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Terrestrial Biosphere-Atmosphere Fluxes

Fluxes of trace gases, water, and energy between the terrestrial biosphere and the
atmosphere govern the state and fate of these two coupled systems. This “breathing of the
biosphere” is controlled by a large number of interacting physical, chemical, biological, and
ecological processes. In this integrated and interdisciplinary book, the authors provide the
tools to understand and quantitatively analyse fluxes of energy, trace gases such as carbon
dioxide, water vapour, methane, and organic compounds, such as terpenes.
The book first introduces the fundamental principles that affect the supply and demand for
trace gas exchange at the leaf and soil scales: thermodynamics, diffusion, turbulence, and
physiology. It then builds on these principles to model the exchange of water, carbon
dioxide, terpenes, and stable isotopes at the ecosystem scale. Detailed mathematical
derivations, of commonly used relations in biosphere-atmosphere interactions, are provided
for reference in Appendices.
An accessible introduction for graduate students to this essential component of earth
system science, this book is also a key resource for researchers in many related fields such as
atmospheric science, hydrology, meteorology, climate science, biogeochemistry, and
ecosystem ecology.
Online resources at www.cambridge.org/monson
* Short online mathematical supplement guides students through basic mathematical
principles, from calculus rules of derivation and integration, to statistical moments and
coordinate rotation.

Russell Monson is Louise Foucar Marshall Professor at the University of Arizona, Tucson
and Professor Emeritus at the University of Colorado, Boulder. His research focuses on
photosynthetic metabolism, the production of biogenic volatile organic compounds and
plant water relations from the scale of chloroplasts to the globe. He has received numerous
awards, including the Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship, the John Simon Guggenheim
Fellowship and the Fulbright Senior Fellowship, and was also appointed Professor of
Distinction in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of
Colorado. Professor Monson is a fellow of the American Geophysical Union and has served
on advisory boards for numerous national and international organizations and projects. He is
Editor-in-Chief of the journal Oecologia and has over 200 peer-reviewed publications.
Dennis Baldocchi is a professor of Biometeorology at the University of California, Berkeley.
His research focuses on physical, biological, and chemical processes that control trace gas
and energy exchange between vegetation and the atmosphere and the micrometeorology
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of plant canopies. Awards received include the Award for Outstanding Achievement in
Biometeorology from the American Meteorological Society (2009), and the Faculty Award
for Excellence in Postdoctoral Mentoring (2011) amongst others from the University of
California. Professor Baldocchi is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and is a
member of advisory boards for national and international organizations and projects. He is
Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences and has over 200
peer-reviewed publications.
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP-NEW/4383521/WORKINGFOLDER/MOOD/9781107040656TTL.3D iii [3–3] 25.9.2013 9:37AM

Terrestrial Biosphere-Atmosphere
Fluxes

RUSSELL MONSON
University of Arizona

D E N N I S BA L D O C C H I
University of California, Berkeley
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University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107040656
© Russell Monson and Dennis Baldocchi 2014
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2014
Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by the MPG Books Group
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
ISBN 978-1-107-04065-6 Hardback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/monson
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
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Contents

Preface page xi
List of symbols xiv

1 The general nature of biosphere-atmosphere fluxes 1

1.1 Biosphere-atmosphere exchange as a biogeochemical process 2
1.2 Flux – a unifying concept in biosphere-atmosphere interactions 3
1.3 Non-linear tendencies in biosphere-atmosphere exchange 5
1.4 Modeling – a tool for prognosis in ecosystem-atmosphere interactions 10
1.5 A hierarchy of processes in surface-atmosphere exchange 12

2 Thermodynamics, work, and energy 15

2.1 Thermodynamic systems and fluxes as thermodynamic processes 16
2.2 Energy and work 17
2.3 Free energy and chemical potential 20
2.4 Heat and temperature 23
2.5 Pressure, volume, and the ideal gas law 26
2.6 Adiabatic and diabatic processes 28
2.7 The Navier–Stokes equations 30
2.8 Electromagnetic radiation 31
2.9 Beer’s Law and photon transfer through a medium 35

3 Chemical reactions, enzyme catalysts, and stable isotopes 38

3.1 Reaction kinetics, equilibrium, and steady state 39
3.2 The energetics of chemical reactions 41
3.3 Reduction-oxidation coupling 46
3.4 Enzyme catalysis 50
3.5 Stable isotopes and isotope effects 55
Appendix 3.1 Formal derivations of the Arrhenius equation and the Q10 model 60
Appendix 3.2 Derivation of the Michaelis–Menten model of enzyme kinetics 62

4 Control over metabolic fluxes 64

4.1 The principle of shared metabolic control 65
4.2 Control over photosynthetic metabolism 68
4.3 Photorespiratory metabolism 80
4.4 Tricarboxylic acid cycle respiration (“dark respiration”) in plants 82
4.5 C4 photosynthesis 85
v
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vi Contents

5 Modeling the metabolic CO2 flux 89

5.1 Modeling the gross rate of CO2 assimilation and photorespiration 90
5.2 Modeling dark respiration (Rd) 96
5.3 Net versus gross CO2 assimilation rate 100
5.4 The scaled connections among photosynthetic processes 109

6 Diffusion and continuity 111

6.1 Molecular diffusion 112
6.2 Diffusion through pores and in multi-constituent gas mixtures 121
6.3 Flux divergence, continuity, and mass balance 131
Appendix 6.1 A thermodynamic derivation of Fick’s First Law 133

7 Boundary layer and stomatal control over leaf fluxes 136

7.1 Diffusive driving forces and resistances in leaves 137
7.2 Fluid-surface interactions and boundary layer resistance 139
7.3 Stomatal conductance 144
7.4 The leaf internal conductance to CO2 flux 166
7.5 Evolutionary constraint on leaf diffusive potential 168
Appendix 7.1 A thermodynamic derivation of diffusive conductances 169
Appendix 7.2 Derivation of the ternary stomatal conductance to CO2, H2O,
and dry air 169
Appendix 7.3 Derivation of the Leuning and Monteith forms of the BWB model 171

8 Leaf structure and function 173

8.1 Leaf structure 174
8.2 Convergent evolution as a source of common patterns in
leaf structure and function 177
8.3 Photon transport in leaves 181
8.4 CO2 transport in leaves 189
8.5 Water transport in leaves 191
8.6 The error caused by averaging non-linearites in the flux relations of leaves 193
8.7 Models with explicit descriptions of leaf gradients 198
Appendix 8.1 Derivation of a model describing leaf structure and its
relation to net CO2 assimilation rate 200

9 Water transport within the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum 203

9.1 Water transport through soil 204
9.2 Water flow through roots 209
9.3 Water transport through stems 211
9.4 The hydraulic conductance of leaves and aquaporins 217
9.5 Modeling the hydraulic conductance and associated effects of embolism 218
9.6 Hydraulic redistribution 220
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vii Contents

10 Leaf and canopy energy budgets 222

10.1 Net radiation 223
10.2 Sensible heat exchange between leaves and their environment 227
10.3 Latent heat exchange, atmospheric humidity, and temperature 229
10.4 Surface latent heat exchange and the combination equation 232
Appendix 10.1 Derivation of the Clausius–Clapeyron relation 237
Appendix 10.2 A thermodynamic approach to derivation of the
Penman–Monteith equation 239
Appendix 10.3 Derivation of the isothermal form of the Penman–Monteith
equation 242

11 Canopy structure and radiative transfer 244

11.1 The structure of canopies 245
11.2 The solar radiation regime of canopies 250
11.3 Remote sensing of vegetation structure and function 272
Appendix 11.1 Reconciling the concepts of statistical probability and
canopy photon interception 277
Appendix 11.2 The theoretical linkage between the probability of photon flux
penetration (P0) and the probability of a sunfleck (Psf) at a specific
canopy layer 278

12 Vertical structure and mixing of the atmosphere 280

12.1 Structure of the atmosphere 281
12.2 Atmospheric buoyancy, potential temperature, and the equation of state 287
12.3 Atmospheric stability 290
Appendix 12.1 Derivation of potential temperature and conversion from
volume to pressure in the conservation of energy equation 294

13 Wind and turbulence 296

13.1 The general nature of wind 297
13.2 Turbulent wind eddies 298
13.3 Shear, momentum flux, and the wind profile near the surface 301
13.4 Turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) 307
13.5 Turbulence spectra and spectral analysis 310
13.6 Dimensionless relationships: the Reynolds number and drag coefficient 314
13.7 The aerodynamic canopy resistance 315
13.8 Eulerian and Lagrangian perspectives of turbulent motions 316
13.9 Waves, nocturnal jets, and katabatic flows 319
Appendix 13.1 Rules of averaging with extended reference to Reynolds
averaging 323
Appendix 13.2 Derivation of the Reynolds shear stress 324
Appendix 13.3 Derivation of the logarithmic wind profile 325
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viii Contents

14 Observations of turbulent fluxes 327

14.1 Turbulent fluxes in the atmospheric surface layer 328
14.2 The effect of a plant canopy on atmospheric turbulence 330
14.3 Turbulent fluxes above canopies 337
14.4 Mesoscale fluxes 343
Appendix 14.1 Derivation of Monin–Obukhov similarity relationships 347
Appendix 14.2 Derivation of the conservation equation for canopy flux 349

15 Modeling of fluxes at the canopy and landscape scales 352

15.1 Modeling canopy fluxes 353
15.2 Mass balance, dynamic box models, and surface fluxes 362
15.3 Eulerian perspectives in canopy flux models 365
15.4 Lagrangian perspectives in canopy flux models 368
Appendix 15.1 Derivation of the model for planetary boundary layer
(PBL) scalar budgets in the face of entrainment 371

16 Soil fluxes of CO2, CH4, and NOx 373

16.1 The decomposition of soil organic matter 373
16.2 Control by substrate over soil respiration rate 379
16.3 Control by climate over soil respiration rate 381
16.4 Coupling of soil respiration to net primary production and implications
for carbon cycling in the face of global change 384
16.5 Methane emissions from soils 385
16.6 The fluxes of nitrogen oxides from soils 390

17 Fluxes of biogenic volatile compounds between plants and the atmosphere 395
17.1 The chemical diversity of BVOCs 396
17.2 The biochemical production of BVOCs 399
17.3 Emission of metabolic NH3 and NO2 from plants 403
17.4 Stomatal control over the emission of BVOCs from leaves 404
17.5 The fate of emitted BVOCs in the atmosphere 406
17.6 Formation of secondary aerosol particles in the atmosphere 408
Appendix 17.1 Reactions leading to the oxidation of BVOCs to form
tropospheric O3 412

18 Stable isotope variants as tracers for studying biosphere-atmosphere exchange 415

18.1 Stable isotope discrimination by Rubisco and at other points in plant carbon
metabolism 416
18.2 Fractionation of stable isotopes in leaves during photosynthesis 418
18.3 Fractionation of the isotopic forms of H2O during leaf transpiration 420
18.4 Isotopic exchange of 18O and 16O between CO2 and H2O in leaves 421
18.5 Assessing the isotopic signature of ecosystem respired CO2 – the “Keeling
Plot” 423
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ix Contents

18.6 The influence of ecosystem CO2 exchange on the isotopic composition of

atmospheric CO2 424
Appendix 18.1 Derivation of the Farquhar et al. (1982) model and
augmentations for leaf carbon isotope discrimination 429
Appendix 18.2 Derivation of the leaf form of the Craig–Gordon model 432

References 434
Index 473
Supplement available at www.cambridge.org/monson
Supplement 1: Mathematical concepts
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Preface

This book is about interactions – those that occur between the terrestrial biosphere and the
atmosphere. Understanding biosphere-atmosphere interactions is a core activity within the
discipline of earth system sciences. Many of the most pressing environmental challenges
that face society (e.g., the anthropogenic forcing of climate change, urban pollution, the
production of sustainable energy sources, and stratospheric ozone depletion), and their
remedies, can be traced to biosphere-atmosphere interactions within the earth system.
Traditionally, biosphere-atmosphere interactions have been studied within a broad range
of conventional disciplines, including biology, the atmospheric and geological sciences, and
engineering. In this book we take an integrated, interdisciplinary perspective; one that
weaves together concepts and theory from all of the traditional disciplines, and organizes
them into a framework that we hope will catalyze a new, synergistic approach to teaching
university courses in the earth systems sciences.
As we wrote the initial outline for the book, we recognized that the interdisciplinary
perspective we sought, in a subtle way, had already emerged; it simply had not been
formally collated into a synthetic format. For the past several years, biologists have been
attending meetings and workshops traditionally associated with meteorology and geo-
chemistry and conversely meteorologists and geochemists have been attending biology
meetings. As a result, newly defined and integrative disciplines have already appeared
with names such as “biometeorology,” “bioclimatology,” and “ecohydrology.” Thus, the
foundations for the book had already been laid. We simply needed to find the common
elements and concepts that permeated these emerging disciplines and pull them together
into a single treatment.
We have written the book as two colleagues who have migrated from different ends of the
biology-meteorology spectrum – one (Monson) from formal training in biology and one
(Baldocchi) from formal training in meteorology – but who also have struggled throughout
their careers to grasp concepts at these disciplinary interfaces. In many ways this book
is autobiographical; it reflects the challenges that both of us faced as we developed
collaborations across these disciplines. We actually met for the first time at a conference
in Asilomar, California in 1990, which was dedicated to bridging the gaps among biologists,
meteorologists, and atmospheric chemists. Thus, the interdisciplinary foundation for the
book has deep roots that were initiated over two decades ago. From that initial friendship
we developed a collaboration in which we began to compile and combine materials that
we extracted from our respective course lectures.
This book is intended to be used as both a textbook and reference book. As a textbook
it is intended to support courses for advanced undergraduate students or beginning
graduate students. As a reference book it is intended to provide detailed mathematical
xi
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xii Preface

derivations of some of the most commonly used relations in biosphere-atmosphere

interactions. In order to address both aims, we have written the primary text of the chapters
to provide what we consider to be the rudiments; those concepts essential to an introduc-
tory understanding of process interactions and fundamental theory. Detailed mathematical
derivations are presented as “Appendices” at the end of many chapters. These derivations
are intended mostly as reference material; however, in our own experiences we discovered
that formal derivations, such as these, also served as an important resource to students. In
fact a well-received feature of some of our classes was the “Derivation Derby” held as an
evening session in which students were required to use the chalk board to present, in their
own words, the foundations of some of the more classic biophysical relations; of course
with good food and drink as accompaniment. We have used a second tool to develop
advanced topics of more conceptual, rather than quantitative, nature – the “Boxes” that are
embedded in many chapters. In the Boxes we have tried to bring out current topics and
issues that appear to have captured the attention of the field at the moment, or we have
described studies that have used the concepts under discussion in unique ways. Once
again, the Boxes will be most effectively used to provide supplementary material that
embellishes the rudimentary topics presented in the main text of the chapters. We have
tried to use a modest frequency of citations in most chapters. Much of the material
we cover is of an elementary nature, and in order to sustain continuity in those discussions
we have not interrupted the text with frequent citations. In those cases where we thought
that a citation might be useful for further explorations of a topic, especially where a review
article or an article of historical significance might be useful, we have provided citations.
In the sections that cover contemporary concepts, especially those still being defined
through active debate in the literature, we have provided a more complete record
of citations. Furthermore, many of the figures were adopted from past studies, and we
have provided citations in the figure legends, which will be useful in directing students to
primary sources in the literature.
One of the initial decisions we made as we organized material for the book involved the
strategy for topical organization. We considered two possible frameworks: chapters that
focused on single environmental factors (e.g., a chapter on water, a chapter on light,
a chapter on temperature, and so on), or chapters that build in spatiotemporal scale, from
processes at smaller scales to those at larger scales (e.g., a chapter on cells and metabo-
lism, a chapter on leaves and diffusion, a chapter on canopies and turbulent transport, and
so on). Conventional treatments, especially in texts that deal with environmental physics,
have followed the former model, and they have done so with good success. However, we
recognized that many of the observations and much of the theory that has emerged in
recent years has been framed around hierarchical scaling, and we wanted to develop
a treatment that could be used within this framework. After much discussion and delibe-
ration, we decided to follow the second model, though with a bit of introgression from the
first model. Thus, the chapters build in scale, beginning with chloroplasts, progressing to
leaves and canopies, and culminating with the planetary boundary layer. Each of these
scaled chapters is preceded with one or more chapters on the nature of relevant environ-
mental factors as drivers of processes. Thus, the chapter on leaf scale transport is preceded
with a chapter on diffusion, and the chapter on turbulent transport is preceded with a
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xiii Preface

chapter on stability in the planetary boundary layer. Exceptions to these patterns are the
initial three chapters, which deal with broad topics in thermodynamics and chemical rate
theory, and the final three chapters, which deal respectively with soil carbon and nitrogen
fluxes, fluxes of volatile reactive compounds and atmospheric chemistry, and fluxes
related to stable isotope fractionation. These chapters are intended to provide a framework
for understanding the relations among fluxes, sources/sinks, and gradients, in the case
of the earliest chapters, and to elaborate on some important recent directions in earth
systems sciences research, in the case of the latest chapters.
The overall emphasis of the book is on understanding processes that control fluxes. Less
emphasis is placed on descriptions of biogeochemical pools and reservoirs. We also pay less
attention to instrumentation and experimental protocols. Most of the chapters focus on CO2,
H2O, and energy fluxes, although we also take up the topic of other trace gases in briefer
format. Finally, we note that our book focuses exclusively on terrestrial ecosystems.
Our decision not to wade into the oceans was determined by recognition of our strengths
and weaknesses as scientists and authors, and this decision does not reflect a bias against the
importance of ocean processes to earth system dynamics.
We appreciate the many discussions we have had with generous colleagues as we
wrote the book and sought critical feedback. Reviews and discussions of several of the
chapters in early form were provided by Dave Bowling, Tom Sharkey, John Finnigan,
Rowan Sage, Ray Leuning, Laura Scott-Denton, Peter Harley, Tony Delany, Dan Yakir,
Jielun Sun, Mike Weintraub, Dave Moore, Paul Stoy, Dave Schimel, and Keith Mott. Many
thanks to all of you! While these colleagues provided many useful insights and suggestions,
responsibility for the book’s final form belongs with us.
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Symbols

In writing a book with as broad a set of mathematical relations as that presented here we had
to make decisions as to whether to create new symbols for cases of duplicated usage, or
retain those most often used, by convention, in the scientific literature. We tried to use
conventional symbols as often as was possible, and we allowed for some overlap in
designation, especially when duplicated symbols were used in different chapters.

Uppercase, non-italicized Latin

A CO2 assimilation rate (µmol m−2 s−1)

Ac canopy net CO2 assimilation rate
An net CO2 assimilation rate
Ag gross CO2 assimilation rate
E energy (J) or energy content (J mol−1)
Ea energy of activation (J mol−1)
E surface evaporation or leaf transpiration flux (mol m−2 s−1)
Et total enzyme protein content (mol l−1)
Eo standard reduction potential (J coulomb−1)
F flux density (mol m−2 s−1)
Fc flux density of CO2
Fw flux density of H2O
Fj flux density of constituent j
FJ photosynthetic electron transport flux density
Fvm vertical atmospheric mean flux density
Fvt vertical atmospheric turbulent flux density
F Faraday’s constant (coulomb mol−1)
G conduction flux density of heat (J m−2 s−1)
G free energy (J) or molar free energy content (J mol−1)
G0 standard free energy (J) or molar free energy content (J mol−1)
G rate of biomass increase (g s−1)
GPP gross primary productivity (mol m−2 s−1)
H enthalpy (J) or enthalpy content (J mol−1)
H conduction of heat (W m−2)

xiv
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xv List of symbols

Hse conduction of sensible heat (from the surface to the atmosphere)

HG conduction of sensible heat (from the atmosphere to the ground
surface)
I photon flux density (mol photons m−2 s−1)
ID direct photon flux density
Id diffuse photon flux density
Is isoprene emission flux density (nmol m−2 s−1)
J joule unit of energy (kg m2 s−1)
LAI leaf area index (m2 leaf area m−2 ground area)
L leaf area index (used in equations)
Le effective LAI
N newton unit of force (kg m s−1)
Na Avogadro’s number
NDVI normalized difference of vegetation index (dimensionless)
NPP net primary productivity (mol m−2 s−1)
P total atmospheric pressure (N m−2, Pa)
p pressure or partial pressure of a gas constituent (N m−2, Pa)
P statistical probability
P0 probability of photon penetration to a canopy layer
Psf probability of a sunfleck in a canopy layer
Q thermal energy (J) or molar thermal energy content (J mol−1)
Q10 respiratory quotient (ratio of Rd at two temperatures separated by 10 °C)
R radiant energy flux density (J m−2 s−1)
RS shortwave radiant energy flux density
RL longwave radiant energy flux density
Rn net radiation flux density (W m−2)
R isotope abundance ratio
Rd “dark” (mitochondrial) respiration (µmol m−2 s−1)
Re ecosystem respiration
Rg growth mitochondrial respiration
Rm maintenance mitochondrial respiration
S molar entropy content (J mol−1 K−1)
S amount of substrate (moles)
S sink or source “strength,” as a flux density (mol m−2 s−1)
Srel relative specificity of Rubisco (unitless)
[S] enzyme substrate concentration (mol l−1 or mol m−3)
T temperature (K or °C)
TKE turbulence kinetic energy (J)
TPU triose phosphate utilization flux density (µmol m−2 s−1)
U internal energy (J) or molar internal energy content (J mol−1)
V volume (m3)
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xvi List of symbols

Vmax Michaelis–Menten velocity coefficient (mol s−1)

Vcmax Michaelis–Menten velocity coefficient for Rubisco carboxylation
Vomax Michaelis–Menten velocity coefficient for Rubisco oxygenation
W work (J) or molar work content (J mol−1)
Wp total plant biomass (g)
Yg growth yield (fraction of substrate converted to biomass)

Uppercase, italicized Latin

A surface area (m2)

AG ground area
AL leaf area
B feedback multiplier (unitless)
Bk permeability coefficient for viscous flow (m2)
CD drag coefficient (dimensionless)
CEx flux control coefficient (unitless)
Ex radiative transfer extinction function (fraction of total PPFD)
F force (N)
Fd molar diffusive force (N mol−1)
FD drag force (g m s−2)
G fraction of leaf area oriented normal to ID in radiative transfer models
G gain of feedback loop (unitless)
Gc closed-loop feedback gain
Go open-loop feedback gain
Kd molecular diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1)
k
Kd Knudsen diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1)
Kdh diffusion coefficient for heat (m2 s−1)
Kdw diffusion coefficient for H2O
Kdc diffusion coefficient for CO2
KD eddy diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1)
Ke equilibrium constant (unitless)
KI canopy PPFD extinction coefficient (KI = G/cos θ)
Km Michaelis–Menten coefficient (mol l−1 or mol m−3)
Kc Michaelis–Menten coefficient for dissolved CO2
Ko Michaelis–Menten coefficient for dissolved O2
Ks steady state constant (mol−1)
Kn Knudsen number (dimensionless)
L length scale (m) (generally)
L Obukhov length scale (m) (specifically)
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP-NEW/4385688/WORKINGFOLDER/MOOD/9781107040656MFM.3D xvii [14–22] 25.9.2013 9:37PM

xvii List of symbols

Nu Nusselt number (dimensionless)

R universal gas constant (J K−1 mol−1)
Re Reynolds number (dimensionless)
Ri Richardson number (dimensionless)
Ric critical Richardson number
Rib bulk Richardson number
Sc radiative transfer scattering function (fraction of total PPFD)
S(κ) Spectral density as a function of wavenumber
V specific volume (m3 kg−1)
Vw partial molal volume of H2O (m3 mol−1)

Lowercase, non-italicized Latin

a radiant or photon absorptance (fractional)

aPAR fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation
c concentration as mole fraction
cac atmospheric CO2 mole fraction
caw atmospheric H2O mole fraction
caw* atmospheric H2O mole fraction at saturation
ccc chloroplast CO2 mole fraction
cco chloroplast O2 mole fraction
cic intercellular CO2 mole fraction in the leaf air spaces
ciw intercellular H2O mole fraction in the leaf air spaces
csc CO2 mole fraction at leaf surface
cEx mole fraction concentration of enzyme x
fPAR fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation
g conductance (m s−1 or mol m−2 s−1)
gb boundary layer conductance
gbw boundary layer conductance to H2O diffusion
gbc boundary layer conductance to CO2 diffusion
gs stomatal conductance
gsw stomatal conductance to H2O vapor diffusion
gsc stomatal conductance to CO2 diffusion
gic internal leaf conductance to CO2 diffusion
gtw total leaf conductance to H2O vapor diffusion
h height (m)
m mass (g)
n molar quantity (mol)
p pressure or partial pressure of a gas constituent (N m−2, Pa)
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP-NEW/4385688/WORKINGFOLDER/MOOD/9781107040656MFM.3D xviii [14–22] 25.9.2013 9:37PM

xviii List of symbols

pr probability of recollision (secondary collision) of a photon

r radius (m)
r reflectance of incident PPFD (fractional)
r resistance (s m−1)
ra aerodynamic resistance
rbl boundary layer diffusive resistance
ri internal leaf diffusive resistance
rs stomatal diffusive resistance
t transmittance of incident PPFD (fractional)
v speed or velocity (mol l−1 s−1 or m s−1)
vc Rubisco carboxylation rate on leaf area basis (µmol m−2 s−1)

Lowercase, italicized Latin

a acceleration (m s−2)
aL surface area (of a leaf; m2)
c speed of “light” (m s−1)
c specific heat (J kg K−1)
cp specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (J kg K−1)
cv specific heat of dry air at a constant volume (J kg−1 K−1)
d length scale (m)
dH canopy displacement height (m)
f frequency (s−1)
fa fraction of canopy woody surface area
g gravitational acceleration (~ 9.8 m s−2)
h Planck’s constant (J s)
hc heat transfer coefficient (J m−2 s−1 K−1)
k reaction rate constant (s−1 or mol−1 s−1)
kcat enzyme catalytic rate constant
k von Karmen’s constant (dimensionless)
kB Boltzmann constant (J K−1)
kH Henry’s Law partitioning coefficient (kPa liter mol−1)
kN canopy nitrogen allocation coefficient (dimensionless)
l length (m)
m^ mechanical advantage of the epidermis (dimensionless)
p porosity of a soil or leaf volume (fractional)
rp radial width of penumbra (cm)
t time (s)
tE Eulerian time scale (s)
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP-NEW/4385688/WORKINGFOLDER/MOOD/9781107040656MFM.3D xix [14–22] 25.9.2013 9:37PM

xix List of symbols

tL Lagrangian time scale (s)

u molar flow rate (mol s−1)
u longitudinal wind velocity (m s−1)
u′ turbulent longitudinal wind velocity
u mean longitudinal wind velocity
uj Einstein–Smoluchowski mobility of constituent j (s kg−1)
u* friction velocity (m s−1)
v cross-stream wind velocity (m s−1)
w vertical wind velocity (m s−1)
w′ turbulent vertical wind velocity (m s−1)
w mean vertical wind velocity (m s−1)
z electrical charge
z vertical length (m)
zbl vertical depth of boundary layer
z0 aerodynamic roughness length
zp depth of pore

Lowercase, non-italicized Greek

α isotope effect (unitless)

γ foliar clumping (fraction of LAI)
δ isotope abundance ratio (delta notation) (‰)
ε TKE dissipation rate (s)
ε radiation-use efficiency in remote sensing modeling (g C MJ−1)
κ wavenumber (m−1)
λ canopy clumping index (dimensionless)
λa mean free path of diffusion in air (m)
λw latent heat of vaporization for H2O (J mol−1)
λ wE latent heat flux density (J m−2 s−1)
μ molar chemical potential (J mol−1)
μ* standard molar chemical potential (J mol−1)
ν kinematic viscosity (m2 s−1)
ρ density (g m−3)
ρa mass density of air (g m−3)
ρm molar density (mol m−3)
ρmw molar density of water (mol m−3)
ρw mass density of water (g m−3)
σ standard deviation
τ atmospheric lifetime (s)
τ momentum flux density (N m−2)
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP-NEW/4385688/WORKINGFOLDER/MOOD/9781107040656MFM.3D xx [14–22] 25.9.2013 9:37PM

xx List of symbols

ϕ fractional leakage of mass from a metabolic pathway

ϕ ratio of the rates of oxygenation and carboxylation for Rubisco
ϕ molar quantum yield of photosynthesis (mole fraction)
ψw total water potential (Pa)
ψg gravitational component of water potential
ψm matric component of water potential
ψp pressure component of water potential
ψπ osmotic component of water potential
ψπg osmotic potential of guard cell
ψπs osmotic potential of subsidiary cell

Lowercase, italicized Greek

α Kolmogorov constant for turbulent inertial subrange (dimensionless)

α surface albedo (percentage of incident PPFD)
ε radiant emittance (fractional)
εL leaf emittance of longwave radiation
ε vj x elasticity coefficient of reaction x with respect to metabolite j
(unitless)
θ solar zenith angle (degrees or radians)
θt Potential temperature (K)
θvt Virtual potential temperature
κ thermal conductivity (J s−1 m−1 K−1)
κE Eyring transmission coefficient (fractional)
λ wavelength (m)
μ dynamic viscosity (kg m−1 s−1)
σ Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.673 × 10–8 J s−1 m−2 K−4)
τ tortuosity of a pore system (dimensionless)
ϕ Monin–Obukhov scaling coefficient (dimensionless)
ϕ solar azimuth angle (degrees or radians)
ϕ Bunsen solubility coefficient for gases (m3 gas m−3 solution)
φE electrical potential (J coloumb−1)
ω photon scatter coefficient (dimensionless)

Uppercase, non-italicized Greek

Γ CO2 compensation point (µmol mol−1)

Γ* CO2 photocompensation point (µmol mol−1)
Δ isotope discrimination (‰)
Δcj finite difference in mole fraction of chemical species j
C:/ITOOLS/WMS/CUP-NEW/4385688/WORKINGFOLDER/MOOD/9781107040656MFM.3D xxi [14–22] 25.9.2013 9:37PM

xxi List of symbols

ΛE Eulerian length scale (m)

ΛL Lagrangian length scale (m)
χ stomatal mechanical coefficient (mmol H2O m−2 s−1 MPa−1
Ω angle of solar photon interactions with a surface (degrees or radians)
ΩL angle of leaf surface orientation
Other documents randomly have
different content
 “Now it happened that the death night of Balder fell on one of the longest
nights in the year and the people believed that the darkness came because the
God of Light was dead. So, on that night, they made great sacrifices and
offered up prayers that they might not lose the light. Especially if the
harvests had failed or the huntsmen had been unfortunate in the season just
past did they offer sacrifices to Thor beneath an oak which was sacred to the
Thunderer. For they thought that he was particularly angry at the people
because he was so grieved at the death of Balder the Beautiful.
“Then, as the days began to grow longer and the nights to grow shorter
from that very date, the people thought that their prayers had been answered
and so, every year, on the anniversary of his death, they repeated the
ceremony and the light never failed them.
“Of course we understand that the sun has reached his southern limit at
this time of the year and is returning on his northward journey, but the old
idea of making Jul-tide the Festival of Light still prevails among the Swedes,
who know that now the worst of the darkness is over and that slowly but
surely the sun is coming back to them.”
“Well told,” exclaimed Professor Bjerkander, who had entered in the
midst of the story. “My wife has mentioned the children’s interest and I have
come to see how you would like to take a sleigh-ride out to the burial-place
of the old gods, on Christmas day.” The children declared that they should
like it above all things and so the invitation was accepted.
“You must come early to our house, on the morning of December 24th, if
you want to join in one of our national customs,” said Fru Bjerkander, when
Christmas week had at last arrived. “To-morrow we celebrate ‘dipping
day.’ ”
“What does she mean by that?” asked Dorothy of her mother. “We will
have to go and find out, dear,” said her mother, “for I have no more idea
what she means than you have.”
When the Edgecombe family arrived at the home of their friends the next
morning, they were ushered into the dining-room, for the living-room was
locked and darkened. They all thought it very odd that there were no signs of
any preparations for a meal for it was almost noon. Just at twelve, however,
Fru Bjerkander invited them into the kitchen, where they were soon seated
about a well-spread table. Their hostess then explained in English that it was
an old custom all over Sweden for employers and servants to dine together
on the day before Christmas, and rich and poor alike ate this meal in the
kitchen. “I still fail to understand why you should call it ‘dipping-day,’ ” said
Professor Edgecombe.
“I will show you,” said Fru Bjerkander, rising. She took from the stove
the kettle in which the ham and pork, the chief dishes of the dinner, had been
cooked. As she passed it to each one, everybody dipped a bit of bread in the
sizzling fat in which the meat had been cooked and ate it with much glee.
“On this day we must all doppai grytan,” she said, and Hedwig translated the
expression for them by saying “That means that we must all dip in the
kettle.”
“But why do you do this?” asked Professor Edgecombe. “I do not know,”
replied Professor Bjerkander, “unless it is because we always have ham and
pork at Jul-tide in remembrance of the Jul-boar, which was always roasted
whole at the heathen festival.”
The short afternoon was soon over and, a few hours later, the children
were admitted to the living-room, where the beautiful spruce tree stood in all
its glory. The Edgecombes had seen many Christmas trees, but it seemed to
them that none had ever seemed so beautiful as this one with its brilliant
lights and graceful trimmings.
The children joined hands about it and danced through the rooms and
around and around the tree, until they were out of breath. Then the presents
were distributed from the tables which stood piled high with gifts beneath
the tree, and the Americans were surprised to find so many bearing their own
names. Each gift was sealed and tied daintily, while all were accompanied by
some appropriate little verse, for the Swedes think that no gift is quite
complete unless there is a little poem with it.
When, at length, the Edgecombe family went home, they met parties of
merry masqueraders who were joking together and having the best of times
as they delivered packages from house to house. They understood that these
were the servants, who were allowed to amuse themselves in this way while
they did their duty of delivering their master’s gifts.
Very early the next morning, they all started for the old cathedral to
attend matins, the early service which good Lutherans always attend on
Christmas morning. The streets were still dark and the lights of the cathedral
shone out brightly as they approached the great open doorways. But, in spite
of this, they were quite unprepared for the burst of brilliancy which met their
gaze when they entered the church. Everywhere they gazed was a light, and
the children said that now they understood why so many of their Swedish
friends still referred to Jul-tide by its old-fashioned name of the Festival of
Light.
Before the morning was far advanced, the Bjerkanders had called for
them and they were all snugly packed into the great roomy sleigh drawn by
prancing horses which were covered with white nets and decorated with
nodding plumes. It seemed to the children that even the horses acted as if
they knew it was holiday time, for they danced along so gaily.
The three miles were quickly covered and they came to the place where
stand the three great mounds which the Swedes say mark the graves of Odin,
Thor and Freya, the great gods of their forefathers.
“Were they really buried here?” asked Dorothy in awe.
“Probably not,” said her father; “it is generally supposed that the mounds
really mark the graves of ancient kings.”
Then Professor Bjerkander took them to the little Christian church that
stands on the site of the old heathen temple and the children tried to imagine
the great halls glittering with gold and silver and filled with people offering
sacrifices to Thor the Terrible, while they mourned for Balder the Beautiful.
So they drove back into the city, their minds full of the Norse gods while
their hearts were thankful that the days of that
wild religion were over and that the birthday of the Prince of Peace was the
day they were celebrating.
For dinner, they had the three chief dainties of the season, lusk-fish which
had been prepared by heating for several days in wood-ashes, rice sweetened
and flavored with cinnamon, and roast goose. The children missed the roast
turkey and cranberry sauce which their own Grandma always cooked but
they were hungry and did ample justice to their Swedish dinner.
Second-day Christmas and third-day Christmas passed all too quickly and
the Edgecombe children had almost as good a time as on the great day itself.
For now their friends, like themselves, were free to skate and ski and enjoy
all the winter sports of that northern land. Amidst all their pleasures, they
prepared for their party, which was to be the crowning feature of the week. A
beautiful spruce tree was decorated for the occasion and Mrs. Edgecombe
bought plenty of Julbocken and Julgrisen to trim it, with other dainties
peculiar to the season. To Freda’s little store of gifts she added others of her
own selection, and invited the Bjerkander children to help entertain the
guests, for she thought that she might have to call upon them to help her
deliver Freda’s messages. And so it proved, for when they came, they could
only smile and courtesy to Freda’s mistress. Stena had to talk for them, but
her English was limited, and so the Bjerkander children acted as interpreters.
The guests seemed very grateful for their gifts and delighted with the tree,
but nothing pleased them as Freda’s own presents, and it seemed as if they
would wear the photograph out, as they passed it from one to the other,
admiring it and chatting about “Freda’s man.” When they went home,
Freda’s mother thanked Mrs. Edgecombe for her kindness with tears in her
eyes and an expression of gratitude on her face which needed no translation
into English. They asked the Americans to come and see them and Professor
Edgecombe promised that, when the summer days came, before they
returned home, they would drive out and visit the little red cottage which had
been Freda’s girlhood home.
So they went away happily and the Edgecombe family, having bidden
farewell to their other guests, gathered to talk it over in the light of the
glowing fire.
“To-morrow, we must all take time to write to the homefolks about our
Christmas in Sweden and we mustn’t forget to tell every detail of the novel
experiences we have enjoyed,” said their mother. “Perhaps we will each take
some particular part of the celebration to describe and then no one of us will
have to write too much.”
 “I want to tell about ‘Dipping Day,’ ” said Professor Edgecombe. “I
choose to write about the Julbocken and the Julgrisen,” said Dorothy. “Then
you had better write all about Freda’s family and our New Year’s party,” said
John to his mother, “for I would like to write out the story of Balder the
Beautiful. I think writing it out would help me to remember it and I don’t
want to forget it.”
“I am quite satisfied with my part of the letter-writing,” said his mother,
“for entertaining Freda’s family was the happiest part of the week for me.
How glad they will all be to get the letter,” she added softly.
So with tender thoughts of the friends at home, they all sat quiet for
awhile, gazing into the depths of their golden fire and thinking that the
Swedish Festival of Light had indeed been the merriest Yule-tide of their
lives.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTMAS IN
SWEDEN; OR, A FESTIVAL OF LIGHT ***

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