Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Latest advances on solar thermal collectors: A comprehensive review T

*
Luca Evangelisti , Roberto De Lieto Vollaro, Francesco Asdrubali
Roma TRE University, Department of Engineering, Via Vito Volterra 62, 00146 Rome, Italy

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The need to put in place alternative energy policies stems from the awareness that fossil fuels are exhaustible and
Solar thermal collectors harmful to the environment. For this reason, during the last decades the scientific world has focused on systems
Functional elements able to use and convert renewable energy sources, particularly solar radiation. Nowadays, solar thermal col-
Standards lectors use solar energy to distribute low-cost domestic and industrial heating. In this review a comprehensive
Performance test
analysis of peer-reviewed journals and relevant papers on solar thermal collectors is provided. Descriptions of
Review
the different types of solar collectors are provided. Theoretical analyses, latest developments related to the
functional elements, and hybrid systems have been considered throughout this analysis. Performance test
methods for solar thermal collectors and standards are discussed. This cross-review aims to assist researchers,
engineers and manufacturers in keeping them abreast of latest developments in the field of solar thermal col-
lectors.

1. Introduction industrial processes (drying and maturation) [8].

It is important to distinguish solar thermal systems into two macro-
The energy demand is growing quickly, with an excessive use of categories, based on size: large-scale and small-scale systems. The first
fossil fuels in civil and industrial sectors. Due to the increasing demand, category can be used in residential districts or industrial operations for
by 2025 the oil consumption could reach more than 120 million bar- domestic hot water, heating support and process heat generation.
rels/day [1]. This high employment of fossil fuels cause air pollution Large-scale systems are characterized by more complex technologies
and, consequently, global warming [2]. Technologies able to utilize than small-scale systems, which are generally provided as standardized
renewable energy are considered sustainable and eco-friendly, as they packages. These systems are mainly used for small-family houses where
have a lower environmental footprint than the traditional ones. Clean the energy is gathered in domestic hot water storage tanks. Moreover,
energy for domestic and industrial uses can be obtained from the sun. large-scale systems need to be adapted to the consumption profile, with
The total energy received from the sun is a function of many factors, a resulting specific planning and dimensioning. The higher technolo-
such as geographical position, month of the year, day and time and, gical level makes the large-scale systems more expensive, but this dis-
finally, atmospheric conditions. When solar radiation passes through advantage is compensated by higher efficiencies and CO2 savings
the atmosphere, its characteristics change based on whether there is compared to those of small-scale systems.
clear-sky or cloudy-sky [3]. With this in mind, the aim of this review is to provide a compre-
During the last decades, solar thermal systems have gained much hensive overview on solar thermal collectors through a detailed survey
attention from the scientific world due to their high efficiency and of peer-reviewed journals and relevant current literature. Different
capability to deliver low-cost domestic and industrial heating [4–6]. technologies (also including Photovoltaic/Thermal collectors), energy
Several techniques have been developed for using solar energy. This and exergy analyses, and latest developments related to the basic
energy source has been used for cooking food, melting metals and even functional elements are considered. Additionally, Standards and per-
for warfare uses (e.g. the mirrors of Archimedes [7]). However, in the formance tests are discussed, highlighting the differences in the world.
modern era, the use of fossil fuels has prevailed. The awareness of the This cross-review supports academics, engineers and manufacturers in
relative lack of fossil fuels and their effects on the environment has led keeping them abreast of recent advances in this research field.
to the use of solar radiation for energy. Nowadays, solar thermal sys-
tems can generate heat for domestic hot water purposes, zone heating,
cooking (solar ovens), water treatments (desalination) and some

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Evangelisti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109318
Received 27 March 2019; Received in revised form 5 August 2019; Accepted 6 August 2019
1364-0321/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Nomenclature Qu Useful energy

S Absorbed energy
Symbols Tair Air temperature
Tfi Entering fluid temperature
AC Collector area Tfo Outgoing fluid temperature
Ap Absorber plate area Tpl Temperature of the plate
cf Fluid's heat capacity Ts Apparent sun temperature
CR Concentration ratio Ugl Total losses of the collector
Ėd Demolished exergy rate
Ėin Inlet exergy rate Greek symbols
Ėl Leakage exergy rate
Ėout Outlet exergy rate α Absorptance of the plate
Ės Stored exergy rate ρ Mass density
FR Removal factor η Efficiency
Ipl Solar radiation absorbed from the plate ηo Optical efficiency
IT Incident solar radiation τ Transmittance of the collector transparent screen
ṁ Mass flow rate

2. Solar systems: a brief description 2.1. Flat-plate collectors using liquid

Solar thermal collectors are devices used for converting solar ra- Flat-plate solar collectors are the most investigated technology for
diation into thermal energy, transporting it to a storage device for later generating domestic hot water [10]. Solar radiation heats up a dark
use. The system can be characterized by natural or forced circulation. surface, thus transferring the energy to water or other liquid for sub-
Solar thermal systems are typically used to produce hot water or zone sequent use. The main parts of a common panel are: a black surface able
heating but they can also be used for different purposes [8]. The the- to absorb the incident solar radiation (commonly made of copper,
oretical limit of energy efficiency of a solar thermal panel is represented aluminum or steel); a glazing transparent cover able to transmits ra-
by the amount of solar radiation that it can intercept and absorb. diation to the absorber; internal channels containing the heat transfer
Several types of solar thermal collectors are available nowadays for fluid; a structure able to protect the components and hold them in
different applications. The architectural integration of solar collectors place; an insulation for reducing the collector heat losses. The absorber
has led to Building-Integrated Solar Thermal (BIST) systems. Fig. 1 can be covered with a selective layer, to maximize the solar radiation
provides the solar systems classification, distinguishing non-con- absorption. A schematic view is shown in Fig. 2.
centrating and concentrating systems. Hybrid systems (represented by
Photovoltaic/Thermal collectors, called briefly PV/T collectors) are
also represented and possible BIST solutions are highlighted. In the 2.2. Unglazed collectors
figure, non-concentrating and concentrating systems are characterized
by different colors, also used in the hybrid system category. Non-con- Unglazed solar collectors are characterized by an absorber without
centrating collectors are generally used in residential and commercial the glass covering (see Fig. 3). Since these collectors are not insulated,
buildings for space heating, while concentrating collectors are typically they are used for low-temperature applications where the requested
used in solar power plants. Table 1 lists the energy applications and the temperature is lower than 30 °C. Unglazed solar collectors are typically
different type of solar collectors used. made of black plastic, stabilized for resisting ultraviolet light. Since
these collectors have no glazing, a high share of the solar radiation is
absorbed. On the other hand, these collectors are not insulated, and a
large part of the absorbed heat is lost, in particular under windy and not
warm external conditions [9]. Therefore, the efficiency of these

Fig. 1. Solar systems classification.

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Table 1
Solar thermal collectors used for different applications [9].
Application Solar thermal collector type Circulation

Solar water heating ⁃Flat-plate collector Natural/Forced

⁃Evacuated tube collector
⁃Compound parabolic collector
Space heating and cooling ⁃Flat-plate collector Forced
⁃Evacuated tube collector
⁃Compound parabolic collector
Solar refrigeration ⁃Flat-plate collector Forced
⁃Evacuated tube collector
⁃Compound parabolic collector
Industrial process heat ⁃Flat-plate collector Forced
⁃Evacuated tube collector
⁃Compound parabolic collector
⁃Parabolic trough collector
⁃Linear Fresnel collector
Solar desalination ⁃Flat-plate collector Natural/Forced
⁃Evacuated tube collector
⁃Compound parabolic collector
Solar thermal power ⁃Parabolic trough collector Forced
⁃Heliostat field collector
⁃Compound parabolic collector
⁃Parabolic dish collector
⁃Linear Fresnel collector
Simultaneous generation of electricity and heat ⁃PV/T collector Forced

collectors is less than that of the flat-plate ones. The unglazed solar
collectors are generally used for heating outdoor swimming pools ap-
plications.

2.3. Evacuated tube collectors

These collectors are characterized by a gap between the absorber

plate and the transparent cover, free of air. The evacuated tube col-
lectors are often used for medium-temperature applications, from 60 °C
to 80 °C, in function of the external air temperature [10]. Each tube
contains a secondary concentric tube, treated with dark colored selec-
tive paint, able to absorb the solar radiation. A schematic representa-
tion is reported in Fig. 4.
Three typical evacuated tube collectors exist [13,14] (see Fig. 5):
Fig. 3. Representation of an unglazed solar collector (elaboration from Ref.
⁃ Water-in glass: this collector consists of waterlogged tubes (char- [12]).
acterized by a single end) connected to a horizontal tank. The pipes
are characterized by two concentric glass tubes closed at one end
inside the tube vacuum. The plate is substituted by metal cylinders
with a vacuum in the annular space between the pipes and a se-
(e.g. made of copper), possibly finned, treated on the surface with
lective surface treated on the external surface of the internal tube.
black selective paints; each of these tubes is inserted, in turn, into an
The heat transfer mechanism is determined by a water's natural flow
outer glass tube. During the assembly of the collector, air is drawn in
by the single-ended opening into the horizontal tank. Solar radiation
between the two glass tubes to obtain the vacuum conditions. The
heats up the water, which progressively rises along the higher part
different tubes are connected to each other as shown in the sim-
of the pipe. Warmer water is substituted by colder water deriving
plified picture of Fig. 5b.
from the tank. A representation is provided in Fig. 5a.
⁃ Heat-pipe: these collectors can be equipped with a heat-pipe system
⁃ U-type: the thermal fluid flows directly into the absorber, placed
for the recovery of heat from the absorber. Inside each tube, made of

Fig. 2. Flat-plate thermal collector: (a) basic schema; (b) heat transfer phenomena (elaboration from Ref. [11]).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Fig. 4. (a) Evacuated tube collectors; (b) representation of a concentric tube.

glass, there is an additional pipe made of copper, filled with an al- around the panel and, thus, the collector can use the reflected solar
coholic solution able to evaporate at low temperatures. The alco- radiation together with the beam solar radiation received by the
holic solution, by heating up itself, goes back along the heat-pipe. transparent screen.
Then, it condenses giving heat to the heat-carrying fluid that flows ⁃ Compound parabolic concentration (CPC): under each tube of the
into the collector. A schematic representation is reported in Fig. 5c. collector, a sheet made of reflecting material and parabolic in shape
is installed. This sheet is necessary for conveying the reflected ra-
2.4. Solar thermal collectors using air diation on the tube. Therefore, the adoption of CPC vacuum mani-
folds allows to take advantage of the additional radiation that, vice
Solar air heating collectors use air as heat transfer fluid. The pro- versa, would be lost in the space. With the same collector's gross
duced hot air can be used as working fluid in an engine, for domestic area, it is possible to increase the area of the receiving surface im-
heating or some industrial applications such as products drying [17]. proving the energy produced. A schematic representation is shown
The collector can be designed for obtaining an air flow between the in Fig. 7b.
transparent screen and the absorber or for obtaining an air flow under ⁃ Parabolic trough collector (PTC): these collectors are characterized by
the absorber. The absorber can be characterized by fins for maximizing a parabolic concentrator and a tubular absorber arranged along the
the heat transfer [10]. These panels are similar to the above-mentioned whole length of the concentrator and at the parabola's focus.
flat-plate collectors, with a heat absorber and a cover glass, held to- Through this geometrical system, the solar radiation is reflected on
gether by a frame. No storage tanks or heat exchangers are needed, and the receiving tube, bringing it to high temperatures and heating the
the heated air is used as it is. The hot air circulates through one or more heat-transfer fluid that flows inside the tube. The concentrator is
fans. For this reason, some collector models incorporate small photo- made of polished metal sheets properly bent or it is composed of
voltaic (PV) panels for powering the fan in the absence of electricity. A concave mirrors (Fig. 7c). The energy generation of these devices is
schematic representation is shown in Fig. 6. remarkable. The operating range of the plate varies between 50 °C
and 300 °C, but it can also reach 400 °C. For this reason, suitable
2.5. Concentrating solar collectors heat transfer fluids, such as water-based mixtures, diathermic oils or
molten salts (for high temperature applications), are commonly
Considering concentrating solar collectors, the incident radiation is used.
focused on an area smaller than the receiving one by means of optical ⁃ Heliostat field collector: the heliostat field is composed by mirrors
concentrators. The existing concentrating solar collectors are described placed all around a central receiver, called solar tower (see Fig. 7d).
below: Mirrors can follow the sun through a tracking system. The sun's
power is focused in order to heat water or molten salt. The heat
⁃ Flat concentrator collectors: they are the simplest concentrator col- transport system is characterized by a closed circuit, among the
lectors because they are flat-plate collectors characterized by re- receiver, storage, and power conversion systems.
flective plates connected with the head-on surface of the collector ⁃ Linear Fresnel collector: these systems are characterized by linear
(see Fig. 7a). The solar radiation hits the reflective wings placed receivers and reflectors (see Fig. 7e). Generally, the reflector

Fig. 5. Representations of a water-in glass collector (a) [15], of a U-type collector (b) and of a heat-pipe collector (c) (elaboration from Ref. [16]).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Fig. 6. Representation of solar thermal collectors using air (a) and a commercial product (b) (an elaboration from Ref. [18]).

segments are aligned horizontally, following the sun so that the

receiver can be hit by the sun rays without needing movements.
⁃ Parabolic dish collector: these systems are characterized by a geo-
metry able to concentrate solar radiation towards a receiver placed
on the focal point of the collector, which have a shape similar to that
of satellite antennas (see Fig. 7f).

2.6. Photovoltaic/thermal collectors

Fig. 8. Representation of a commercial PV/T panel.
Solar thermal and photovoltaic knowledges can be adopted in a
single device named Photovoltaic/Thermal (PV/T) collector. PV/Ts are
more homogeneous building aesthetic than conventional solar thermal
hybrid systems, comprehending two components into a single device
collectors. These systems are flexible solutions for buildings applica-
for generating electricity and heat, thus improving the solar conversion
tions because power generation, thermal insulation improvement and
efficiency (see Fig. 8). For removing the generated heat, liquid or air
building appearance are all considered simultaneously. Solar thermal
can be used.
collectors need to be technically and structurally efficient, but they
must fulfill requirements for architectural integration [21]. These re-
2.7. Building-Integrated Solar Thermal systems quirements are: architecturally pleasing design; compositions of sui-
table colors and materials; suitable size in function of the building
Building-Integrated Solar Thermal (BIST) systems are multi- harmony; consistency to the building context; well composed and in-
functional devices able to generate energy. They take into account ar- novative design.
chitectural aspects, such as color, texture and shape, thus allowing a

Fig. 7. Representations of the flat concentrator collector technique (a) and the compound parabolic concentration technique (b); parabolic trough collector (an
elaboration from Ref. [19]) (c); actual heliostat field collector [20] (d); actual linear Fresnel collector (e); actual parabolic dish collector (f).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

BIST systems can be categorized in function of the heat transfer of view.

medium: air-based BISTs are characterized by lower costs and effi-
ciencies, and they are generally used for building ventilation and 3. Theoretical analysis
heating; hydraulic BISTs are generally used for heating and hot water
generation; BISTs that adopt phase change materials are generally used In this section, the theoretical analysis of a commonly used flat-plate
when a longer period of the system operation is needed. Moreover, collector is provided, considering energy and exergy analyses [30].
these systems can also be categorized in function of the integration with
the building envelope (see Fig. 9).
For many decades these integrated solar thermal systems have been 3.1. Energy analysis
studied, and research efforts focused on taking into account the dif-
ferent technological solutions of BISTs. An essential notion for thermal analysis of any thermal system is the
Air-based BISTs are basically represented by solar thermal air col- conservation of energy, which can be examined through energy balance
lectors, which can be integrated on roofs and facades, as shown in calculation under steady state conditions. Under these conditions, the
Fig. 10, where the basic schema of a roof integrated solar thermal air useful energy produced by the solar thermal collector is equal to the
collector and an actual integration of a solar thermal air collectors in a difference between the absorbed solar radiation and the total thermal
building façade are reported. These collectors are characterized by low losses. The collector thermal efficiency is a significant parameter be-
costs but also by a low efficiency due to the thermal characteristics of cause it allows to compare different materials and modifications of
the heat transfer fluid. Air has low thermal properties, thus influencing collector systems.
convective heat transfer phenomena. With the scope of compensating The collector's efficiency can be calculated as:
these limits, large collector areas are needed. However, this can cause Qu
problems related to costs and roof size [23]. The solar thermal facades η=
Ac IT (1)
that use air can be made by integrating an air gap between the rear
surface of the glass covers and the building envelope. In space heating where Qu is the useful energy, IT is the incident solar energy, and Ac is
systems, constant air flows are generally provided. Thus, the outlet air the collector area. Consequently, the denominator in Eq. (1) is the total
temperature varies during the day in function of the solar radiation energy input for the collector. The incident solar radiation is a para-
variations. meter related to the environmental conditions and it can be obtained
Using water instead of air is an effective solution because of its high from statistical data or from measurements by means of pyranometers
thermal capacity and thermal conductivity. Water allows easy storage [31,32]. To calculate how much energy is available, it is necessary to
and it is suitable for direct domestic hot water generation, but it is compute the energy balance within the collector, characterized by the
corrosive. The water-based BIST can be classified into two groups: mathematical difference between the absorbed energy and thermal
single-channel and multiple-channel BISTs. losses. The energy balance can be stated as follows:
The first group has evolved from the passive solar heating me-
Qu = Ac [Ipl − Ugl (Tpl − Tair )] (2)
chanism, which often provides solutions for the use of hot water. The
second group is characterized by a design with an additional air space where Ipl is the solar radiation absorbed from the plate, Ugl is the col-
between the photovoltaic module and the building envelope. lector total losses coefficient (composed by the sum of three contribu-
Roof integrated mini-parabolic solar collector were also studied as a tions, frontal losses, rear losses and perimetral losses), Tpl is the tem-
viable solution for building-integrated applications. These systems perature of the plate, and Tair is the air temperature. When incident
adopt linear Fresnel reflectors which focus the beam solar radiation on solar radiation (IT) measurements are available, the suitable calculation
a stationary receiver with the use of mirrors and an active tracking for the absorbed energy is given by the following formula:
system. The use of concentrating optical system for building integrated
solar applications was proposed by Chemisana et al. [25]. The analysis
of a stationary wide-angle Fresnel lens with a moving CPC was pro-
posed by the authors. Moreover, a building integrated mini parabolic
thermal collector was investigated by Petrakis et al. [26], considering
the East-West orientation with a slope such that the sun's rays can
perpendicularly interfere with the parabola during the day. A solar
micro-concentrator collector is shown in Fig. 11.
Another solution is represented by the ceramic solar collectors,
mainly characterized by economic convenience, without absorption
attenuation and good integration in buildings. As asserted by Buker and
Riffat [23], the raw material for this system is traditional ceramic
(porcelain clay, quartz and feldspar). The building integration of these
solar collectors was also proposed by Yang et al. [27]. The collectors act
both as heat source of the water system, and as balcony railings, with a
thermal efficiency equal to 41.7%.
In buildings, solar shading device can be used for multiple aims and
scopes. Solar louvre collectors are based on overhang louvre modules,
placed horizontally, that include solar collectors. This system allows to
increase the number of collectors, also considering free spaces on the
building roof for further panels. The various designs of new solar louvre
thermal collector were discussed by Abu-Zour et al. [28], proposing a
solution based on heat pipe technology. In addition, Marrero et al. [29]
analyzed a solar thermal system exploiting building louvre shading
devices, proposing the modification of existing designs. The proposed
system was tested under several climatic conditions, showing great
potential from both an economic and a renewable energy supply point Fig. 9. Building-BIST integration (an elaboration from Ref. [22]).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic representation of a solar thermal air collector integrated in a roof; (b) solar thermal air collectors integrated in a building façade (an
elaboration from Ref. [24]).

be generated by a system when the balance with an environment,

considered as a reference point, is reached [35]. The exergy analysis
applied to a solar collector supports engineers for achieving an optimal
design, providing path for losses reduction. Considering a flat-plate
collector and imposing the exergy balance, the efficiency can be de-
duced, and the parts of irreversible factors are also defined [36]. The
exergy balance can be stated as follows:

E˙ in + E˙ s + E˙ out + E˙ l + E˙ d = 0 (6)

where Ėin , Ės , Ėout , Ėl and Ėd are the inlet, the stored, the outlet, the
leakage (loss) and the destroyed exergy rates, respectively. The inlet
exergy rate considering the fluid flow is given by:

Tfi ⎞ ⎤ m˙ ΔPin
˙ f ⎡Tfi − Tair − Tair ln ⎛
E˙ in, f = mc ⎜ + ⎟
⎢ ⎝ air ⎠ ⎥
T ρ (7)
⎣ ⎦
where ṁ is the mass flow rate, ΔPin is the difference in pressure between
the fluid and the external environment, at the entrance of the solar
collector, and ρ is the density.
Taking into account the Petela theorem [37], the exergy rate related
Fig. 11. Solar micro-concentrator [23]. to the absorbed solar radiation is defined as:

T
S = (τα )avg IT E˙ in, Q = ηo IT Ap ⎛1 − air ⎞
⎜ ⎟
(3) Ts ⎠ (8)
⎝
where (τα)avg is the transmittance of the collector transparent screen (τ) where ηo is the optical efficiency, IT is the incident solar radiation, Ap is
multiplied for the plate's absorptance (α) averaged over different types the area of the absorber plate and Ts is the apparent sun temperature
of radiation. [38]. For a solar collector, the sum of Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) is equal to the
The maximum value of useful energy can be reached when the total inlet exergy rate.
collector is characterized by the same temperature of the entering fluid, Taking into account steady-state conditions, the stored exergy rate
with the subsequent minimization of the heat losses. Nevertheless, is equal to zero.
under actual operating conditions, this is not always possible and for The outlet exergy rate accounts the exergy rate of the coming out
describing the real useful energy gain, the heat removal factor (FR) fluid flow and it can be defined as:
needs to be introduced. This factor shows how much energy remains as
a result of heat losses due to the collector-inlet temperature difference. Tfo ⎞ ⎤ m˙ ΔPout
˙ f ⎡Tfo − Tair − Tair ln ⎛
E˙ out , f = −mc ⎜ − ⎟

The heat removal factor can be defined as: ⎢ ⎝ Tair

⎥
⎠⎦ ρ (9)
⎣
Gcf (Tfo − Tfi ) where ΔPout is the difference in pressure between the fluid and the ex-
FR =
Ipl − Ugl (Tfi − Tair ) (4) ternal environment at the outlet of the collector.
The leakage exergy rate produced by heat transfer rate from the
where G is the fluid flow rate expressed for collector's unit area, cf is the absorber to the environment can be defined as follows:
specific heat capacity of the fluid, Tfo is the outgoing fluid temperature
and Tfi is the entering fluid temperature. Consequently, the energy T
E˙ l = −Ugl Ap (Tpl − Tair ) ⎛⎜1 − air ⎞⎟
balance for the actual device can be defined as: Tp ⎠ (10)
⎝
Qu = Ac FR [Ipl − Ugl (Tfi − Tair )] (5) The demolished exergy rate comprises three terms. The first one is
Eq. (5) is a widely used formula for determining the collector's produced by the temperature difference between the absorber surface
useful energy and it is usually known as the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss and the sun, and it can be defined as:
equation [33,34].
1 1
E˙ d,Δ T = −ηo IT Ap Tair ⎜⎛ − ⎞⎟
⎝ Tpl Ts ⎠ (11)
3.2. Exergy analysis
The second one is produced by the ducts’ pressure drop, defined as
Exergy can be defined as the maximum quantity of work which can follows:

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

E˙ d,Δ P = −
m˙ ΔP
Tair ln ( )
Tfo
Tair
improvement by 201%, showing a great capacity to store energy.
Considering air solar collectors, the heat transfer between absorber
ρ Tfo − Tfi (12) and fluid can be improved by increasing the absorber area or by opti-
Finally, the third contribution is produced by the temperature dif- mizing the heat transfer coefficient with turbulence generating systems
ference between the surface of the absorber and the fluid: [47]. From a shaping point of view, several methods have been im-
plemented to improve absorber plates, incorporating rib roughness
⎡ Tfo ⎤ [48,49], adding extended surface [50,51], inserting offset fins [52],
˙ f Tair ⎢ln ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ − (Tfo − Tfi )/ Tpl ⎥
E˙ d,Δ Tf = −mc
Tfi ⎠ fixing of v-groove [53,54], and using corrugated absorber plate
⎣ ⎝ ⎦ (13)
[54,55].
Taking into account Eq. (7) and Eq. (13) into Eq. (6), the exergy The solar absorption of the V-corrugated absorber can be improved
efficiency can be calculated as: by multiple reflection and absorption of sunlight. As stated by
Elsherbiny et al. [56], the heat exchange that occurs between a V-

ηex =
E˙ out , f − E˙ in, f
=
m˙ ⎧cf ⎡Tfo − Tfi − Tair ln
⎨
⎩ ⎣
( ) ⎤⎦ −
Tfo
Tfi
ΔP⎫
ρ ⎬
⎭
shaped corrugated plate and a flat plate with air can be up to 50%
greater than that of two parallel flat plates. With a groove angle equal
E˙ in, Q
(
ηo IT Ap 1 −
Tair
Ts ) (14)
to 55° and an absorptance coefficient of the absorber equal to 0.6, the
average annual equivalent absorbance was improved to 0.9 [57]. The
Exergy analysis related to solar collectors can support researchers performance of air collectors with chevron, V-grooved and flat absor-
and engineers to reach an optimal design, as demonstrated by Farahat bers were analyzed by El-Sawi et al. [58]. The authors stated that
et al. [36]. chevron and V-grooved lead to a thermal efficiency 20% and 10%
higher than that of the flat collector, respectively. Furthermore, in an
4. Functional elements experimental study conducted by Poongavanam et al. [59] the perfor-
mance of an air solar collector with a V-corrugated shot absorber and of
4.1. The absorber a flat-plate collector were compared. The heat transfer and the friction
coefficient of the first collector were both greater than those of the
Several studies have been conducted considering the absorber as a second one. The thermal efficiency could be increased by 1.35–1.56
functional element. Solar collectors can be bundled taking into con- times.
sideration different operating temperatures: high temperature Comparing solar collectors characterized by plain and corrugated
(≥1000 °C), intermediate temperature (~300 °C) and low temperature absorber plates, it is possible to highlight differences in terms of energy
(≤100 °C). The most common low temperature solar collectors are efficiency. Using a corrugated absorber, the energy efficiency can in-
characterized by a darkened plate for absorbing solar radiation and crease by 14% [60], because of enhanced turbulence effect and rise of
pipes inside which the heat-transfer fluid flows for removing heat [39]. the heat transfer surface area.
In a solar collector, the absorber is a fundamental functional part be- Among the modified absorber plates investigated by researchers, it
cause it regulates the efficiency of energy conversion, from solar ra- is possible to mention transverse small diameter wire [61], transverse
diation to thermal energy. broken and continuous ribs [62,63], metal grit ribs [64], W-shaped ribs
Conventional absorbers are made-up from metals (copper or alu- [65] and vortex generators [66], obtaining different interesting results
minium sheets) coated with specific paints able to absorb the solar in terms of thermal efficiency. Using transverse small diameter wire, it
radiation more efficiently than the common black paints [40]. Black is possible to achieve 14% improvement in thermal performance factor,
chrome has been adopted in solar water heater applications for ap- defined at a Reynolds equal to 40,000 over smooth pipe. Through
proximately 3 decades [41]. transverse broken and continuous ribs, a heat transfer coefficient in-
Otherwise, new kind of solar collectors uses a nanoparticles’ sus- crease was observed, from 1.25 to 1.4 times over smooth duct. More-
pension in a traditional base fluid (called nanofluid) where the solar over, an improvement related to Nusselt number, from 1.8 to 2.7 times,
radiation can be absorbed. The suspension of nanoparticles works as was obtained over rectangular duct with transverse ribs. Analyzing
both absorber and heat transfer medium ][42]. metal grit ribs, the thermal efficiency was characterized by an en-
Currently, the flat-plate panels' basic principles are well known, and hancement ranging from 10% to 35% over smooth duct.
the efforts made by academics in this research field are mainly focussed The shape of the absorber has its relevance, as demonstrated by
on the study and development of new materials through which reaching Hassanzadeh et al. [67], which designed and made experimental tests
higher performance [43]. Polymeric materials are characterized by of a novel medium-temperature solar collector characterized by a
minor costs and weight, and for this reason they can be considered an pentagon absorber. The experimental and numerical results highlighted
attractive solution for solar thermal collector's applications. Recent an accordance between numerical and experimental data. The authors
works in literature are related to absorber's materials derived from found that the designed solar collector was characterized by an optical
biopolymers [44], and films made of polymers with gold [45] and silver efficiency equal to 64%, a thermal efficiency equal to 50% (at 200 °C),
[46] nanoparticles. Klein et al. [43] analyzed several commercially and a stagnation temperature equal to 378 °C, without any tracking
available technical biopolymers to understand their applicability as system.
absorbers. Technical biopolymers designated as theoretically appro- Considering evacuated tube solar collectors, different absorbers
priate (bio-polyamide, poly(lactic-acid), cellulose acetate, cellulose shapes involving pipe joined inside a circular fin, finned tube, U-tube
acetate butyrate, poly(trimethylene-terephthalate)) were comprehen- welded on a copper plate, and U-tube fused inside a rectangular duct
sively studied, taking into account their aging behaviour. These bio- have been investigated [68]. Based on theoretical and experimental
polymers were tested under several conditions (in terms of water and studies, U-tube fused inside a circular fin is characterized by higher
air temperatures) for up to 1000 h, revealing a potential practical use performance under ideal conditions compared to different solutions.
for solar thermal purposes. Shang et al. [45] designed a di-functional Though, if the shadow deriving from adjacent pipes and the influence of
nanocomposite film for an effective conversion and storage of solar the diffuse solar radiation are accounted, the U-tube shows the highest
thermal energy. This nanocomposite film was created by inserting thermal performance.
Phase Change Materials (PCMs) and gold nanoparticles into polyvinyl Considering heat pipe solar collectors, Zhang et al. [69] suggested
alcohol matrix by means of the hydrogen-bonding interactions. Making the adoption of heat shields in the collector header section, in-
a comparison among the di-functional nanocomposite film and con- vestigating their effects by means of experimental measurements. This
ventional films, the authors observed a thermal storage efficiency technical solution improved the thermal performance of the collector,

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

especially at higher working temperatures. The thermal efficiency Aste et al. [79] designed an innovative covered PV/T collector,
reached about 55% at high working temperatures. This means an effi- adopting thin film photovoltaic module and a flat-plate with a roll-bond
ciency about 31.5% greater than that obtained with a collector not absorber. The proposed device was compared with a standard PV
equipped with the heat shield. module, concluding that further work needs to be focused on the per-
Moreover, also matrix-type wire mesh absorbers have been pro- formance of Photovoltaic/Thermal systems in summer for better in-
posed, showing the advantage in growing the absorber-heat transfer vestigating the regeneration effect of amorphous and crystalline silicon,
fluid contact, minimizing the collector's size [70]. Making a comparison because of high temperatures.
with absorber without porous media, using a matrix-type wire mesh Ibrahim et al. [80] led an experimental study for evaluating the
absorber, it is possible to obtain an increase of thermal efficiency by influence of the mass flow rate on the thermal, electrical and total ef-
26%. Nevertheless, this solution is affected by a high inlet-outlet ficiencies. Two absorbers were analyzed: a spiral flow absorber and an
pressure drop. This is caused by the resistance in the small spaces of the absorber characterized by a single-passage rectangular tunnel. The re-
porous medium, producing a minor collector's global efficiency [71]. sults allowed to conclude that the combined efficiency obtained
Also absorbers characterized by twisted tapes [72,73] have been through the spiral flow absorber was higher (64%) than that obtained
investigated. The thermal efficiency is depending on the twist ratio, by the single pass rectangular tunnel absorber (55%).
showing that considering specific value of this ratio, it is possible to
obtain thermal efficiency growths between 8% and 23%.
Recently, a cheap concrete solar thermal collector was studied by 4.2. Collector ducts
Sable [74] by means of an experimental investigation. The concrete
block containing metal fibers was positioned in a case made of wood, Heat absorbed by the collector can be removed by the heat transfer
and dimple tubes were located inside the slab. The low-cost collector fluid through the internal pipes. Their sections and materials need to be
was characterized by a transparent screen on top. Starting from the accurately designed for achieving the best heat transfer, limiting the
obtained results, the author affirmed that the construction of this type production costs. Pipes are characterized by small diameters
of collector is simple, and it could be produced locally, using nearby (5 ÷ 15 mm) and they are generally made of copper.
available materials. This collector could be used for space heating, The influence of the distances among riser pipes on the performance
working as a preheater for a heat pump. of a flat-plate collector was studied by Bello and Sambot [81]. In their
Analyzing PV/T devices, Jin et al. [75] assessed the performance of study, they used a simulation approach. Several configurations were
single pass PV/T air collector characterized by a rectangular tunnel analyzed, considering 2, 4, and 8 riser pipes, with distances equal to
absorber. In order to maximize the electrical efficiency, experimental 12.5 cm, 6.25 cm and 25 cm, respectively.
tests were performed for studying a practical air flow rate for the ex- Later, the influence of the diameter of riser and header pipes was
traction of heat from the photovoltaic cells. The obtained results investigated by Kalogirou [82], using simulations for optimizing the flat
showed that using a rectangular tunnel absorber provides better per- plate collectors' thermal performance. Riser and header pipes diameters
formance. varied from 6 mm to 35 mm, observing that the best system could be
The geometrical shape of the absorber was investigated by Othman obtained with riser and header pipes’ diameters equal to 8 mm and
et al. [76]. They studied the performance of PV/T collectors char- 22 mm, respectively (with 20 riser pipes).
acterized by a double pass, where fins were fixed on and under the Fig. 12 shows the obtained results, considering the effect of the pipe
absorber plate. The results allowed to conclude that the designed so- diameter and the space among pipes.
lution maximizes the total efficiency of the hybrid system. In flat-plate liquid collectors the absorber and riser pipes are usually
In addition, also double-pass PV/T panels equipped with compound made of copper or aluminium, fused together. Nevertheless, if the ab-
parabolic concentrator and fins were investigated for understanding if sorber and risers are not firmly coupled, and the absorber's temperature
concentrator and fins installed on the rear side of the absorber plate distribution is not regular, the thermal resistance between the absorber
could be an appropriate solution [77]. The obtained results demon- and the working fluid can be high. Therefore, the use of mini or micro-
strated that the electricity generation in hybrid PV/T systems decreases channels represents a viable solution as they are part of the absorber
when the air flow temperature rises. (without external flaps) and the heat transfer area is also extended [83].
Khelifa et al. [78] proposed a system based on a PV panel and a Usually, the hydraulic diameters of these channels are generally equal
thermal system for water heating. The thermal device was made of an to 0.01–0.2 mm (micro-channels), 0.2–3 mm (mini-channels) and
absorber plate, characterized by a sheet, and pipes positioned under the greater than 3 mm (conventional channels), respectively [84]. The
photovoltaic panel, for removing heat. Thus, the photovoltaic cells’ mini-channel shape has become a research focus because of the cost-
cooling can be realized, and the electrical efficiency can be improved. effective production and the leak-proof performance.
A square-shaped flat solar collector, characterized by mini-channels,

Fig. 12. (a) Effect of spaces among riser pipes obtained by Bello and Sambot [81]; (b) Performance of the collector obtained by Kalogirou [82].

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

was designed by Mansour [85]. The author studied the heat exchange 12.7% and a thermal efficiency equal to 34.0%.
inside the channels, showing an improved heat removal factor of
16.1%. 4.3. Heat transfer medium
A mini-channel based evacuated tube collector was simulated by
Sharma and Diaz [86], demonstrating that the performance was higher, 4.3.1. Water
and the new collector was more efficient. Mahian et al. [87] evaluated Among heat transfer fluids, water can be considered the favorite one
the performance of a flat solar collector consisting of mini-channels in solar systems, and it is due to its inexpensiveness, non-toxicity and
with four different nanofluids. The use of mini-channels and micro- abundance [94]. Solar hot-water systems are generally used for do-
channels is less attractive in practical applications, since blockages of mestic and industrial purposes and for swimming pool heating.
the channels and high load losses can occur. For this reason, Del Col Nevertheless, the use of water is characterized by limitations related to
et al. [88] designed a flat-plate collector characterized by roll-bond its freezing point and boiling point, and to its mineral content with
aluminium absorber. The authors proved that this solution was char- consequent corrosions and mineral deposits [95].
acterized by a higher thermal performance than the standard copper
collector, with the same paint. 4.3.2. Glycol water
Considering heat pipe solar collector, Rybár et al. [89] modified the A mixture made of glycol and water can be adopted in a closed solar
internal shape of the collector header, inserting structural elements system when the problem of thermal fluid freezing can affect the system
made of metal foam (see Fig. 13). Tests demonstrated that the improved operation [96]. This mixture flows from the solar thermal collector
assembly allowed to obtain a higher collector's thermal power from through a heat exchanger inside a storage tank, for heating water.
about 85 W/m2 to about 202 W/m2, increasing the performance im- These fluids are typically used in low-medium-temperature panels.
provement factor from 1.14 to 3.20. Though, it is worthy to notice that glycol starts to degrade when tem-
In the PV/T research field, Farshchimonfared et al. [90] in- perature is higher than 120 °C.
vestigated Photovoltaic/Thermal air collectors, aiming at optimizing
the depth of the ducts, the air mass flow rate and the diameter of the air
4.3.3. Molten salts
distribution channel, taking into account the performance of the whole
In concentrating solar collectors, potassium or sodium in liquid
system. The authors found that the finest value of the air mass flow per
phase can be adopted as heat transfer fluid or heat storage medium.
unit collector's area was equal to 0.021 kg/sm2 and the best channel
Molten salts are easily available, inexpensive and environmentally
depth ranged from 0.09 m to 0.026 m. Moreover, the finest diameters of
friendly, characterized by non-toxicity. These working fluids can work
the ducts varied between 0.3 and 0.5 mm.
at high-temperatures (higher than 500 °C). Nevertheless, molten salts
Zhou et al. [91] analyzed the performance of a hybrid PV/T system
show some weaknesses related to their high freezing point, needing
characterized by mini-channels. The cross section characterized by a
high supplementary power to maintain them in liquid phase.
small area, the high fluid velocity and the fast heat transfer between the
Additionally, they are corrosive and consequently, they need expensive
fluid and the panel allowed to optimize both the thermal and electrical
system engineering for efficient operation [97,98].
performances. The authors affirmed that the mini-channel PV/T panels
showed an average efficiency equal to 45% during tests conducted
4.3.4. Hydrocarbon oils
throughout the typical-day.
In solar collector systems, hydrocarbon oils can be based on petro-
Wu et al. [92] examined the effects of the mass flow rate and the
leum or synthesized in the artificial way. Artificial oils show great heat
height of the cooling channel by means of a 3D numerical model of a
transfer capability at high working temperatures, due to their excellent
PV/T system. The device was cooled through water, with cooling
thermophysical properties. Comparing synthetic oils to their petroleum
channel located below the photovoltaic panel. The authors found that
counterparts, the former is more suitable and safer because of their
the global exergy efficiency reached the maximum value when the mass
lower maintenance level and their moderately non-toxicity [99].
flow rate was equal 0.003 kg/s and the cooling channel height was
Making a comparison with water, hydrocarbon oils are characterized by
equal to 5 mm.
a minor specific heat capacity and a higher viscosity. So, these oils
A PV/T system parameter optimization approach was proposed by
involve higher pumping power.
Kuo et al. [93] also in terms of channels number. The authors affirmed
that the control parameters for Photovoltaic/Thermal design counting
the collector azimuth, the material of the collector plate, the mass flow 4.3.5. Phase change materials
rate, the pipes number, the collector angle and the storage tank volume These materials are adopted to absorb heat in solar thermal col-
can influence the performance of the system. The optimization control lectors, releasing it in another medium, (air or water). The use of phase
parameters combination with 12 collector tubes and a mass flow rate change materials is widespread in the building sector, where con-
equal to 0.01 kg/sm2 allowed to obtain an electrical efficiency equal to structions can be equipped with solar collector systems [100]. PCM
14.29% and a thermal efficiency equal to 44.96%, enhanced than tra- allows to reduce the temperature variations, increasing the collector
ditional PV/T system, characterized by an electrical efficiency equal to working hours. Considering PCMs in flat-plate solar collectors, it is
possible to affirm that they can be intended as an integrated stack of

Fig. 13. Designed header characterized by metal foam element (an elaboration from Ref. [89]).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

latent thermal energy [101] (Fig. 14). As mentioned by Khan et al. was achieved, resulting in an energy storage inside the PCM. When the
[101], analyzing solar collectors with PCM for domestic water heating phase change process took place, the system was characterized by
production, the different designs can be generally classified into three maximum efficiency. On the contrary, the same results did not occur
types: below the absorber plate, concentric to the flow line or a de- through high flow rates, as the PCM remained in a solid state.
tached thermal energy storage unit. The PCM integration in flat-plate Also Felinski and Sekret [104] studied the influence of PCM appli-
collectors was the oldest technique for improving thermal performance, cation inside an evacuated tube collector for a solar water heating
investigated since 1987 [102]. Moreover, PCMs are frequently used in system. A use of latent heat storage in the collector allowed the delayed
solar collector for preventing the water freezing, as demonstrated by the heat release during the evening.
Zhou et al. [103]. The authors studied a PCM flat-plate solar collector Phase change materials have been adopted also in PV/T devices. In
system with antifreeze characteristics. They found that the phase- 2010, Hasan et al. [117] studied, by means of experimental measure-
change temperature value, for an ideal antifreeze performance, should ments, the use of several types of PCMs (RT20, Capric-Palmitic acid,
be between 2 °C and 7 °C. A practical choice to obtain a high utilization Capric-Lauric acid, calcium chloride and SP22) in different devices
rate of the PCM consists in 15 mm thickness of the module. under different insolation values. This approach was followed for in-
Al-harahsheh et al. [105] studied solar desalination setup by in- vestigating the improvement of the electrical performance of a building
corporating it with a layer of sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate as PCM. integrated Photovolatic-PCM (PV-PCM) system. The authors concluded
Its main effect was on the energy stored by the PCM, resulting in a huge that the salt hydrate CaCl2 reached the maximum temperature reduc-
improvement on unit productivity during night. tion at most of the insolation values.
The performance of a transpired solar collector was studied by Poole In the same year, Jay et al. [118] assessed the performance of a PV
et al. [106], using 80 kg of salt-hydrate as PCM. The authors specified system integrated with PCM, where the phase change material was
that the system integrated with the PCM provided 34% of the total encapsulated into aluminum honeycomb structure for improving the
useful heat during the night, for seven days in April. heat conduction mechanism. The authors observed an increase in
Paraffin has been the most adopted phase change material, able to electrical efficiency ranging from 15% to 23% as compared to common
successfully increase the thermal stability and the heat transfer. PV panel not integrated with PCM.
Moreover, the application of fins has been investigated, and 9 fins/m2 In 2014, a PV/T system, characterized by petroleum jelly used as
design allowed to achieve better thermal output. PCM for cooling photovoltaic panel, was studied by Indartono et al.
Flat-plate solar air heaters integrated with PCM are characterized by [119] Making a comparison with a classic PV panel, the temperature of
a thermal efficiency ranging from 22% to 96% [107,108]. However, the PV-PCM device was lower. This happened by passing PCM through
efficiencies of these devices are not comparable with those of collectors copper tubes fixed behind the PV module. Through this technical so-
using water. This fact is related to the convective heat transfer phe- lution, the electrical efficiency increases up to 21.2%, while the
nomena, with lower convective coefficients in the case of air, instead of common PV panel has a lower efficiency, equal to 7.3%.
water. Comparing several designs, it is possible to notice that the In 2015, Hasan et al. [120] investigated the influences of PCM in
highest efficiency was attained by Ali et al. [108], but with a low photovoltaic panels, under the different climatic conditions of Dublin
temperature difference. The highest outlet air temperatures were and Vehari (Pakistan). The photovoltaic panel with PCM (salt hydrates)
achieved by El Khadraoui et al. [109] and by Kabeel et al. [110], equal dropped 21.5 °C as compared to reference PV panel in Pakistan.
to 340 K and 338 K, respectively. Later, in 2017, Preet et al. [121] studied three systems composed of
Considering evacuated tube solar collectors, the first study related a PV panel, a water-based PV/T device with double absorber plate and,
to PCM was conducted by Riffat et al. [111]. The PCM integration can finally, a water-based PV/T system with PCM (paraffin wax RT-30 was
be realized following two ways: the first consists in adopting the PCM in adopted). Making a comparison with a traditional PV panel, the authors
the collector's manifold, making a contact with part of the heat pipe asserted that the electrical efficiencies of both PV/T cooled by means of
[112] (Fig. 15a); the second consists in keeping the PCM inside the water and water-based PV/T with PCM are higher. A maximum in-
tubes of the collector (Fig. 15b). Another integrated method was pre- crease in electrical efficiency, equal to 10.66, was obtained with water-
sented by Papadimitratos et al. [113], with the heat pipe immersed in based PV/T and a value equal to 12.6 was obtained through the phase
the phase change material contained in turn in the internal glass tube of change material PV/T panel. Making a comparison with the common
the collector, as shown in Fig. 15c. PV panel, average increases in electrical efficiency were around 230%
In their research, Essa et al. [116] provided an experimental study (water-based PV/T) and 300% (PV/T with PCM).
on the performance of evacuated tube collectors integrated with PCM. During 2018, also Yang et al. [122] made a comparison between a
The authors found that using low flow rates, complete phase change PV/T with PCM and a common PV/T by means of an experimental

Fig. 14. PCM integration in solar water heating collectors (a) and solar air heating collectors (b) (elaboration from Ref. [104]).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Fig. 15. PCM integration in solar thermal collectors by (a),(c) Papadimitratos et al. [113] and (b) Abokersh et al. [114,115].

investigation. From their study, the authors concluded that the back- 7%, during October.
plane temperature difference during the tests was 15.8 °C, with a higher Considering PV/T systems, an experimental study was conducted by
PV/T-PCM output power. The total solar energy conversion efficiencies Ali et al. [131] for studying the use of SiC nanofluid in these devices. If
of the modules were equal to 63.93% (PV/T) and 76.87% (PV/T with compared to the photovoltaic system alone, the authors found that
PCM). For these reasons, the authors affirmed that the use of PCM is adding 3% SiC nanofluid by weight allowed to increase the electrical
very efficient for improving the solar thermal and power performances efficiency by 24.1%.
of PV/T devices. Sardarabadi et al. [132] found a global energy efficiency improve-
ment related to the use of nanofluids. The authors observed that, if
compared to the case with only water, the global energy efficiency, for
4.3.6. Nanofluids the cases with a silica/water nanofluid of 1 wt% and 3 wt%, can be
Water or glycolate water are the commonly used heat transfer li- improved by 3.6% and 7.9%, respectively.
quids in solar panels. In literature, novel heat transfer fluids have been Aberoumand et al. [133] aimed at investigating the electrical,
introduced for improving the efficiency of the energy systems, based on thermal and exergy efficiencies of a PV/T system cooled by Ag/water
nanofluids [123,124]. Nanofluids are characterized by a mix of solid nanofluid. The authors affirmed that using nanofluids can significantly
nanoparticles made of metal or metal oxide with common heat transfer improve both the energy and exergy efficiencies. They found that the
fluids, such as water, oil or ethylene glycol. Enhancements in terms of positive influence of nanofluids is more noticeable by increasing both
thermal conductivity have been found by many researchers. the nanofluid's concentration and the flow rate. Compared to the cases
An experimental study related to the influence of nanofluid and of no-cooling and water cooling, a 4 wt% nanofluid allowed to increase
water was conducted by Budak Ziyadanogullari et al. [125] on the the panel's power of about 35% and 10%, respectively. At the same
thermal efficiency in systems characterized by flat-plate solar collec- time, also the exergy efficiency was higher of 50% and 30%.
tors. Nanofluids were obtained using Al2O3, CuO, and TiO2 nano- The most important challenges on adopting nanofluids is related to
particles into distilled water, at 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 vol%. Moreover, the high costs, the instability, and the viscosity increase of nanoparticles,
viscosity and the thermal conductivity of these nanofluids were ex- with the subsequent rise in frictional pressure drop and pumping
amined. The authors affirmed that the highest efficiency increase was power. In the future, all these challenges could be solved by the pro-
obtained using the CuO/water nanofluid, while the lowest one was gresses in the field of nanotechnology.
observed for the TiO2/water. The cause may be correlated to the var-
iances in terms of nanoparticles’ thermal conductivity values.
The influence of volume fraction of Al2O3 nanofluid at different 4.4. Transparent screen
concentrations on heat pipe efficiency was investigated by Hung et al.
[126]. The maximum heat flux increased when the volume fraction of Several studies related to the performance of glass covers can be
Al2O3 reached less than 1.0% by weight. Afterward, further increase in found in literature. For improving the performance of transparent
the mass concentration produced its slow loss. screens, it is possible to use low emissivity coatings [134,135].
Dehaj et al. [127] investigated as heat transfer fluid MgO nanofluid In solar energy applications, glasses are excellent materials due to
(considering different concentrations), making a comparison with their high solar transmittance, stability and low cost. Moreover, in
water. The efficiency of the heat pipe solar collector using MgO nano- order to reduce thermal losses, it is possible to apply spectrally selective
fluid was higher than that obtained with only water because the con- coatings able to reflect the radiation in the infrared wavelength range.
vective heat transfer coefficient of the working fluid increased with the Taking into account the specific application, the materials, the coating
concentration rise of nanofluid. structure and its technology are critical for determining the glass op-
Sadeghi et al. [128] studied the opportunity of enhancing the tical properties. Rarely solar transmittance value is greater than 0.6.
thermal efficiency of a solar water heating system by means of nano- Transmittances up to 0.75 can be reached by using thin layers of silver,
fluids. They conducted tests for comprehending the effect of nanofluid developed in recent years for triple glazing, or with metal oxides.
copper oxide/distilled water, obtaining that, using 0.08 vol fraction of However, Giovannetti et al. [136] confirmed that the above-mentioned
the nanofluid, the energy and exergy efficiency of the system was im- values are not suitable for use in thermal collectors. Their study ex-
proved 10% and 12.7%. amined the performance of glass characterized by a high transmittance
Also Sharafeldin and Grof [129] examined the nanoparticles’ in- and spectrally selective coatings, based on transparent conductive
fluence on solar thermal collector performance. They affirmed that oxides for the application in flat-plate panels, considering uncovered,
nanoparticles allow to improve the efficiency of the evacuated tube single-glazed and double-glazed designs. The authors found that in
solar collector with a thermal-optical efficiency enhancement equal to single-glazed collectors with highly selective absorbers a spectrally se-
19.3%. lective cover does not lead to any enhancement, slightly reducing the
Comparing the use of nanoparticles (MWCNT, CuO and TiO2) with collector efficiency because of the additional optical losses of the
water, Daghigh and Zandi [130] observed that the collector's efficiency coating. In addition, a noteworthy performance growth can be obtained
improved by 25%, 12% and 5%, during August and by 25%, 15% and both in single-glazed panels with low or non-selective absorbers and in

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

double-glazed panels characterized by highly selective absorbers. theoretical efficiency of a photovoltaic cell can be up to 28% [143], but
Double-glazing panels are characterized by a better efficiency than under actual working conditions, its value doesn't exceed 17% [144],
single glazing. Starting from this, Alta et al. [137] performed an ex- because the best operating conditions are difficult to maintain. The best
perimental study comparing flat plate collectors characterized by fins working conditions take into account structural integrity and not ele-
and one glazing with other collectors equipped with two screens with vated cell temperatures, which can affect the cell efficiency. There is
attached fins. The authors stated that the two glazing with fins have also the need to protect photovoltaic cells from dust and it can be done
great energy and exergy performance, also showing higher inlet-outlet by means of proper glazing surface-finish. Photovoltaic cells are com-
temperature difference. monly surrounded by two main layers made of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
Debnath et al. [60] assessed a solar air collector performance, (EVA) and Tedlar Polyester Tedlar (TPT). The EVA layer is used for
analysing the influence of single and double glazing. The results showed encapsulating the cells. The TPT layer is used as cover sheet placed
that double glazing absorber plate allows to obtain higher performance behind solar modules. Photovoltaic panels have been modified along
under both energy and exergy point of view, because of top losses re- time and the commonly used material for production was the mono-
duction. crystalline silicon. EVA and TPT layers protect cells from environmental
Osorio and Rivera-Alvarez [138] studied the performance of para- effect, but problems related to high temperatures and hot spots still
bolic trough collectors characterized by an envelope with double glass. need scientific research. So, the high temperatures that photovoltaic
At high working temperatures, the thermal losses reduction obtained panels can reach are an important issue that must be seriously ad-
through the double glass envelope allows to reach a higher efficiency. dressed by the scientific community [145].
The authors found that an inner glass envelope characterized by low
emittances could be used to reduce heat losses and to substitute the 4.7. Energy storage systems
vacuum in common parabolic trough collectors.
Finally, it is worthy to notice that most studies are related to the Thermal Energy Storage (TES) systems allow to store heat for sub-
performance enhancement of solar devices in clean conditions. sequent uses. These systems are fundamental because of the gap be-
Nevertheless, the effects of dirt and dust heap are matter of concern, tween the energy demand and supply in terms of time [146]. Several
especially in regions with a high deposition of dust and low frequency materials can be used for thermal energy storage [147]. Analyzing
and less intensity of rain [139]. sensible heat storage systems, the common suitable materials are water,
thermal oils, molten salts, earth materials and concrete blocks [148].
4.5. Thermal insulation Water is a suitable material due to its high specific heat capacity,
low cost and non-toxicity. It is used for storage applications char-
Heat transfer between the inner part of solar thermal collectors and acterized by low temperature, below 100 °C, and it can be considered
the external environment need to be limited in order to avoid negative the best material for residential space heating, food preservation and
effects in terms of efficiency. According to this, the internal side of solar domestic hot water supply, with few limits represented by high vapor
panels is covered with insulating materials. These materials need to be pressure and corrosiveness.
selected, taking into account thermal performance and durability. Among liquids, in solar towers and parabolic trough collectors,
Generally, the most common insulating materials used for these molten salts and mineral oils are widely used. The advantage of thermal
purposes are mineral fibers (characterized by thicknesses between 5 oils with respect to water is represented by the capability to maintain its
and 10 cm and high cost/benefit ratios), polyurethane foams (char- liquid phase even above 100 °C, up to 250 °C. They commonly work in a
acterized by higher thermal and mechanical performance) or mineral temperatures range between 12 °C and 400 °C. When temperatures are
fiber-polyurethane composite. higher than 400 °C, molten salt must be used as storage medium. They
Recently, natural materials have been studied as thermal insulators are characterized by high thermal capacity, thermal stability and high
for solar panels’ envelopes. Date palm wood [140] (widespread in boiling point. Moreover, the molten salts have a low cost and are not
tropical and Saharan countries) was tested as insulating material in a toxic. Furthermore, they are readily available and non-flammable. On
solar air heater, comparing its performance with glass wool. Thermal the other hand, they have high melting point (generally higher than
efficiencies were investigated considering insulators characterized by 200 °C), causing freezing phenomena in pipes, when solar radiation is
petiole piece, fibers piece, petiole powder, fibers powder, petiole plus not present.
gypsum, and finally fiber plus gypsum. The results demonstrated that Thermal energy storage can also be carried out using earth mate-
thermal efficiencies of the collector insulated using date palm wood rials. These materials are suitable as filling elements inside tanks. They
(petiole plus gypsum) was 37.7% higher than those obtained through a are housed in a packed bed structure where heat transfer fluids ex-
glass wool insulation. Moreover, the mean outlet air temperature was change heat by a direct contact. It has been observed that sand or
7% lower when the collector was insulated by means of glass wool. natural rocks can reduce the heat transfer fluid quantity in the tank for
Subsequently, the date palm wood can be considered a suitable solution charging/discharging thermal energy up to 80% [149]. Concrete and
as an efficient and safe natural insulating material. ceramics have been deeply studied due to their low costs and high
Coconut and polypropylene were also used as thermal insulation for thermal conductivity values [150].
solar air collectors [141], demonstrating that the thermal efficiency was Latent heat storage systems are basically based on PCMs char-
13.7% higher than the insulated polypropylene collector. More than acterized by solid/liquid transition are considered more efficient than
one natural material can be used to create insulating panels for solar PCMs with liquid/vapor and solid/solid transitions [151]. In their
collectors. work, Alva et al. [148] affirmed that the common suitable materials for
latent heat storage are organic, paraffin, non-paraffin and inorganic
4.6. Photovoltaic cell materials materials. In addition, the PCM encapsulation method is useful for re-
ducing losses, phase separation and volume change problems. Micro-
As previously mentioned, PV/Ts are hybrid collectors, compre- encapsulated PCM (MPCM) are one of the most widely used solutions to
hending two components into a single device. The commonly used optimize thermal energy storage.
technologies for photovoltaic panels are based on monocrystalline or TES systems can be based on underground storage solutions, for
polycrystalline silicon [142]. A typical cell can absorb solar radiation in seasonal storing. In this case, the storage mediums can be water (con-
a band ranging from 300 nm to 1100 nm, with a corresponding working tained in a tank), gravel, rock or sand (ground materials). Working
temperature interval from −40 °C to 85 °C. However, this range can be temperatures can rise to a maximum value equal to 95 °C.
higher, and temperatures can increase above the mentioned value. The Alternatively, TES systems can be made of stainless steel or

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

reinforced concrete, with a high thermal insulating material placed all 4.8. Energy efficiency improvement overall view
around the tank (generally made of XPS, EPS, glass wool, etc.).
Another solution is represented by underground pit, which is cov- Aiming at providing a global view of the energy efficiency im-
ered with plastic and filled with gravel and water. No bearing structure provements related to the functional elements analyzed in the previous
is required. The thermal energy storage solution through underground sub-sections, Fig. 17 shows a radar graph of the percentages of im-
pits has the lowest specific cost. To reduce heat losses, the pit must be provements in energy efficiency of the collectors. The graph reports
thermally insulated. Recharging takes place by direct contact with only one value for each functional element, equal to the average im-
water heated with gravel or by hot water jet through ducts positioned at provements in energy efficiency, obtained by the analyzed papers in
different depths [152]. this review. Moreover, the figure shows the different technical solutions
In case of natural aquifers, they can represent a natural TES system. inside a functional element's macro-area (boxes with colored outline),
Aquifers are underground geological systems that have formed natu- also providing distinctions among different solutions related to dif-
rally, characterized by porous rocks or mixtures of gravel and sand, ferent solar thermal collectors' type (by means of different colors inside
with ground water. Any artificial construction is needed, and costs are the boxes). PCMs and nanofluids were considered separately even if
related to the realization of the wells. they are part of the same macro-area (heat transfer medium) but they
When ground is drillable and characterized by high thermal con- are characterized by boxes with the same colored outline. Only the
ductivity and specific heat capacity, a viable solution can be re- technical solutions related to transparent screens are not colored be-
presented by borehole TES systems. Vertical wells are drilled (with a cause they may be adopted for any type of solar collector.
depth between 30 m and 100 m) to realize a group of heat exchangers
by vertical tubes that are inserted into the wells. The ground water 5. Standards and performance tests
presence is favorable because of its high specific heat capacity. The four
TES system described before are represented in Fig. 16. In recent years, the increasing popularity of solar thermal technol-
An alternative solution is represented by solar ponds, which oper- ogies has led to the need of defining specific standards for solar pro-
ates as energy storage system but, at the same time, it also works as ducts. Standards have been developed at European level for normal-
solar thermal collector. The solar ponds are natural ponds or artificially izing the differences between different countries and for ensuring a
made with salts dissolved inside. The vertical gradient of salt con- specific quality level for all the solar products manufactured and dis-
centration prevents natural convection, trapping the heated water in tributed within Europe. A brief description is provided below.
the deepest part of the pond. Solar ponds can provide heat in a tem- The EN12975-1: 2006 [153] standard specifies the requirements for
perature range equal to 20–90 °C, in function of the environmental durability, reliability and safety of liquid solar collectors, including the
climatic conditions. provisions for assessing compliance with these requirements. The
More detailed information about thermal energy storage systems standard is not applied to collectors where the thermal storage system is
can be found in Ref. [148]. integrated into the collector itself. Furthermore, this standard cannot be
applied to concentrating solar collectors.

Fig. 16. (a) Water tank seasonal system; (b) Pit type system; (c) Aquifer type system; (d) Borehole type system (an elaboration from Ref. [148]).

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Fig. 17. Average percentages of improvements in energy efficiency in function of the functional elements' macro-areas and the correlated technical solutions.

The Standard EN12975-2:2006 [154] specifies the test methods for for assessing the durability, reliability, safety and thermal performance
the validation of durability, reliability and safety for liquid heating of solar collectors (Table 3 shows a comparison between EN12975 and
collectors, as specified in EN12975-1. Three test methods for the ISO9806 [156]).
characterization of the thermal performance of the collectors are The thermal performance tests take into account the collector effi-
mentioned in the standard. ciency variation when the working conditions are different, by evalu-
In 2017, the new version of the ISO9806 [155] was published, de- ating the collector parameters such as the conversion factor, the in-
fining the test procedures for evaluating the durability, reliability, cident angle modifier, the thermal capacity and the time constant. The
safety and thermal performance of solar collectors. The test methods aim of these tests is making a comparison among different technologies,
are applicable both in the laboratory and in situ. The standard is ap- in an impartial and transparent fashion. Moreover, it is required to
plicable to all types of fluid, air and hybrid solar collectors. The stan- evaluate the collector's annual energy gain by means of simulation
dard does not cover electrical safety or other specific properties directly tools.
related to electricity generation. Two methods exist for the performance assessment: Steady State
Comparing USA and Europe, it is possible to observe great differ- Test and Quasi Dynamic Test. The distinction between direct and dif-
ences: in Europe, all countries adopt the EN standards for solar thermal fuse radiation is accounted only by the Quasi Dynamic Test. For this
products, whereas in United Stated different Standards and reason, this method is generally used for collectors sensitive to diffuse
Standardization bodies can be found. The ASHRAE and the Solar Rating radiation. In the case of Steady State Test, the boundary conditions
and Certification Corporation (SRCC) standards are the eldest and have a direct impact on the collector's parameters. Therefore, the in-
widely used. SRCC based solar product's tests on the international fluence of the individual development phases (for example the new
standard ISO 9806. In addition, the International Association of coating of the absorber) can be easily observed in direct relation with
Plumbing and Mechanical Official (IAPMO) is another certification the surrounding conditions.
body that developed its own standards but is also expected to test with The Quasi Dynamic Test must be adopted with concentrating col-
the new ISO 9806. lectors and solar thermal collectors using liquid. On the contrary,
In terms of standardization in the solar thermal field, Australia and Steady State Test can be used with both solar thermal collectors using
New Zealand are distinguished by a long tradition, with the ancient air and solar thermal collectors using liquid.
standard AS/NZS 2712. All the mentioned tests need specific measurements related to the
In order to provide an overview, Table 2 lists the main standards solar radiation, temperatures, flow rate and air speed. A schematic re-
related to solar thermal collectors in the world. presentation of the test configuration for evaluating solar collectors’
As mentioned before, the standard ISO9806 defines the procedures performance is shown in Fig. 18. The efficiency of a solar collector can

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Table 2
Solar thermal collectors’ standards in the world.
Country Standards Description

USA ⁃ASHRAE 93 ⁃Precursor to ISO 9806 and EN 12975.

⁃ASHRAE 96 ⁃Procedures for testing unglazed flat-plate liquid-type solar collectors.
⁃ASHRAE 109 ⁃Procedures for testing flat-plate solar collectors that contain a boiling liquid.
⁃SRCC Standard 100 ⁃Minimum requirements for solar thermal collectors.
⁃SRCC Standard 300 ⁃Minimum requirements for solar water heating systems.
⁃SRCC Standard 600 ⁃Minimum requirements for solar thermal concentrating collectors.
⁃SRCC TM-1 ⁃Procedures for testing solar domestic water heating component and analysis protocol.
⁃E905 ⁃Procedures for defining thermal performance of solar collectors with tracking concentrating systems.
⁃UL 1279 ⁃Summary of investigations for solar thermal collectors.
Canada ⁃CSA F378 ⁃Requirements and procedures for testing solar panels and coating materials. Definition of the materials performance,
⁃CSA F379 operating performance, and marking requirements.
⁃CSA F383-08 ⁃Assembled solar domestic systems for hot water production.
⁃Assembled solar domestic systems installation for the production of hot water.
Mexico ⁃NMX-001 ⁃Solar power, thermal efficiency and functionality of water heating solar collectors. Procedures for testing and labeling.
⁃NMX-004 ⁃Thermal analysis of solar thermal systems for water heating (procedures for testing).
Brazil ⁃NBR 1547-1 ⁃General requirements related to solar collectors.
⁃NBR 1547-2 ⁃Solar collectors test methods.
Chile ⁃EN and ISO ⁃Standards based on European and International standards.
Barbados ⁃BNS 147 ⁃Test method for thermal characterization of flat-plate solar collectors.
Europe ⁃EN 12976 ⁃Factory made solar thermal systems and components.
⁃EN 12977 ⁃Custom built solar thermal systems and components.
⁃ISO 9806 ⁃Procedures for testing solar thermal collectors.
Australia/New Zealand ⁃AS/NZS 2712 ⁃Design and construction of solar water heaters and heat pumps
China ⁃GB/T 17049 ⁃All glass evacuated solar collector tube.
⁃GB/T 17581 ⁃Evacuated tube solar collector.
⁃GB/T 6424 ⁃Specification for flat-plate solar collectors.
⁃GB/T 4271 ⁃Procedures for testing thermal performance of solar collectors.
India ⁃ISO 12933 ⁃Solar flat-plate collector.
Japan ⁃JIS A 1425 ⁃Solar collectors performance: test procedures.
Korea ⁃KEMCO ⁃Solar collector and solar hot water heater test for certification of new and renewable facilities.
Northern ⁃ISO 9806 ⁃Solar thermal collectors: test methods.
Africa and middle east
South Africa ⁃SANS 6211-1 ⁃Thermal performance of domestic solar water heaters by means of an outdoor test method.
⁃SANS 6211-2 ⁃Thermal performance of domestic solar water heaters by means of an indoor test method.

Table 3
Comparison between EN12975 and ISO9806, considering types, thermal performance and tests.
EN 12975-1:2006 ISO 9806:2017

Solar thermal collector type Solar thermal collectors using liquid Yes Yes
Solar thermal collectors using air No Yes
Concentrating solar thermal collector No Yes
Photovoltaic/Thermal collector No Yes
Collector thermal performance Efficiency (solar thermal collectors using liquid) Yes Yes
Efficiency (solar thermal collectors using air) No Yes
Thermal capacity evaluation Yes Yes
Leakage flow rate evaluation No Yes
Time constant assessment No Yes
Resilience and Reliability tests Internal pressure Yes Yes
Failure No Yes
Exposure Yes Yes
External thermal shock Yes Yes
Internal thermal shock Yes Yes
Rain infiltration Yes Yes
Mechanical load Yes Yes
Stagnation temperature assessment Yes Yes
Maximum start temperature assessment No Yes
Pressure drop evaluation No Yes
Impact resistance No Yes
Freeze resistance Yes Yes
Final check Yes Yes

be experimentally obtained by using a pyranometer for measuring the collector working. The instruments and the procedures used in this test
solar irradiation, and thermometers for the measurement of the fluid depend on the material used for the absorber. The internal pressure test
inlet and outlet temperature, and the air temperature. shows some differences for polymeric and non-polymeric absorbers. In
On the other hand, the reliability and resilience tests were intended the first case, the test duration is greater than 60 min, with a pre-con-
for reproducing the most difficult solar collector working conditions ditioning before starting the test. In the second case, the test duration is
during its life. For this reason, collectors have not to suffer failures. greater than 15 min, with a temperature equal to 20 °C ± 15 °C, and no
The purpose of the internal pressure test is to understand whether pre-conditioning is required.
the absorber can resist pressures that could occur during standard The leakage rate test aims at quantifying the volumetric flow rate of

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L. Evangelisti, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 114 (2019) 109318

Fig. 18. Measurement scheme for solar collector systems (elaboration from Ref. [155]).

the losses of the air solar collectors depending on the operating pres- Lastly, during the final inspection collectors are dismantled and the
sure. For the collectors characterized by a direct contact between results obtained by the testing are found at the concluding check. All
polymeric materials and working fluid, it is required to evaluate the anomalies are documented by means of photos.
leakage rate under stagnation conditions. For all other types of collec-
tors, the procedures suggest assessing the leakage rate at ambient 6. Conclusions
temperature, without solar radiation.
The rupture and collapse test are carried out on solar collectors In the last five years, more than 17,000 research articles have been
using air. The aim of this test is to evaluate the capability of the col- published on solar thermal collectors, with more than 14,000 experi-
lector to resist the probable pressure levels in the air duct. This test is mental works, thus demonstrating a great interest in this research field.
similar to the internal pressure test performed with solar thermal col- This review explains how every functional element is fundamental
lectors using liquids. for improving the efficiency of these devices. Innovations related to
The stagnation temperature test aims at determining the maximum absorbers and heat transfer fluids are the most investigated in litera-
temperature of the collectors without removing heat, in case of high ture. These functional elements have been studied and innovative and
solar radiation and high ambient temperature. The stagnation tem- low-cost solutions have been proposed taking into consideration
perature provides a useful information for the best choice of insulation shaping and materials, which greatly improve efficiency. From a sus-
materials and piping. The standard stagnation conditions are defined as tainable point of view, natural materials have been recently considered
a solar irradiation equal to 1000 W/m2 ± 100 W/m2, an ambient tem- for solar panels’ envelopes. Date palm wood and coconut coir were
perature equal to 30 °C ± 10 °C and a wind speed lower than 1 m/s. tested, obtaining higher thermal efficiencies than those achieved from
The exposure test aims at providing information about the effects of conventional insulators.
aging that can occur during the life of the solar collector. When looking at Photovoltaic/Thermal collectors, the energy pro-
The external thermal shock test provides information about the duced by these devices has been highly increased. This highlights that
capability of a collector to resist a severe thermal shock (an unexpected PV/Ts are very promising and therefore need more research and de-
thunderstorm on a hot sunny day). In this test an array of nozzles velopments related to total efficiency and reduction of costs.
provides a uniform water distribution over the front of the collector. It has been observed that complicated design not always corre-
Similarly, the internal thermal shock test assesses the aptitude of a sponds to better performance. It is necessary to focus on the key aspects
collector to resist an internal thermal shock resulting from a cold fluid of thermal behaviour, with a detailed analysis of heat transfer, so that
on a hot sunny day. maximum temperatures of the outlet fluid and high efficiency can be
The rain penetration test aims at evaluating if collectors are sig- achieved. Essentially, we can conclude that:
nificantly resilient to rain infiltration. In this test, spray nozzles are used
to simulate rain. ⁃ polymeric materials can be considered a practical solution and need
The freeze resistance test is based on two procedures: the first, for to be investigated in more detail by the scientific community;
the collectors that must withstand frost if filled with water or must ⁃ the analysis of convective phenomena, aiming at optimizing heat
withstand freezing after being discharged; the second, for collectors transfer and the shape of the absorber, are crucial for improving the
characterized by heat pipes. The water in the collector's absorber must performance of solar collectors that use air;
be kept at a temperature of −20 °C ± 2 °C for 30 min and then in- ⁃ mini-channels have become a research focus due to their cost-ef-
creased to above 10 °C. Three freeze-thaw cycles must be performed on fective production and leak-proof performance. However, the use of
the collector, which must then be checked for failures. mini-channels/micro-channels and nanofluids needs to be carefully
The mechanical load test allows to evaluate the capability of the evaluated since blockages of the channels and high load losses can
collector to resist to the pressure (or uplift forces) caused by wind or occur;
snow. ⁃ PCMs have been widely investigated by the scientific community for
Ice or steel balls are used in the impact resistance test. The test optimizing solar thermal collector performance, also considering
procedure consists of four shots characterized by identical impact PV/T systems: the structure of PCMs causes a latent heat storage in
strength. the collector able to delay the heat transfer during the evening and

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