AGE: 2401 CLIMATOLOGY

EXPLAIN THE IMPOTANCE OF CLIMATOLOGY (4MKS).

 Understanding Weather and Climate Patterns

Climatology helps in understanding the general weather patterns and variations of different
regions, enabling people to adapt to their local climate conditions.

 Agricultural Planning
Farmers rely on climatic information to determine planting and harvesting seasons, crop
selection, and irrigation needs.

 Disaster Preparedness and Management

Knowledge of climate trends helps in predicting and preparing for natural disasters such as
floods, droughts, and cyclones.

 Environmental Conservation
Climatology assists in understanding the effects of human activities on the environment and
guides measures to combat climate change and global warming.

 Urban and Regional Planning

Town planners use climatological data to design cities, buildings, and infrastructure suited to
prevailing climatic conditions, reducing heat stress and flooding risks.

 Health Management
Some diseases are climate-related (e.g., malaria, cholera). Climatology helps health authorities
predict and manage outbreaks influenced by climatic changes.

 Water Resource Management

Understanding rainfall and evaporation patterns aids in the effective management of water
resources such as dams and irrigation systems.

 Transportation and Aviation Safety

Climatic knowledge supports safe air, sea, and land navigation by predicting weather conditions
that affect travel.

 Tourism Development
Tourism planners use climate data to identify suitable destinations and seasons for tourism
activities.

 Scientific Research and Policy Formulation

Climatological studies provide data used by governments and international organizations to
formulate environmental and development policies.

ASSESS IMPORTANCE OF METEOROLOGY (4MKS)

Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather processes. It plays a crucial
role in many aspects of human life and national development. The importance of meteorology
can be assessed as follows:

1. Weather Forecasting – Meteorology provides accurate weather forecasts that help

individuals and institutions plan daily activities, agricultural operations, and transport
schedules effectively.
2. Disaster Management – Meteorological information helps in predicting and monitoring
natural disasters such as droughts, floods, storms, and cyclones, thus minimizing loss of
life and property.
3. Agricultural Planning – Farmers rely on meteorological data to determine planting and
harvesting periods, irrigation needs, and crop selection based on rainfall and temperature
patterns.
4. Aviation Safety – Meteorology ensures safe air travel by providing information on wind
patterns, turbulence, and visibility conditions, helping pilots make informed flight
decisions.
5. Marine and Fishing Activities – Weather forecasts assist sailors and fishermen in
avoiding dangerous sea conditions, thus ensuring safety and improving productivity.
6. Water Resource Management – Meteorological data supports the planning and
management of dams, reservoirs, and irrigation systems by predicting rainfall and water
availability.
7. Climate Change Monitoring – Meteorologists collect and analyze long-term
atmospheric data to study trends in climate change and its impact on the environment.
8. Health and Environmental Protection – Meteorology helps predict and control the
spread of climate-related diseases and monitors air quality, ensuring public health and
safety.
9. Energy Production – It supports energy sectors such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric
power by providing data on weather patterns that affect energy generation.
10. National Planning and Economic Development – Governments and industries use
meteorological data for policy-making, infrastructure design, and disaster preparedness
programs.

BREIFLY EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING CONCEPTS

Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric stability refers to the resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion of air. When
the atmosphere is stable, rising air parcels cool faster than their surroundings and sink back.
When unstable, they continue to rise, leading to cloud formation and possibly storms.

Radiation Cooling
Radiation cooling is the process through which the Earth's surface loses heat in the form of
infrared radiation, especially during clear and calm nights. When the ground radiates more
energy than it receives, its temperature drops, cooling the lower atmosphere. This often leads to
dew or frost formation.
Environmental Lapse Rate
The environmental lapse rate refers to the rate at which air temperature decreases with increasing
altitude in the atmosphere. On average, temperature drops by about 6.5°C per 1,000 meters (or
1 km) of ascent. It varies depending on humidity, time of day, and local weather conditions.

Albedo
Albedo is the measure of how much incoming solar radiation is reflected by a surface. It is
expressed as a percentage or fraction. Bright surfaces like ice and snow have high albedo
(reflect most sunlight), while dark surfaces like forests or oceans have low albedo (absorb more
heat).

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of a substance by one degree Celsius (°C). Substances with high specific heat, like
water, warm and cool slowly, influencing climate and weather patterns.

EXPLAIN FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SPATIAL TEMPORAL VARIATION OF

TEMPERATURE OVER THE PLANET EARTH (10MKS)

Temperature varies from place to place (spatial variation) and from time to time (temporal
variation) due to several natural and geographical factors. The main ones include:

Latitude

The angle of the sun’s rays decreases from the Equator toward the poles.

Areas near the Equator receive direct solar radiation and are therefore warmer, while polar
regions receive slanting rays and are colder.

Altitude

Temperature decreases with increase in height above sea level at an average rate of 6.5°C per
1000 metres (environmental lapse rate).

Thus, highlands are cooler than lowlands.

Distance from the Sea / Continentality

Coastal areas experience moderate temperatures due to the sea’s influence (maritime effect).
Inland areas have more extreme temperatures (hotter days, colder nights) because land heats and
cools faster than water.

Ocean Currents

Warm currents raise temperatures of adjacent coastal areas (e.g., Gulf Stream), while cold
currents lower them (e.g., Canary Current).

Cloud Cover and Atmospheric Conditions

Thick cloud cover reduces daytime temperatures by reflecting solar radiation and raises night
temperatures by trapping outgoing radiation.

Clear skies lead to high daytime and low night temperatures.

Angle of the Sun’s Rays and Length of Daylight

During summer, the sun’s rays strike more directly, and days are longer—causing higher
temperatures.

In winter, rays are slanting and days shorter—causing lower temperatures.

Nature of the Surface (Albedo Effect)

Dark surfaces (forests, oceans) absorb more heat, while light surfaces (ice, deserts) reflect more
solar energy, affecting local temperatures.

Winds and Air Masses

Winds from warm regions raise temperatures; those from cold regions lower them.

Movement of air masses influences regional temperature variations.

DISCUSS MEASURES TO PREVENT CLIMATE CHANGE. (10MKS)

Climate change prevention involves actions aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
enhancing environmental sustainability. The following are key measures:

Afforestation and Reforestation

Planting new trees and restoring degraded forests helps absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, acting as a natural carbon sink.

Use of Renewable Energy

Promoting solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric power reduces dependence on fossil fuels,
which are major sources of greenhouse gas emissions.

Energy Conservation and Efficiency

Using energy-efficient appliances, vehicles, and industrial systems lowers energy consumption
and emissions.

Sustainable Agriculture

Practices like organic farming, conservation tillage, and agroforestry reduce methane and nitrous
oxide emissions while enhancing soil carbon storage.

Waste Management

Recycling, composting, and proper disposal of waste prevent methane emissions from landfills
and reduce resource wastage.

Public Awareness and Education

Educating communities about the causes and effects of climate change encourages behavioral
change and environmental responsibility.

Legislation and Policy Enforcement

Enacting and enforcing environmental laws, such as emission limits and carbon taxes, helps
regulate industries and protect the environment.

Promotion of Sustainable Transport

Encouraging the use of public transport, electric vehicles, cycling, and walking reduces
emissions from the transport sector.

WITH EXAMPLE CRITIQUE THE RELEVANCE OF WATER BALANCE STUDIES

(12MKS).
Agricultural Planning and Irrigation Management
Water balance helps in determining soil moisture availability, guiding irrigation scheduling and
crop selection.
Example: In Kenya’s arid regions such as Turkana, water balance data helps design irrigation
systems that optimize limited water resources.

Hydrological Forecasting and Flood Control

It assists in predicting streamflow and floods, thereby supporting the design of dams and flood
control structures.
Example: In the Tana River Basin, water balance models are used to predict seasonal floods and
manage reservoir operations.

Water Resource Management and Allocation

It helps planners allocate water efficiently among competing uses such as domestic, industrial,
and agricultural sectors.
Example: The Athi River Catchment Management Authority uses water balance data to regulate
water abstraction.

Drought Monitoring and Climate Change Assessment

Water balance studies indicate periods of water surplus and deficit, helping in drought
preparedness and climate adaptation planning.
Example: The Kenya Meteorological Department applies water balance models to monitor long-
term drought trends.

Soil and Environmental Conservation

Helps in assessing soil erosion risks and maintaining ecological balance through proper land use
planning.
Example: In the Mau Forest region, water balance studies have informed soil conservation and
reforestation efforts.

Urban and Industrial Planning

Urban planners use water balance data to design drainage systems and ensure sustainable water
supply for urban populations.
Example: Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company applies water balance principles to
manage water demand and supply.

Critique / Limitations

Data Inaccuracy and Incompleteness

Many regions lack adequate meteorological stations, making estimates of precipitation and
evapotranspiration unreliable.
Complexity of Natural Systems
Water balance assumes uniformity in soil, vegetation, and rainfall, which is rarely the case in
heterogeneous environments.

Temporal and Spatial Variability

Short-term studies may fail to capture long-term climatic variations, reducing the accuracy of
predictions.

ASSESS THE ROLE OF SOIL MOISTURE IN REGULATING CLIMATE 10MKS

Regulation of Surface Temperature

Soil moisture influences how solar energy is used at the Earth’s surface. Wet soils use much of
the incoming solar energy for evaporation, which cools the surface, while dry soils increase
sensible heat, leading to higher surface temperatures.

Control of Evapotranspiration
Moist soils enhance evapotranspiration, adding water vapor to the atmosphere, which affects
humidity and local rainfall patterns. Low soil moisture reduces evapotranspiration and can lead
to drier climates.

Influence on Precipitation Patterns

Regions with high soil moisture contribute more moisture to the air, which may increase cloud
formation and rainfall. Conversely, low soil moisture can cause drought conditions by
reducing atmospheric moisture availability.

Impact on Energy Balance

Soil moisture alters the energy balance between latent and sensible heat fluxes. This balance
affects local and regional climate systems by influencing air circulation and temperature
gradients.

Feedback Mechanisms in Climate Systems

Soil moisture acts as a climate feedback variable. For instance, drying soils during a heatwave
can intensify warming, while moist soils can moderate temperature extremes, thus stabilizing
regional climates.

EXAMINE THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER BALANCE DATA TO MANAGERS OF

WATER SUPPLY FROM DAMS. (10MKS)

Assessment of Water Availability

It helps managers determine the total amount of water available for supply by comparing inflows
and losses, ensuring sustainable water distribution.

Efficient Water Allocation

Water balance data enables managers to allocate water fairly among domestic, industrial,
agricultural, and environmental uses based on availability.
Planning for Drought and Flood Periods
By analyzing seasonal or annual variations, managers can forecast shortages during droughts and
excesses during floods, allowing for preparedness measures.

Reservoir Operation and Regulation

Accurate data helps in determining when to release or store water to maintain optimal reservoir
levels and prevent overflow or drying up.

Design and Maintenance of Infrastructure

Engineers and planners use water balance data to design spillways, gates, and drainage systems
that match hydrological conditions.

Monitoring Environmental Impacts

Water balance studies reveal how dam operations affect downstream ecosystems, supporting
decisions that protect aquatic habitats.

Hydroelectric Power Management

In dams with power generation, water balance helps in scheduling releases to maintain consistent
electricity production.

Policy and Decision Making

It provides scientific evidence for water management policies, pricing, and long-term investment
in water projects.

Early Warning Systems

Continuous water balance monitoring assists in predicting extreme events like floods or reservoir
failure.

Sustainable Resource Management

Overall, water balance ensures that water use does not exceed replenishment rates, promoting
long-term sustainability.

EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF CARBON CREDIT IN CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION.

(10MKS)

Encourages Emission Reductions

Carbon credits create a financial incentive for industries and organizations to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions. Firms that emit less can sell their unused credits, promoting cleaner
production.

Promotes Investment in Green Technologies

By putting a price on carbon, carbon credits encourage companies to invest in renewable energy,
energy efficiency, and low-carbon innovations.
 Supports Reforestation and Conservation Projects
Many carbon credits are generated through afforestation, reforestation, and conservation projects
that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Facilitates International Cooperation

Carbon credit trading between developed and developing countries supports global collaboration
under agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.

Provides Economic Benefits to Developing Countries

Developing nations earn income by selling credits from projects that reduce emissions (e.g.,
solar, biogas, or forest protection projects).

Enhances Corporate Social Responsibility

Businesses use carbon credits to demonstrate commitment to environmental sustainability and
climate goals.

Promotes Policy Compliance

Carbon credits help countries and firms meet national or international emission reduction targets
in a cost-effective manner.

Stimulates Carbon Market Growth

The trade of carbon credits develops a carbon market that helps allocate resources efficiently
toward low-carbon activities.

EXPLAIN 5 CONCEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE BIOME. (10MKS)

Loss of Biodiversity
Rising temperatures, droughts, and habitat destruction lead to the extinction of plant and animal
species that cannot adapt or migrate, reducing biodiversity within biomes such as tropical forests
and coral reefs.

Alteration of Ecosystem Structure and Function

Climate change modifies vegetation patterns, soil composition, and food chains. For example,
warming in tundra biomes causes permafrost thawing, changing nutrient cycles and vegetation
types.

Shifts in Biome Distribution

Many biomes are shifting poleward or to higher altitudes due to changes in temperature and
precipitation. For instance, deserts may expand while temperate forests move northwards.
Increased Frequency of Wildfires and Droughts
Hotter and drier conditions increase wildfire frequency in biomes such as savannas and
Mediterranean forests, destroying habitats and reducing productivity.

Disruption of Water and Carbon Cycles

Climate change alters precipitation patterns and evapotranspiration rates, affecting water
availability. It also impacts carbon storage in forests and soils, weakening their role as carbon
sinks.

EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE DATA TO AGRICULTURAL

MANAGERS. (10MKS)

Planning and Decision Making

Climate data helps agricultural managers plan planting and harvesting schedules according to
expected rainfall and temperature patterns.

Crop Selection
It guides farmers in choosing suitable crop varieties that can tolerate expected climatic
conditions such as drought or excess rainfall.

Pest and Disease Control

Changing temperature and humidity patterns influence pest and disease outbreaks; climate data
helps predict and manage such risks.

Irrigation Management
Data on rainfall and evapotranspiration assists managers in determining irrigation needs,
conserving water resources.

Soil and Water Conservation

Understanding rainfall intensity and distribution helps design soil conservation structures to
reduce erosion and maintain fertility.

Risk Assessment and Disaster Preparedness

Climate data supports early warning systems for droughts, floods, or heat waves, minimizing
crop losses.

Yield Forecasting
Accurate climate records enable prediction of crop yields, assisting in food security planning and
market forecasting.

Adaptation Strategies
Long-term climate trends guide development of adaptive farming practices such as agroforestry,
crop diversification, and conservation agriculture.
Policy and Resource Allocation
Agricultural managers use climate data to influence policy decisions and allocate resources
effectively for sustainable farming.

Sustainable Agricultural Development

Reliable climate data ensures environmental sustainability by promoting practices that maintain
ecosystem balance and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

ASSESS THE CHALLENGES OF COLLECTING DATA ON CLIMATE CHANGE.

(10MKS)

Inadequate Monitoring Infrastructure

Many regions, especially in developing countries, lack sufficient weather stations, satellite
coverage, and ocean buoys, leading to gaps and unreliable data.

High Cost of Equipment and Technology

Advanced tools such as satellites, remote sensors, and supercomputers used for climate modeling
are expensive to acquire and maintain.

Limited Technical Expertise

A shortage of trained scientists and technicians hampers accurate data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.

Data Inconsistency and Fragmentation

Different institutions may collect data using varied methods or formats, making it difficult to
standardize or compare results globally.

Temporal and Spatial Gaps

Some regions, especially oceans, polar areas, and developing countries, have limited long-term
records, reducing accuracy in trend analysis.

Political and Institutional Constraints

Some governments restrict data sharing or manipulate information for political or economic
reasons, reducing transparency.

Environmental and Logistical Barriers

Harsh conditions such as remote terrains, deserts, or the deep sea make physical data collection
difficult and costly.

Data Processing and Storage Challenges

The massive volumes of climate data require advanced computing power and secure storage
systems, which are often inadequate.

Uncertainty in Climate Models

Climate models rely on assumptions that may not fully capture complex natural interactions,
leading to uncertainty.
Lack of Long-Term Funding and Policy Support
Inconsistent funding and shifting political priorities disrupt continuous data collection efforts.

2 nd SECTION

DIFFERENTIATE THE FOLLOWING:

Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) and Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) (6 Marks)

Aspect Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

The actual amount of water that is lost The maximum amount of water that
Definition from the soil and vegetation through could be lost from the soil and
evaporation and transpiration. vegetation if water were not limiting.
Water Depends on the availability of soil
Assumes unlimited water supply.
Availability moisture.
Magnitude Usually less than or equal to PET. Usually greater than or equal to AET.
Controlled mainly by climatic factors
Controlling Influenced by soil moisture, vegetation
like temperature, wind, and solar
Factors cover, and climate.
radiation.
In dry areas, AET is low due to limited In wet tropical areas, PET may be high
Example
soil water. due to high temperature and radiation.
Difficult to measure directly; often Can be estimated using models like
Measurement
estimated from field data. Penman or Thornthwaite equations.

2. Solar and Terrestrial Radiation (4 Marks)

Aspect Solar Radiation Terrestrial Radiation

Emitted by the Earth’s surface and
Source Originates from the Sun.
atmosphere.
Shortwave radiation (mostly visible
Wavelength Longwave radiation (infrared).
and near-infrared).
Temperature of
Very high (≈ 6000°C). Relatively low (≈ 15°C).
Source
Flows from the Earth back to the
Direction of Flow Flows from the Sun to the Earth.
atmosphere and space.

3. Cyclone and Anticyclone (6 Marks)

Aspect Cyclone Anticyclone

A high-pressure system with air
A low-pressure system with air
Definition diverging and sinking at the
converging and rising at the center.
center.
Air Movement Air moves inward and upward. Air moves outward and
Aspect Cyclone Anticyclone
downward.
Direction of Rotation
Counterclockwise. Clockwise.
(Northern Hemisphere)
Associated with clouds, rain, and Associated with clear skies and
Weather Conditions
storms. calm weather.
Rising air causes condensation and Descending air inhibits cloud
Vertical Motion
precipitation. formation.
Pressure Pattern Center has lowest pressure. Center has highest pressure.

EXPLAIN THE MAIN DETERMINANTS OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY (5MKS)

The main determinants of atmospheric humidity include the following:

Temperature: Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air. As temperature increases,
the rate of evaporation rises, leading to higher humidity levels.

Availability of Water Bodies: Areas near oceans, lakes, and rivers experience higher humidity
due to continuous evaporation of water from these surfaces.

Air Movement (Wind): Winds influence humidity by transporting moist or dry air. Moist winds
from oceans increase humidity, while dry continental winds reduce it.

Altitude: Humidity decreases with altitude because air becomes cooler and thinner, reducing its
capacity to hold water vapour.

Vegetation Cover: Dense vegetation increases humidity through transpiration, releasing water
vapour into the atmosphere.

BRIFLY DESCRIBE CLIMATE CHANGE (5MKS)

Climate change refers to long-term alteration of temperature and weather patterns on Earth.

It is mainly caused by increased greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide and methane.

Human activities like deforestation, burning fossil fuels, and industrialization accelerate it.

It leads to effects such as rising sea levels, droughts, floods, and shifting rainfall patterns.

Both natural factors (volcanic eruptions, solar variations) and human actions contribute to
climate change.

EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT. (5MKS)

The greenhouse effect refers to the process by which certain gases in the Earth’s atmosphere trap
heat from the sun.
Solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth's surface.

The Earth then emits this energy back as infrared radiation.

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and water vapor absorb and re-
radiate part of this heat back toward the Earth's surface.

This process keeps the Earth’s temperature warm enough to support life, but excessive
greenhouse gases lead to global warming.

EXPLAIN EFFECTS OF THE MAJOR CLIMATIC CONTROLS ON GLOBAL

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE. (10MKS)

Latitude:
Temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles because solar radiation is
concentrated over a smaller surface area at the equator and spread over a larger area near the
poles. Thus, equatorial regions are hot while polar regions are cold.

Altitude (Elevation):
Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude due to thinning of the atmosphere. High-
altitude areas like mountains are cooler than low-lying regions at the same latitude.

Distance from the Sea (Continentality):

Coastal areas experience moderate temperatures because water heats and cools more slowly than
land. Inland areas have more extreme temperatures (hotter summers and colder winters).

Ocean Currents:
Warm ocean currents raise the temperature of coastal regions they flow past, while cold currents
lower the temperatures of nearby coasts. For example, the Gulf Stream warms Western Europe,
while the Canary Current cools North Africa’s coast.

Winds and Air Masses:

Winds transfer heat from one place to another. Warm winds from tropical areas raise
temperatures, while cold winds from polar regions lower them.

Cloud Cover and Precipitation:

Cloud cover reduces daytime temperatures by reflecting sunlight and increases nighttime
temperatures by trapping heat. Regions with frequent clouds have smaller temperature ranges.

Aspect (Slope Direction):

In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes receive more direct sunlight and are warmer than
north-facing slopes. The reverse occurs in the southern hemisphere.

Vegetation Cover:
Dense vegetation absorbs more solar energy and releases moisture through evapotranspiration,
moderating temperatures, while bare land surfaces heat up more quickly.
Urbanization:
Urban areas tend to be warmer than surrounding rural areas due to the heat island effect—
buildings, asphalt, and pollution trap heat.

Seasonal Changes and Earth’s Tilt:

The tilt of the Earth’s axis causes variations in solar radiation during the year, resulting in
different seasons and temperature differences across latitudes.

DISCUSS EFFECTS OF SURFACE PROPERTIES ON GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF

TEMPERATURE. (10MKS)

Albedo Effect:
Surfaces with high albedo, such as ice and snow, reflect most incoming solar radiation, leading
to lower temperatures. Darker surfaces like forests and oceans absorb more radiation, increasing
local temperatures.

Nature of the Surface (Land vs. Water):

Land surfaces heat and cool faster than water due to lower specific heat capacity. As a result,
continental areas experience higher temperature ranges than oceanic areas.

Vegetation Cover:
Areas with dense vegetation have lower surface temperatures due to shading and
evapotranspiration, while barren or deforested regions experience higher surface temperatures.

Soil Moisture Content:

Moist soils use much of the incoming energy for evaporation rather than heating, leading to
cooler surface temperatures compared to dry areas.

Surface Roughness:
Rough surfaces like forests promote turbulent air mixing, enhancing heat exchange and
moderating temperature, while smooth surfaces like deserts allow rapid heating.

Urbanization (Built-up Surfaces):

Urban areas with concrete and asphalt absorb and retain more heat, creating “urban heat islands”
with higher temperatures than rural surroundings.

Topography:
Slopes facing the sun receive more solar radiation and are warmer than shaded slopes or valleys
that trap cold air.

Ocean Currents and Surface Water:

Warm currents raise temperatures of nearby coastal areas, while cold currents lower them (e.g.,
the Gulf Stream vs. the Labrador Current).
Surface Color and Material:
Dark-colored or metallic surfaces absorb more heat than light-colored or sandy surfaces,
influencing local temperature variations.

Presence of Ice and Snow Cover:

Extensive ice or snow cover increases reflection and cooling in polar regions, helping maintain
lower global temperatures.

EXPLAIN ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE. (10MKS)

Anthropogenic causes refer to human activities that alter the natural balance of the atmosphere,
leading to global climate change. The main causes include:

Burning of Fossil Fuels – Combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas for energy, transport, and
industry releases large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂), a major greenhouse gas.

Deforestation – Cutting down forests reduces carbon absorption by trees and releases stored
CO₂ when vegetation is burned or decomposes.

Industrial Emissions – Factories emit greenhouse gases such as CO₂, methane (CH₄), and
nitrous oxide (N₂O) through manufacturing and processing activities.

Agricultural Activities – Livestock produce methane during digestion, while the use of
nitrogen-based fertilizers releases nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.

Urbanization – Expansion of cities increases energy consumption, vehicle emissions, and heat
absorption due to concrete surfaces, contributing to the urban heat island effect.

Waste Management – Decomposition of organic waste in landfills produces methane gas, a

potent greenhouse gas.

Transportation – Vehicles, ships, and airplanes emit large quantities of CO₂ and other
pollutants from fuel combustion.

Use of Refrigerants – Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other synthetic chemicals used in

cooling systems damage the ozone layer and act as greenhouse gases.

Mining and Quarrying – These activities release CO₂ and methane through land disturbance
and fossil fuel extraction.

Energy Production and Consumption – Overreliance on non-renewable energy sources such

as coal and oil increases atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.

EXPLAIN MAIN FACTORS THAT DETERMINE SOLAR RADIATION BALANCE

WITHIN THE TROPOSPHERE (10MKS)
Solar radiation balance within the troposphere refers to the difference between incoming solar
energy and outgoing terrestrial energy. Several factors influence how this balance is maintained:

Angle of Solar Incidence – The angle at which solar rays strike the Earth’s surface determines
the intensity of radiation. Areas near the equator receive direct rays, hence more energy, while
polar regions receive oblique rays, leading to less energy.

Duration of Sunshine – Regions with longer daylight hours receive more solar radiation
compared to those with shorter days, affecting the total energy received.

Cloud Cover – Clouds reflect, absorb, and scatter solar radiation. Thick clouds reduce the
amount of solar radiation reaching the surface, while clear skies enhance it.

Altitude – Solar radiation increases with altitude because the atmosphere becomes thinner,
reducing the amount of scattering and absorption of solar energy.

Atmospheric Composition – Gases, dust, and aerosols in the atmosphere absorb and scatter
incoming radiation, thereby influencing the amount of energy that reaches the Earth’s surface.

Surface Albedo (Reflectivity) – Bright surfaces like ice, snow, and deserts reflect more solar
radiation, while dark surfaces like forests and oceans absorb more, affecting the energy balance.

Latitude – The curvature of the Earth causes variations in solar intensity with latitude; equatorial
regions receive more concentrated radiation than higher latitudes.

Time of Year (Seasonal Variation) – The tilt of the Earth’s axis causes seasonal differences in
solar radiation received at different latitudes.

Water Vapour Content – Water vapour absorbs longwave radiation and influences the
greenhouse effect, thereby modifying the radiation balance.

Human Activities – Air pollution, deforestation, and urbanization alter atmospheric composition
and surface properties, changing the absorption and reflection of solar energy.

DESCRIBE CAUSES OF ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATIONS. (10MKS)

Atmospheric circulation refers to the large-scale movement of air that distributes heat and
moisture around the Earth. The main causes include:

Unequal Heating of the Earth’s Surface

The sun heats the Earth unevenly due to differences in latitude, land and water surfaces, and
seasons, creating temperature and pressure differences that drive air movement.

Pressure and Temperature Differences

Warm air expands and rises, forming low-pressure areas, while cool air contracts and sinks,
forming high-pressure areas. The movement of air from high to low pressure creates wind and
circulation.

Earth’s Rotation (Coriolis Effect)

The rotation of the Earth causes deflection of moving air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, influencing global wind patterns and circulation cells.

Presence of Continents and Oceans

Land and sea surfaces heat and cool at different rates, causing monsoons, sea breezes, and
uneven air movement across the globe.

Seasonal Changes
The tilt of the Earth’s axis causes seasonal variations in solar radiation, shifting pressure belts
and wind systems northward or southward throughout the year.

Altitude Differences
Air temperature and pressure decrease with height, creating vertical movements of air
(convection currents) that contribute to circulation.

Frictional Forces and Topography

Mountains, valleys, and surface roughness modify air movement, causing local circulations like
mountain-valley breezes and influencing the direction and strength of winds.

EXPLAIN WAYS THROUGH WHICH SOLAR ENERGY IS LOST WITHIN THE

EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. (10MKS)

Scattering

Scattering occurs when solar radiation is deflected in different directions by gas molecules, dust
particles, and water vapour in the atmosphere.

Shorter wavelengths, such as blue and violet light, are scattered more, which causes the sky to
appear blue.

This scattering prevents a portion of solar radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface directly.

Absorption by Atmospheric Gases

Certain gases in the atmosphere, such as ozone (O₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water vapour
(H₂O), absorb specific wavelengths of solar radiation.

For instance, ozone absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere, while
water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some infrared radiation.This process reduces the total
amount of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface.

Reflection by Clouds
Clouds reflect a large portion of incoming solar radiation back into space due to their bright,
white surfaces and high albedo.

Thick clouds can reflect up to 80–90% of solar radiation, significantly reducing the amount that
penetrates to the surface.

Reflection by Atmospheric Particles

Dust, aerosols, and pollutants suspended in the atmosphere reflect part of the solar radiation back
into space.

This reflection contributes to the overall energy loss from the incoming solar radiation.

Reflection by the Earth’s Surface (Albedo Effect)

Some solar radiation that reaches the surface is reflected back into the atmosphere, especially
from bright surfaces such as ice, snow, sand, and deserts.

This reflected energy does not contribute to surface heating and is eventually lost to space.

Absorption by Clouds

Clouds also absorb a portion of the solar radiation, particularly in the near-infrared range.

The absorbed energy warms the clouds but prevents some radiation from reaching the ground.

Diffusion by Water Vapour and Dust

Water vapour and dust cause diffusion of solar radiation, spreading it in all directions.

This reduces the intensity of direct sunlight and therefore decreases the total solar energy
reaching the surface.

DESCRIBE CONFLICT THAT EXIST BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH AND

NEGATIVE CLIMATE CHANGE. (10MKS)

Industrialization and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Economic growth is largely driven by industrialization, which depends on the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. These activities release large amounts of carbon dioxide
(CO₂) and other greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming
and climate change.

Deforestation for Economic Expansion

To create space for agriculture, urban development, and infrastructure, forests are cleared. This
reduces carbon sinks and increases the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere, worsening
climate change while supporting short-term economic activities.
Overexploitation of Natural Resources
Economic growth often demands intensive extraction of natural resources like minerals, timber,
and water. This unsustainable exploitation leads to resource depletion, land degradation, and
increased emissions—undermining environmental sustainability.

Energy Demand and Fossil Fuel Dependence

Expanding economies require more energy for industries, transport, and households. Many
developing nations still rely on fossil fuels, which contribute heavily to global warming, creating
a direct conflict between growth and climate protection.

Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Industrial and agricultural activities associated with economic growth produce waste, air
pollution, and water contamination. These pollutants damage ecosystems and alter climate
patterns through aerosol and particulate emissions.

Transportation and Urbanization Pressures

Economic development promotes urbanization and motorization, leading to high energy
consumption and emissions from vehicles. Expanding cities also increase heat islands, affecting
local climate conditions.

Agricultural Intensification
To meet food demands, economies increase agricultural production using fertilizers, machinery,
and livestock farming—all of which emit methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), potent
greenhouse gases.

Short-term Growth vs. Long-term Sustainability

Governments and corporations often prioritize rapid GDP growth over environmental protection.
This creates a policy conflict, as climate-friendly practices may seem costly or slow down
growth in the short term.

Inequality Between Developed and Developing Nations

Developed countries achieved their growth through heavy industrialization, while developing
countries now face pressure to limit emissions. This creates a conflict between the right to
develop and the need to protect the global climate.

Adaptation and Mitigation Costs

Efforts to combat climate change—such as renewable energy investments and emission controls
—require high financial input. For many economies, especially in developing countries, these
costs are seen as obstacles to rapid economic growth.

DISCUSS THE APPLICATION OF CLIMATIC DATA IN SUPPORTING ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA. (10MKS)

Agricultural Planning and Productivity

Climatic data helps farmers and agricultural planners determine the best planting and harvesting
seasons based on rainfall and temperature patterns. It guides the selection of suitable crop
varieties for different agro-climatic zones, reducing crop failure and increasing yields, thereby
enhancing food security and agricultural income.

Water Resource Management

Data on rainfall, evaporation, and streamflow assists in designing and managing dams, irrigation
schemes, and water distribution systems. This ensures sustainable water supply for domestic,
agricultural, and industrial use, which is vital for socio-economic development.

Energy Production and Planning

Climatic information supports the development of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind,
and hydroelectric power. For example, solar radiation data identifies areas suitable for solar
farms, while wind speed data assists in siting wind turbines, reducing energy costs, and
promoting sustainable growth.

Infrastructure and Urban Planning

Engineers and planners use climatic data to design climate-resilient infrastructure such as roads,
bridges, and buildings. Data on rainfall and temperature trends informs drainage systems and
construction materials, reducing maintenance costs and enhancing economic efficiency.

Tourism Development
The tourism sector depends on climatic data to forecast and promote favorable seasons for tourist
activities. For instance, data on temperature and rainfall helps advertise peak safari and coastal
tourism seasons, thereby boosting revenue from international and local tourists.

Health Sector Planning

Climatic data assists in predicting and managing climate-related diseases such as malaria,
cholera, and heat-related illnesses. Timely forecasts enable health authorities to allocate
resources effectively and protect human capital essential for economic productivity.

Disaster Risk Management

Through early warning systems based on climatic data, Kenya can anticipate droughts, floods,
and other extreme weather events. This minimizes economic losses by enabling timely
interventions, such as food aid distribution or evacuation planning.

Fisheries and Marine Resource Management

Climatic and oceanographic data (e.g., sea surface temperature and wind patterns) support
sustainable fishing practices and help predict fish migration patterns, enhancing fisheries
productivity and supporting coastal economies.

Industrial and Manufacturing Efficiency

Industries use climatic data to optimize cooling, heating, and raw material processing operations,
reducing energy consumption and production costs.

Policy Formulation and National Development Planning

Government agencies rely on long-term climatic data to develop climate-smart economic
policies, such as those in the Kenya Vision 2030 and National Climate Change Action Plan
(NCCAP), ensuring sustainable and inclusive economic growth.