany Bechtel Oil, Gas and Chemicals, Inc.
3000 Post Oak Blvd
Juming Tang Houston, TX 77056
Department of Biological Systems Engineering
Washington State University
Pullman, WA 99164-6120
Chapter 1

Introduction to Innovative Food Processing

Technologies: Background, Advantages, Issues,
and Need for Multiphysics Modeling

Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, Abdul Ghani Albaali, Pablo Juliano, and Kai Knoerzer

1.1. Introduction concept development to implementation. In particu-

lar, proper application, development, and optimiza-
In a world that is demanding environmental sustain- tion of suitable equipment and process conditions
ability and food security, innovation is a key require- require a significant amount of further knowledge
ment for the sustained growth of the food industry. and understanding. In this book, the basic principles,
Furthermore, product innovation is the response to current research, challenges, and commercial appli-
the growing demand for value addition along with cations of the respective technologies, as well as the
more sophisticated and diverse food products. development and application of computational fluid
Modern food technology provides a handful of novel dynamics (CFD) and, more broadly, Multiphysics
processing options to explore, which could provide modeling as a tool for characterizing, improving, and
more diverse food industry products and more com- optimizing innovative food processing technologies
petitive and efficient processes. Many of these inno- are covered.
vative technologies can provide new opportunities Most innovative processing technologies have a
for the development of new foods and for the improve- common challenge, that is, to achieve a sufficient
ment of safety and quality of more conventionally uniformity of the treatment or the process. This chal-
manufactured foods through milder processing. lenge is often already an issue at laboratory scale
This book discusses innovative technologies that and it can become progressively worse when scaling
take advantage of physical forces and phenomena up to pilot plants and, subsequently, to commercial
such as high hydrostatic pressure, electric and elec- equipment. Among other potential technology-
tromagnetic fields, and pressure waves, for example, specific issues, nonuniformity of the treatment is
high-pressure processing (also in combination with most commonly encountered. In fact, the nonunifor-
heat), microwave processing, ohmic heating, pulsed mities of the process and the lack of process valida-
electric field (PEF) processing, ultrasound processing tion of innovative processes are the greatest
(liquid and airborne), and ultraviolet light (UV) pro- limitations for industrial uptake.
cessing. Innovative processing technologies present Nonuniform treatment is, however, not specific to
a number of hurdles that need to be addressed from innovative processing technologies; conventional

Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation, First Edition.

Edited by Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg.
© 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and Institute of Food Technologists. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-813-81754-5

3
4 Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation

processing technologies often encounter the same 1.2. Multiphysics Modeling

problem. For example, in conventional heat treat-
ment processes such as canning, the temperature
1.2.1. Definition
at the product surface is significantly higher than Multiphysics modeling is an extension of classical
at the product center during most of the processing CFD. By definition, CFD is one of the branches of
time, and only after prolonged holding times are fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and
temperature gradients throughout the product dimin- algorithms to solve and analyze problems that
ished. Another clear example of nonuniformity in involve fluid flows. The geometry of the modeled
conventional processing is the drying process of scenario, including all components, is discretized
particulates. In this case, spatial and temporal het- into finite cells on which the governing partial dif-
erogeneities in temperature and water content in the ferential equations (PDEs), namely the continuity,
food product can be even more pronounced. The momentum, and energy conservation equations, are
product goes (1) through an initial linear drying solved. This is detailed in the chapters specific to the
phase with water removal from the product surface, respective technologies. Because these are PDEs,
(2) over the falling rate period with moisture flux they cannot be solved analytically. Numerical tech-
from the inside of the product to its surface, and (3) niques, such as finite differences, finite volumes, or
to a stage of product and drying medium (moisture) finite element methods, must be applied to achieve
equilibrium with almost no further change in water an approximated solution (Sun 2007).
content. In drying food products other important Multiphysics modeling is based on the same prin-
factors often come into play, increasing the degree ciples as conventional CFD, that is, geometry dis-
of nonuniformity: product shrinkage and reduced cretization, and solving the PDEs is performed in a
moisture transport (increasing viscosity of contained similar manner. However, Multiphysics modeling
liquids) up to a stage where pores are blocked. In the comprises additional physical phenomena such as
case of many innovative processing technologies as electromagnetic waves, electrical fields, and acous-
described throughout this book, nonuniformities tic waves related to the innovative technologies dis-
may be reduced through technology-specific effects. cussed further in this chapter. These phenomena can
However, these nonuniformities may be more pro- also be described by physically based PDEs (specific
nounced due to increased complexities influenced by to each innovative technology), which have to be
additional Multiphysics phenomena. solved simultaneously with the ones from classical
This introductory chapter outlines the range of CFD. In some cases, the expression of the process
innovative food processing technologies covered in outcome based on the attributes of the processed
this book and gives a short overview of their benefits food, that is, the remaining microbial load, enzyme
and advantages over traditional technologies. Some activity, and chemical reaction products, is required.
additional background information on the technolo- Within Multiphysics modeling, reaction kinetics
gies, not covered in the respective technology- (i.e., microbial inactivation, quality degradation,
specific chapters, is provided. Furthermore, this chemical reaction, and structural responses) can be
chapter makes a case for the need for applying coupled with the specific differential equations to
Multiphysics modeling in these technologies for provide the spatial distributions of reaction response.
their design, including scale-up and optimization. Multiphysics models that concurrently solve the
The chapter summarizes the problems and chal- PDEs of classical CFD and the additional technology-
lenges faced by the modelers, particularly with specific physical phenomena and the differential
respect to the prediction of temperature, flow and equations describing the reaction response require
technology-specific field distributions (e.g., sound significantly greater computational resources. The
intensity and electric or electromagnetic fields), and increase in affordable computational power in recent
the extent of microbial or enzymatic inactivation years has allowed the simulation of innovative
and their distribution in equipment and products. processes.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Innovative Food Processing Technologies 5

Figure 1.1. Number of commercial high-pressure equipment units around the world as of 2009 (Tonello 2010).

1.3. Innovative Food Processing used not only for preservation, but also for modify-
Technologies ing the physical and functional properties of some
foods.
1.3.1. Background
More than 70 companies currently utilize HPP,
This section presents a brief description of each producing more than 170,000 tons of products
technology covered in this book. The major design (Tonello 2010). Several HPP-treated food products,
problems and application limitations of these tech- including juices, jams, jellies, yogurts, ready-to-eat
nologies are highlighted as an introduction to sub- meat, and oysters, are already widely available in
sequent chapters. Ways in which Multiphysics the United States, Europe, Japan, New Zealand, and
modeling of innovative food processing technologies Australia. These successful applications have led to
can assist in their development will be discussed. a pronounced increase in commercial-scale HPP
units around the world during the past 10 years, as
1.3.1.1. High-Pressure Processing (HPP) and shown in Figure 1.1.
High-Pressure Thermal Sterilization (HPTS) HPP In addition to inactivation of microorganisms and
has demonstrated wide applicability for producing some spoilage enzymes (Seyderhelm et al. 1996;
high-quality foods. HPP has become accepted as Yen and Lin 1996), promising results have been
an attractive alternative to traditional preservation obtained with respect to the application on gelation
methods utilizing preservatives or thermal process- of food proteins (Ohshima et al. 1993), improvement
ing (Hernando Saiz et al. 2008, Chapters 3–5). of digestibility of proteins, and tenderization of meat
HPP is commonly referred to as a nonthermal products (Ohmori et al. 1991; Jung et al. 2000a,
process of liquid and solid foods through application 2000b; Buckow et al. 2010b). These changes in pro-
of high pressure in the order of 100–800 MPa teins have been used successfully in fish meat; in
(1,000 to 8,000 bar) and holding times of several Carpaccio and Carpaccio-like products, high pres-
minutes. HPP of foods is of increasing interest sure allows the “processing” of the product, while
because it allows the inactivation of vegetative still maintaining its raw characteristics. However,
organisms at low or moderate temperature with because of the application of high pressures, these
minimum degradation (Abdul Ghani and Farid products have retained “fresh-like” qualities and
2007). HPP offers opportunities for increased shelf texture compared with heat-processed food, are
life and preservative-free stabilization of meats, microbiologically safe, and have an extended shelf
seafood, vegetable products, and juices. HPP can be life compared with raw food. Gomez-Estaca et al.
6 Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation

(2009) investigated HPP on fish products (such as where pressure-induced protein denaturation may be
salmon, tuna, and cod), showing superior sensory visually evident. High pressures can also induce sig-
results. nificant structural changes (or damages) in some
If the aim of the process is the inactivation of sensitive foods, such as strawberries or lettuce. Cell
microbial spores, high pressure alone is not suffi- deformation and cell membrane damage can result
cient. However, a combination of high pressure and in softening and cell serum loss. Usually, these
elevated temperatures, also referred to as HPTS or changes are undesirable because the food will appear
pressure-assisted thermal sterilization, can result in to be processed and no longer fresh or raw.
synergistic inactivation of these spores at potentially
lower temperatures or shorter processing times, Limitations of HPP and HPTS Although great
thus improving the quality of the processed foods progress has been made in the development of eco-
while potentially reducing energy consumption nomically viable high-pressure applications, the sci-
(Bull et al. 2009). In this application, the increase in entific community and the food industry recognized
pressure is used as a means to increase the tempera- in the early 2000s that engineering fundamentals,
ture evenly and fast in the product. including CFD models, were required to design,
There are two approaches to achieve high- evaluate, optimize, and scale up high-pressure pro-
pressure conditions. In the direct approach, a piston cesses of foods (Hendrickx and Knorr 2001).
is utilized, which compresses the content of the The limitation of HPP to date mainly lies in the
high-pressure chamber. In the indirect approach, a limited throughput and, relative to heat processing,
pressure-transmitting liquid (e.g., water) is pumped the high cost of equipment, labor (HPP is not yet a
into the treatment chamber (high-pressure vessel) fully automated process), and maintenance. High
using a high-pressure pump followed by a “pressure maintenance costs are caused mainly by the extreme
intensifier.” Liquids at extremely high pressures are processing conditions. Furthermore, there are only
compressible, requiring extra fluid to be pumped a few large-scale commercial high-pressure equip-
into the vessel. ment suppliers worldwide that have expertise in the
During compression, the temperature of the pro- food industry, including Avure Technologies, Inc.
cessed food and the pressure-transmitting fluid (Kent, WA), Kobelco (Kobe Steel Ltd., Kobe,
increases due to the compression force working Japan), and NC Hyperbaric (Burgos, Spain).
against intermolecular forces. The magnitude of the A common issue in both HPP and HPTS is the
adiabatic temperature increase depends on a number nonuniformity of some aspects of the treatment. HPP
of factors, such as the pressure medium and food generates pressure waves in liquids, which travel
product thermophysical properties (density, thermal at the speed of sound (sound in water travels at
expansion coefficient, and specific heat capacity) and 1,500 m/s). Therefore, pressure is commonly assumed
initial temperature (see, e.g., Chapters 2, 4, and 5). to be transmitted instantaneously and uniformly.
Higher fat content of the food and higher initial However, treatment nonuniformities can occur
temperature, for example, lead to an increase in during HPP not only as a result of different compress-
compression heating. The phenomenon of increas- ibilities of the various substances in the food product,
ing compression heating at elevated initial tempera- including trapped air (also headspace), but also
tures is important; for example, in HPTS, the product because of the food packaging material. In addition,
and the pressure medium are preheated to achieve if the purpose of the process is the inactivation of the
higher process temperatures, which in turn allows vegetative microorganisms, a nonuniform treatment
inactivation of microbial spores (Wilson et al. 2008). can occur because some microorganisms are suppos-
In HPP, the greater the pressure level and time of edly more resistant to the pressure when embedded
application, the greater the potential for changes in in a fat matrix. Foods with higher fat or oil content
the structure and appearance of the treated foods. may, therefore, protect the microorganisms in some
This is especially true for raw high-protein foods, areas in the food where fat is contained.
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Innovative Food Processing Technologies 7

In the case of processing above room temperature Microwave heating has been proposed as an
(initial temperature), for example, in HPTS, nonuni- alternative to traditional heating methods in many
form treatment temperature is likely to be more pro- food manufacturing processes, such as (re)heating,
nounced. In addition to pressure, temperature is an baking, (pre)cooking, tempering of frozen food,
important process variable. In heterogeneous food blanching, pasteurization, sterilization, and dehy-
materials, with the contents exhibiting differences in dration (Metaxas and Meredith 1983; Decareau
compression heating, temperatures may not be uni- 1985; Buffler 1993; Metaxas 1996; Schubert and
formly distributed in the food products. Furthermore, Regier 2005; Tang et al. 2008).
the packaging material, the material of the product Microwave and radio frequency heating for pas-
carrier, and the steel of the high-pressure vessel are teurization and sterilization are rapid; therefore, less
not heated to the same extent as the food; therefore, time is required for come-up to the desired process
temperature gradients are developed throughout the temperature compared with conventional heating.
system, leading to heat flux from the products to the This is particularly true for solid and semisolid
cooler areas (which are mainly the steel walls). foods that depend on slow thermal diffusion process
These spatial temperature heterogeneities increase in conventional heating. Microwave and radio fre-
over the process time. Although, theoretically, the quency heating can approach the benefits of high-
preheated product heats up uniformly during temperature short-time (HTST) processing, whereby
compression to sterilization temperatures, during bacterial destruction is achieved, while thermal deg-
pressure holding time temperatures may decrease in radation of the desired components is reduced.
certain areas of the vessel. This can affect spore Heating with microwaves primarily involves two
inactivation, and spores may survive the process if mechanisms. Water in the food is often the main
temperature loss is not prevented. Product carriers component responsible for dielectric heating. Due to
have been developed as a means of retaining their dipolar nature, water molecules follow the
heat throughout the vessel during both pressure alternating electric field associated with electromag-
come-up and holding times (Chapter 5). Multiphysics netic radiation. The second major mechanism is
modeling can greatly assist in the characterization of through the oscillatory migration of ions in the food
temperature distribution, subsequent microbial dis- under the influence of the alternating electric field.
tributions, and other quality changes as a result of Such oscillatory motion of water molecules and ions
temperature inhomogeneities. These models can also and the associated intermolecular friction lead to a
be applied to the redesign and optimization of equip- conversion of electromagnetic energy to thermal
ment and determination of adequate processing con- energy.
ditions for optimum process/product performance. The dielectric properties, namely the dielectric
constant and the loss factor (Chapter 2), determine
1.3.1.2. Microwave and Radio Frequency the strength of the electric field inside the food and
Processing Microwave heating refers to the use of its conversion into heat. These properties strongly
electromagnetic waves of certain frequencies to depend on the composition (or formulation) of the
generate heat in a material (Metaxas and Meredith food, with moisture and salt being the two primary
1983; Roussy and Pearce 1995; Metaxas 1996). determinants of interest (Mudgett 1985, 1986; Sun
Typically, microwave food processing uses frequen- et al. 1995; Nelson and Datta 2001). The subsequent
cies of 2,450 and 915 MHz. In domestic ovens, temperature rise in the food depends on the duration
2,450 MHz frequency is commonly utilized, while of heating, the location in the food, convective heat
in industrial heating application both frequencies are transfer at the surface, and the heat conduction and
used, depending on the product to be treated, that is, extent of evaporation of water inside the food and
product size and composition, associated with the at its surface.
relevant thermophysical properties (Chapters 2, 6, Although the final objective of each process
and 7). differs, an increase in product temperature is seen as
8 Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation

a common theme. There has also been some specu- uniform. Placing dielectrics (i.e., food products) into
lation on the so-called nonthermal effects of electro- the microwave field leads to a change in the field
magnetic waves in the microwave frequency range. distribution. Therefore, differences in the products,
Four theories have been proposed to explain “non- for example, product size, shape, and particularly
thermal” or nondirect thermal effects of microwaves composition with varying dielectric properties, will
on, for example, microorganisms: selective heating, almost certainly lead to changes in process outcomes.
electroporation, cell membrane rupture, and magnetic However, not only do the field variations in the cavity
field coupling (Kozempel et al. 1998). The selective cause nonuniform processing, the field characteris-
heating theory states that solid microorganisms are tics inside the product are also heterogeneous.
heated more effectively by microwaves than the sur- The heterogeneous composition of the different
rounding medium and are thus killed more readily. food components (and different dielectric proper-
Electroporation is caused when pores form in the ties) is an important factor in the heating of foods.
membrane of the microorganisms due to electrical Differences in dielectric properties lead to differ-
potential across the membrane, resulting in leakage ences in temperature increases, even in a perfectly
(this is similar to one of the theories on the effect of homogeneous microwave field. As these properties
PEF processing for cold pasteurization). Cell mem- are in most cases strongly temperature-dependent,
brane rupture is related to the voltage drop across changes in temperature may compensate or may
the membrane, which causes it to rupture, which is increase the nonuniformity. In particular, in cases
also a theory in PEF processing. In the fourth theory, where increasing temperatures lead to increasing
cell lysis occurs due to coupling of electromagnetic loss factors (the imaginary part of the complex
energy with critical molecules within the cells, dis- dielectric permittivity; Chapter 2), a so-called
rupting vitally important internal cell components. thermal “runaway” phenomenon can occur. With
Although researchers have repeatedly reported increasing temperature the rate of converting the
nonthermal effects of microwave processing, the electromagnetic energy into thermal energy increases
general consensus (Heddleson and Doores 1994; as well; therefore, the gradients between hot and cold
Heddleson et al. 1994) is that the reported nonther- areas in the product become more pronounced.
mal effects are likely to be due to the lack of precise Another important factor in heating is the so-
measurements of the time–temperature history and called focusing effect of the microwaves into spe-
its spatial variations. A number of studies have cific areas in the product. This phenomenon is
shown that thermal effect is the essential contributor strongly dependent on the geometrical properties of
to the destruction of microorganisms (Goldblit and the product. For example, a spherical product that
Wang 1967; Rosen 1972; Fujikawa et al. 1992). does not exceed a certain size (due to limited pen-
Therefore, to date, it is presumed that only thermal etration) can exhibit a pronounced hot spot in its
effects on microbial inactivation are effective, and geometrical center.
microbial inactivation caused by microwave pro- Other phenomena causing uneven heating pat-
cessing is essentially the same as in conventional terns include edge and corner overheating (caused
thermal processing. Of course, the rates of heating by the penetration and absorption of the microwaves
and temperature distributions are quite different. from more than one direction) and the development
of standing waves inside the product (which is mainly
Limitations of Electromagnetic Heating Volumetric dependent on the dielectric constant (the real part of
microwave and radio frequency heating is theoreti- the complex dielectric permittivity; Chapter 2).
cally more uniform than conventional heating (Datta The time–temperature history at the coldest point
and Hu 1992). There are, however, a number of for a conventional thermal process is generally pre-
microwave-specific factors that induce nonuniform dictable for a food that is all solid or all fluid. For
heating patterns. First, electromagnetic field distribu- example, for a conduction-heated (solid) food, it is
tion inside a microwave cavity is, in most cases, not usually the geometric center. In microwave heating,
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Innovative Food Processing Technologies 9

even for a solid food, it is less straightforward to 1.3.1.3. Ohmic Heating Ohmic heating is defined
predict the coldest point and it can change during as a process wherein electric currents are passed
the heating process depending on temperature- through foods or other materials with the primary
dependent material properties and oven characteris- purpose of heating them. The heating occurs in the
tics (Fleischman 1996; Zhang et al. 2001). form of internal electric energy dissipation within
A number of approaches have been proposed to the material. Ohmic heating is distinguished from
improve the uniformity associated with microwave other electrical heating methods by the presence of
heating. These include rotating and oscillating the electrodes contacting the food, the frequency of the
food in the microwave cavity (Geedipalli et al. current, or the waveform. The main purpose for the
2007), providing an absorbing medium (such as hot development of ohmic heating processes was to
water) surrounding the product (Chen et al. 2008; allow for HTST sterilization of solid–liquid mix-
Chapter 6), equilibrating after heating (Fakhouri and tures (Chapter 8).
Ramaswamy 1993), and cycling the power (Chapter Applications of ohmic heating in the food indus-
7). Success to date is limited due to the dependence try to date are scarce, although there are a number
of the materials’ properties on temperature and the of advantages over other (conventional) heating
nonuniform distribution of the electromagnetic field methods. The main advantages for ohmic heating
inside the food and the microwave cavity. Utilizing are the associated rapid and relatively uniform
a lower microwave frequency of 915 MHz and radio heating of the food product, depending on the elec-
frequencies to improve uniformity of heating have trical conductivity of the food components. This is
the potential to improve the evenness of heating expected to reduce unwanted thermal effects on the
(Chen et al. 2008), as the penetration depth into the product that often occur in conventional heating
food is greater and the field nonuniformities are less applications, caused by the need to heat the product
pronounced. Combinations of microwave and con- by the transfer of thermal energy from a heating
ventional technologies in many different configura- medium to a low temperature product, where exces-
tions (e.g., hot air, vacuum, or infrared heating) have sive treatment times are necessary for sufficient
also been used to improve treatment uniformity; heat penetration from the surface of a solid product
(Contreras et al. 2008; Turabi et al. 2008; Abbasi and to its core.
Azari 2009; Kowalski and Mierzwa 2009; Kowalski Potential applications for ohmic heating include
and Rajewska 2009; Seyhun et al. 2009; Uysal et al. its use in blanching, evaporation, dehydration, fer-
2009). These approaches can be successful for some mentation, and extraction. At present, the primary
applications, especially where the cold spot is located type of application is a heat treatment for microbial
at the food surface (Chapter 7); however, in food control, for example, for the pasteurization of milk,
products with high salt or sugar content, the cold spot and also for processing of sauces, fruits, and toma-
is usually within in the food, as the penetration depth toes (Chapter 8).
of the electromagnetic waves is reduced. The principal mechanisms of microbial inactiva-
It remains a challenge to uniformly treat food tion in ohmic heating are thermal in nature. Recent
products with microwaves and to achieve the tar- literature, however, indicates that a mild electro-
geted process outcomes; Multiphysics models, poration mechanism may occur during ohmic
however, will greatly assist in designing microwave heating (similar to the effects utilized in PEF pro-
processes by evaluating process performance and cessing (Lebovka et al. 2005; Kulshrestha and
developing appropriate control strategies (Chapters Sastry 2006). The principal reason for the additional
6 and 7). Accordingly, Multiphysics models (includ- microbial inactivation effect to heating of ohmic
ing temperature-dependent properties of foods) need treatment may be its low frequency (50–60 Hz),
to be developed and subsequently validated to ascer- which allows cell walls to build up charges and form
tain the location of the point of lowest integrated pores. This is in contrast to high-frequency methods
time–temperature history (Chapter 7). such as microwave or radio frequency heating,
10 Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation

where the electric field is essentially reversed before throughout the product. Multiphysics modeling
sufficient charge buildup occurs at the cell walls. (including the temperature-dependent properties of
Nevertheless, temperature is the principal critical the foods: mainly the electrical conductivity) can
process factor in ohmic heating. As in conventional greatly assist the evaluation and optimization of
thermal processes, the key issue is identifying the ohmic heating systems to achieve heating unifor-
slowest heating zone. Fundamentally, there is only mity (Chapter 8).
one critical factor: the temperature–time history of
the coldest point. Since the primary critical process 1.3.1.4. PEF PEF processing is an innovative non-
factor is the thermal history and location of the cold thermal processing technology mainly for liquid and
spot, the effects on microbial inactivation are the pumpable foods (including emulsions, suspensions,
same as for thermal processes. Locating the slowest and semisolids such as sausage meat), predominantly
heating zones during ohmic heating, however, cannot used for the inactivation of microorganisms at
be extrapolated from current knowledge of conven- ambient or mild temperatures, thereby preserving the
tional heating, and requires special consideration. fresh flavor, color, functional properties, and integ-
Several factors significantly affect the tempera- rity of heat-sensitive compounds (Chapters 9–11).
ture within an ohmic process. The critical parame- PEF can also be used to enhance extraction yield of
ters in continuous flow ohmic heating systems juices and bioactives from plant sources. PEF is one
include electrical conductivities of the respective of the most appealing nonthermal technologies for
phases of the food, temperature dependence of the preservation of liquid foods due to reduced heating
electrical conductivity, design of the heating device effects compared with traditional pasteurization
(e.g., location and orientation of the electrodes), methods (Barbosa-Cánovas et al. 1999).
extent of interstitial fluid motion, residence time In PEF processing, a liquid or other pumpable
distribution, thermal properties of the food, and material is passed through an electrode arrangement
electric field strength (Chapter 8). where the PEF is applied. For microbial inactiva-
tion, foods are processed by means of brief pulses
Limitations of Ohmic Heating The main limita- of a strong electric field with field strengths of
tion of ohmic heating is the heterogeneous nature (in around 15–40 kV/cm. For extraction of plant materi-
composition) of the food products and their corre- als and pretreatment of meat for processing, only
sponding electrical conductivities that leads to dif- about 0.7 to 3 kV/cm is required (Toepfl et al. 2006).
ferences in the conversion of the electrical current The utilization of PEF leads to the formation of
into thermal energy. As in microwave heating, in pores (the so-called electroporation [temporary or
ohmic heating, thermal runaway can also occur, permanent]), in the membranes of microbial or plant
because electrical conductivity, which is the property cells, which disturbs and damages the membrane’s
that influences electrical energy dissipation, usually functionality, leading to inactivation of the cells and
increases with increasing temperature. Therefore, the partial release of the cell contents to make
especially in stationary (i.e., not moving in a stream) extraction or other processing more efficient.
solid products, there may be areas that are very hot Membrane disruption occurs when the induced
(usually areas close to the electrodes), which in some membrane potential exceeds a critical value of 1 V
instances may even be burned, while in other areas in many cellular systems, which, for example, cor-
(with initially lower electrical conductivities, or responds to an external electric field of about 10 kV/
farther away from the electrodes) almost no heating cm for Escherichia coli (Castro et al. 1993). The
occurs. most relevant factor affecting microbial inactivation
Uniform heating with ohmic processing is theo- and extraction enhancement by PEF is, therefore,
retically possible, but at the same time challenging the electric field intensity. The combination of elec-
due to the various factors impacting on the slowest tric field intensity, total treatment time during PEF
heating zone and the time–temperature history and pulse shapes, and the associated temperature
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Innovative Food Processing Technologies 11

increase determine the extent of membrane disrup- temperature increase (caused by ohmic heating).
tion in bacterial and plant cells (Hamilton and Sale Several factors play a role here, including the mate-
1967). Other factors affecting the performance of rial’s electrical conductivity, the frequency of the
the PEF process include the microbial entity to be pulses, their duration (width), adequacy of deaera-
inactivated (type, concentration, and growth stage tion, back pressure, and the flow rate of the liquid
of microorganism) and the treatment media (pH, (laminar or turbulent flow regime; residence time in
antimicrobials, and ionic compounds, electric con- the treatment chamber). Because the pulse duration
ductivity, and medium ionic strength). is only in the range of microseconds and, therefore,
PEF produces products with slightly different the overall treatment time is short, temperature
properties from conventional pasteurization treat- increases during treatment are often assumed to be
ments. Most enzymes are not affected by PEF. The minimal and temperature effects neglected in inac-
fact that the maximum temperature reached is lower tivation studies.
than in thermal pasteurization means that some of In processing liquids with PEF, a nonuniformity
the flavors associated with the raw material are not of the treatment can be a result of the interaction
destroyed. Spores, with their tough protective coats, between the flow, heat transfer, electric field phe-
and dehydrated cells are mostly able to survive PEF nomena, and effects on microbial or plant cells.
processing. The survival of spores and enzymes Predictions of the increase in temperature caused by
means that products have to be refrigerated after the electric field are similar to ohmic heating and
passing through PEF processing in order to slow the less complicated compared with the dissipation of
action of the enzymes and keep pathogens from electromagnetic energy in microwave processing.
growing; PEF alone is generally not capable of pro- Moreover, the property influencing this dissipation
ducing ambient shelf-stable products. However, effect, that is, the electrical conductivity, is easier to
acidic well-packaged products may have a useful measure, and usually shows a less complex behavior
ambient shelf life. with temperature than the two dielectric properties
As indicated before, another potential application in microwave processing, that is, the dielectric con-
of PEF, which is gaining increasing interest, is the stant and the loss factor (Chapter 2).
utilization of the technology for enhanced extraction However, the purpose of the pulsed (potentially
of plant cell material. Because PEF induces electro- alternating) electric field is, unlike in microwave
poration in cell walls at relatively low energy inputs, processing, not an increase in temperature. The
allowing the cell contents to leak out, it holds temperature increase should be minimized in
promise as an efficient way of getting useful com- most PEF applications. The main aim is a nonther-
ponents out of cells and cell membranes (Corrales mal inactivation of vegetative microorganisms for
et al. 2008; Lopez et al. 2009a, 2009b; Loginova et cold pasteurization or a nonmechanical means of
al. 2010; Puertolas et al. 2010). opening cells for enhanced extraction. In particular,
To date, however, PEF has been mainly researched for the purpose of cold pasteurization, a great
to preserve the quality of foods, such as to improve degree of electric field uniformity is needed to
the shelf life of orange juice, apple juice, milk, and ensure a similar treatment of the entire liquid
liquid eggs, as well as the fermentation properties product. Ideally, the same number of electric pulses
of brewer ’s yeast. Martín-Belloso and Soliva- and electric field strength is applied to all microor-
Fortuny (2010) have summarized the work of several ganisms present in the liquid. Typically, pasteuriza-
researchers on food-borne pathogenic microorgan- tion requires inactivation of up to 99.999%, that
isms in different food products. is, 5 log of the target organism. If only a small frac-
tion of microorganisms bypass proper treatment
Limitations of PEF Processing Issues that may through regions of low electric field strength, it
arise with PEF include electric arcing, dielectric is not possible to reach the required extent of
breakdown of the treated food, and a pronounced inactivation.
12 Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation

Achieving this uniformity, however, is very chal- numerical simulations can be applied to improve the
lenging; the electric field distribution is strongly fundamental understanding of the physical phenom-
dependent on the configuration of the treatment ena in the process and to optimize it with respect to
chamber (and to a lesser extent on the electrical the chamber design and operating conditions
conductivity and other thermophysical properties of (Gerlach et al. 2008; Chapters 9–11).
the processed media). PEF chamber designs such as
co-field, coaxial, or colinear electrode arrangements 1.3.1.5. Ultrasound Processing This technology
(Chapters 9–11) exhibit pronounced nonuniformi- is based on pressure waves at frequencies exceeding
ties in flow, temperature, and electric field distribu- 20 kHz, that is, more than 20,000 vibrations per
tions. Uniform fields can be achieved in parallel second. It is considered as another innovative
plate configurations, which are mainly applied for process that has been investigated for many different
batch processing. If the field is not uniform, the purposes over the last decades. While in the earlier
induced temperature increase is also uneven across work mainly the lower frequencies of around 20 kHz
the volume of the treatment chamber. Often, several were studied, research and applications currently
treatment cells are arranged to process in series, include frequencies of several hundred kHz, to
which reduces the effects of imperfections in single several MHz (Chapter 12).
treatment cells. Ultrasound systems consist of a generator for
Thus, in processes for inactivation of specific turning electrical energy into high-frequency alter-
microorganisms that show synergistic effects of nating current, a transducer for converting the alter-
temperature and electric field on inactivation, tem- nating current into mechanical vibrations, and a
perature nonuniformities will lower the performance delivery probe for conveying the sonic vibrations
of the process. Nonuniformities can be minimized, into a medium to couple sonic vibrations to the
but to some extent will always occur. treated material. The transducers may take the shape
To enable a comparable treatment history of the of a rod, plate, bar, or sphere, and are usually manu-
entire product, the flow pattern is very important. factured from titanium, aluminum, or steel.
Laminar flow conditions, which can be found in The ultrasonic transducer can be mounted outside
low-throughput laboratory-scale systems, are to be on the wall of a vessel or flow cell and be in indirect
avoided. In laminar flow, each microorganism contact with foods, or it can be inserted into a treat-
follows a more or less straight path through the ment chamber or flow cell of specified geometry to
treatment chamber; therefore, pronounced differ- transmit energy directly into a food system with
ences in exposure to varying electric field strengths better energy efficiency (Feng and Yang 2005).
and temperatures will occur. Modifying the treat- There are also transducers that are designed for
ment chamber with grids (Chapter 10) or increasing effective transmission into air (Chapter 13).
the flow rate to give turbulent flow (Buckow et al. Ultrasound has attracted considerable interest
2010a) can improve the uniformity of exposure of in the food industry due to its useful effects in
the product to the important treatment variables food structure modification (e.g., emulsification,
(e.g., temperature and electric field strength) and extraction, crystallization, and viscosity alteration),
furthermore improve temperature uniformity due to food preservation, and enzyme modulation (Patist
increased (turbulent) thermal conduction and con- and Bates 2008). As one of the innovative and
vective flows. advanced food processing technologies, it can be
For characterizing process performance, informa- applied to develop gentle but targeted processes to
tion on the field distributions is essential. However, improve the quality and safety of processed foods
such local information inside the chambers is diffi- and, thus, offers the potential for improving existing
cult and near to impossible to obtain experimentally. processes as well as for developing new process
For further development of the PEF technology, options.
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