EU Council Presidencies in Times of Crises 2024th

Edition Ramona Coman digital version 2025

Available on ebookgate.com
( 4.7/5.0 ★ | 153 downloads )

https://ebookgate.com/product/eu-council-presidencies-in-times-of-
crises-2024th-edition-ramona-coman/
 EU Council Presidencies in Times of Crises 2024th Edition
Ramona Coman

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 ACADEMIC EDITION – LIMITED RELEASE

Available Instantly Access Library

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

European Union Council Presidencies A Comparative Analysis

Routledge Advances in European Politics 13 1st Edition Ole
Elgstrom
https://ebookgate.com/product/european-union-council-presidencies-a-
comparative-analysis-routledge-advances-in-european-politics-13-1st-
edition-ole-elgstrom/
ebookgate.com

Pictures of the Mind 1st Edition Ramona Fotiade

https://ebookgate.com/product/pictures-of-the-mind-1st-edition-ramona-
fotiade/

ebookgate.com

Shakespearean maternities crises of conception in early

modern England 1st Edition Laoutaris

https://ebookgate.com/product/shakespearean-maternities-crises-of-
conception-in-early-modern-england-1st-edition-laoutaris/

ebookgate.com

Financial crises in emerging markets 1st Edition Reuven

Glick

https://ebookgate.com/product/financial-crises-in-emerging-
markets-1st-edition-reuven-glick/

ebookgate.com
East and West The Making of a Rift in the Church From
Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence Oxford
History of the Christian Church 1st Edition Henry Chadwick
https://ebookgate.com/product/east-and-west-the-making-of-a-rift-in-
the-church-from-apostolic-times-until-the-council-of-florence-oxford-
history-of-the-christian-church-1st-edition-henry-chadwick/
ebookgate.com

Exploratory Potential Methods in Geothermal Power

Generation 2024th Edition Willi Freeden

https://ebookgate.com/product/exploratory-potential-methods-in-
geothermal-power-generation-2024th-edition-willi-freeden/

ebookgate.com

Constitutional pluralism in the EU 1st Edition Jaklic

https://ebookgate.com/product/constitutional-pluralism-in-the-eu-1st-
edition-jaklic/

ebookgate.com

Fixing financial crises in the twenty first century Andrew

Haldane

https://ebookgate.com/product/fixing-financial-crises-in-the-twenty-
first-century-andrew-haldane/

ebookgate.com

Jacques Derrida on the Aporias of Hospitality 2024th

Edition Gerasimos Kakoliris

https://ebookgate.com/product/jacques-derrida-on-the-aporias-of-
hospitality-2024th-edition-gerasimos-kakoliris/

ebookgate.com
Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics

Series Editors
Michelle Egan, American University, Washington, USA
William E. Paterson, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
Kolja Raube, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Following on the sustained success of the acclaimed European Union
Series, which essentially publishes research-based textbooks, Palgrave
Studies in European Union Politics publishes cutting edge research-driven
monographs. The remit of the series is broadly defined, both in terms of
subject and academic discipline. All topics of significance concerning the
nature and operation of the European Union potentially fall within the
scope of the series. The series is multidisciplinary to reflect the growing
importance of the EU as a political, economic and social phenomenon. To
submit a proposal, please contact Senior Editor Ambra Finotello ambra.
[email protected]. This series is indexed by Scopus.

Editorial Board:
Laurie Buonanno (SUNY Buffalo State, USA)
Kenneth Dyson (Cardiff University, UK)
Brigid Laffan (European University Institute, Italy)
Claudio Radaelli (University College London, UK)
Mark Rhinard (Stockholm University, Sweden)
Ariadna Ripoll Servent (University of Bamberg, Germany)
Frank Schimmelfennig (ETH Zurich, Switzerland)
Claudia Sternberg (University College London, UK)
Nathalie Tocci (Istituto Affari Internazionali, Italy)
 Ramona Coman · Vivien Sierens
Editors

EU Council
Presidencies in Times
of Crises
Editors
Ramona Coman Vivien Sierens
Department of Political Science, Department of Political Science,
Institut d’études européennes, Cevipol
Cevipol Université Libre de Bruxelles
Universite Libre De Bruxelles Bruxelles, Belgium
Bruxelles, Belgium

ISSN 2662-5873 ISSN 2662-5881 (electronic)

Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics
ISBN 978-3-031-44787-7 ISBN 978-3-031-44788-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-44788-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2024

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Magic Lens/Shutterstock

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Paper in this product is recyclable.

 Acknowledgements

This book is the result of collaboration between the College of Europe

and the Institut d’études européennes (IEE) of the Université libre de
Bruxelles and their affiliated members. It is the result of two seminars
that were held with the support of the College of Europe and the IEE in
Bruges in September 2022 and Brussels in January 2023. This book has
benefited from the financial support of the College of Europe (Bruges).
We also want to extend a special thanks to Olivier Costa for his inde-
fectible support and contribution throughout the various stages of the
publication process. His active role and insights have been invaluable since
the moment we decided to publish this book.

v
 Contents

1 Introduction: The Council Presidency in EU Studies:

What Have We Learned and What Has Changed
in the Decade of Crises? 1
Ramona Coman, Olivier Costa, and Vivien Sierens
2 Theorising the Presidency of the Council 31
Uwe Puetter
3 The Legal Regime Applicable to the Council
Presidency: Competing Conceptual Approaches
and Pragmatic Solutions 55
Emanuele Rebasti
4 The Procedural Legacy of Two Years of COVID-19
Pandemic: How the Temporary Modification
of the Council’s Rules of Procedure Became Permanent 85
Sofia Vandenbosch and Antoine Misonne
5 The 2009 Transition from the Rotating
to the Permanent Presidency of the European Council 109
Martin Westlake and Oriane Gilloz
6 The European Council and the Rotating EU Council
Presidency: Patterns of Cooperation and Rivalry
Beyond the Formal Treaty Rules 133
Lucas Schramm and Wolfgang Wessels

vii
viii CONTENTS

7 From Mediator to Crisis Manager: The Evolving

Relationship Between Council Presidencies
and the European Parliament in Times of Crisis 159
Vivien Sierens and Thijs Vandenbussche
8 “The Commission is Always Ready to Help”: The
Ambiguous Relationship Between the European
Commission and the Council Presidency
in the Ordinary Legislative Procedure 193
Céleste Bonnamy
9 Presiding in the Shadows. The Rotating Council
Presidencies as Structures of Opportunity
for the Legitimization of the European Union 209
François Foret and Yann-Sven Rittelmeyer
10 Still the Dealmaker? The Council Presidency in EMU 233
Michele Chang and Raquel Ugarte Díez
11 Article 7 TEU on the Agenda of the Council’s
Rotating Presidency: Still a “Nuclear Option”
or Rather “a Talking Shop”? 265
Ramona Coman and Pauline Thinus
12 How Does the Council Legitimize the EU’s Response
to International Crises? Emotion Discourse Analysis
of the High Representative’s Communications
on Russia’s War of Aggression 301
Seda Gürkan
13 Does the Presidency of the Council Still Have
the Means to Achieve Its Ambitions? The French
Presidency 2022 and the Promotion of EU Sovereignty 321
Olivier Costa and Aurélien Mornon Afonso
14 Rotating Presidencies, Rotating Sponsors? Corporate
Sponsorship of the Presidencies of the Council
of the EU Under Scrutiny 345
Alberto Alemanno and Benjamin Bodson
 CONTENTS ix

15 Conclusion. The Rotating Presidency of the Council:

A Major Actor of the EU Here to Stay 365
Ramona Coman, Olivier Costa, and Vivien Sierens

Index 377
 Notes on Contributors

Aurélien Mornon Afonso is Team Coordinator–Senior Academic Assis-

tant in the Department of European Political and Governance Studies at
the College of Europe (Bruges). He is of dual Portuguese and French
nationality and has undertaken traineeships in several European and
national institutions: the Court of Justice of the European Union, the
European Commission (DG EMPL) and the French Parliament (Euro-
pean Affairs Committee). Previously, he studied at the University of
Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne (double major in European economic law
and political science) and at the College of Europe. His previous works
focused on the rule of law crisis and social policies in the EU.
Alberto Alemanno is Jean Monnet Professor of EU Law & Policy at
HEC Paris and Visiting Professor at the College of Europe, in Bruges.
His research focuses on EU Law and Public Policy, democratic theory and
participatory methods by pursuing the ultimate aim of equalising access
to power at different levels of government. That’s the mission of his non-
profit, The Good Lobby.
Benjamin Bodson is a Belgian diplomat, currently posted at the Perma-
nent Representation of Belgium to the EU. Before starting his diplomatic
career, Benjamin was teaching and researching in EU Law at UCLou-
vain and HEC Paris. Benjamin is also Associate Fellow at Egmont—Royal
Institute for International Relations.

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Céleste Bonnamy obtained her Ph.D. in political science from the

Université libre de Bruxelles and the Université Paris 1 Panthéon-
Sorbonne. From a political sociology perspective, her research focuses
on the European Union’s digital policies and politics, with a specific
interest in digital and cultural industries’ regulation. She has previously
published in the scientific journal Politique européenne and collective
books published by Routledge, Elgar and Presses de l’Université de
Bruxelles.
Michele Chang is Director of the Master in Transatlantic Affairs
programme and Professor in the Department of European Political and
Governance Studies at the College of Europe. Her previous institutional
affiliations include Colgate University (USA) and the Centre for Euro-
pean Policy Studies (Brussels) where she was Fulbright Scholar. Her
research on Economic and Monetary Union and euro area governance
has been published in journals such as the Review of International Polit-
ical Economy and the Journal of European Integration and publishers
such as Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press.
Ramona Coman is Professor in Political Science at the Université libre
de Bruxelles and Emeritus President of the Institut d’études européennes.
She is the author of The Politics of the Rule of Law in the EU Polity:
Actors, Tools and Challenges (Palgrave 2022) and the co-editor of Politics
and Governance in the Post-Crisis European Union (Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2020). As of October 2022, she is Principal Investigator of the
Horizon Europe project “Responding to Emerging Dissensus: Suprana-
tional Instruments and Norms of European Democracy” (RED-SPINEL,
2022–2025) and Academic Coordinator of the Marie Sklodowska Curie
Joint Doctorate Network GEM-DIAMOND.
Olivier Costa is Research Professor at the CNRS (Centre national de
la recherche scientifique), CEVIPOF, Sciences Po (Paris, France). He
teaches European Union institutions, politics and policies at Sciences
Po. His priorities in research include EU institutions and policies, Euro-
pean Parliament, French Parliament, comparative legislative politics and
compared regionalism. He has authored 150 articles and chapters and 10
books, and edited 20 books and journal special issues.
Raquel Ugarte Díez is Research Assistant at ARENA Centre of Euro-
pean Studies of the University of Oslo. She works for the EU-funded
project EU3D. Previously she was Academic Assistant in the Department
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

of European Political and Governance Studies of the College of Europe.

She has an MA in European Politics and Governance from the College of
Europe and an MA in European Studies from Jagiellonian University.
François Foret is Professor of political science and Researcher at the
Cevipol/Institute for European Studies, Université Libre de Bruxelles
and Fellow at the European Governance and Politics Programme, Euro-
pean University Institute, Florence. He is the President of the IEE-ULB
since September 2023. His research interests focus on the institutions,
politics and policies of the European Union; the legitimisation of polit-
ical orders; interactions between politics, culture, identities and religion;
and comparative politics, especially between Europe, the US and Japan.
Among his recent publications are: with Trino N. (2022). “Standing for
Europe: Citizens’ perceptions of European symbols as evidence of a ‘banal
Europeanism’?”, Nations and Nationalism; with Vargovčíková J. (2021).
“The Prize of Governance. How the European Union Uses Symbolic
Distinctions to Mobilize society and Foster Competitiveness”. JCMS:
Journal of Common Market Studies; with Hino A. (2021) eds. Value Poli-
tics in Japan and Europe, Routledge; with Vargovčíková J. (2021) eds.
Value Politics in the European Union. From Market to Culture and Back,
Routledge.
Oriane Gilloz is former Academic Assistant at the European Political
and Governance Studies Department of the College of Europe (Bruges
campus). Her research primarily revolves around the administrative and
political dynamics within the Council of the European Union. Through
her publications, she delves into the effects of neo-managerial reforms and
long-term political changes, as well as the sociological aspects of these
processes within the Council’s General Secretariat.
Seda Gürkan is Assistant Professor in European Approaches to Security,
Diplomacy and Global Affairs at Leiden University’s Institute of Secu-
rity and Global Affairs (ISGA). She is also Affiliated Fellow and professor
at the Department of Political Science and the Institute for European
Studies (IEE), at Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB). Dr. Gürkan is a
graduate of the London School of Economics (LSE), Université libre de
Bruxelles and Diplomatic School of Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
She was previously a visiting scholar at Johns Hopkins University Paul H.
Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in Washington,
D.C., and a visiting fellow at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU). Her
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

teaching and research interests include EU foreign policy (with a focus on

the Eastern neighbourhood, human rights, enlargement, EU–Turkey rela-
tions), the crises the EU has been facing since 2009, EU institutions and
emotions in international relations. She is the co-author of the volume
“Theorizing the Crises of the European Union” published by Routledge
in 2021 and co-editor of the Special Issue on the “Emotions in European
Foreign Policy” by Global Affairs in 2021.
Antoine Misonne is Legal Adviser of the Permanent Representation of
Belgium to the European Union since 2020. At first, he worked in the
criminal law field, as Researcher, Assistant Teacher at the Law Faculty
of Namur, then as Deputy Prosecutor in Brussels. He then joined the
Belgian diplomatic service in 2008 and was posted in Warsaw and in New
York, this last one as Legal Adviser of the Belgian Representation to the
United Nations. He also worked in the International Law unit of the
Belgian Ministry for Foreign Affairs, where he had the chance to partici-
pate at the EU- and UN-levels in the negotiations of several multilateral
instruments.
Uwe Puetter is Professor of European Integration and European Poli-
tics at Europa-Universität Flensburg. He also is Visiting Professor at the
College of Europe in Bruges. His work focuses on processes of institu-
tional change in European Union politics with a particular emphasis on
decision-making in the European Council and the Council.
Emanuele Rebasti is Member of the Council Legal Service, responsible
of budgetary matters, rules of law conditionality and cohesion. He previ-
ously was responsible for transparency and institutional questions in the
same Service. In this quality, he has contributed to the negotiation of the
Interinstitutional Agreement on a Transparency Register and of the Regu-
lation on a general regime of conditionality. He has previously served as
a legal officer in the office of the European Ombudsman, where he dealt
with complaints on instances of maladministration, including the respect
of ethics standards by EU institutions.
Yann-Sven Rittelmeyer is a policy analyst in the European Parliamen-
tary Research Service (EPRS), the internal research service and think-tank
of the European Parliament, where he works on multi-level governance
and institutional issues. He is also Associate Researcher at the Centre
for the Study of Politics (CEVIPOL) of the Université Libre de Brux-
elles (ULB). He has previously worked for the European Policy Centre
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

(EPC) as Policy Analyst in the EPC’s European Politics and Institutions

Programme. From 2011 to 2014, he was Research Fellow in the Study
Committee for Franco-German Relations (Cerfa) at the French Insti-
tute of International Relations (Ifri) in Paris, France. He holds a Ph.D.
in political science from the ULB and has published several books and
articles as well in academic reviews for journals with a broader readership.
Lucas Schramm is Assistant Professor at the Department for Political
Science at Ludwig Maximilian University Munich. His research interests
concern European integration history and theory, EU crisis politics and
Franco-German relations in Europe. His recent publications include The
European Council as a Crisis Manager (Nomos, 2022, with Wolfgang
Wessels & Tobias Kunstein).
Vivien Sierens is a Belgian diplomat posted at the Permanent Representa-
tion of Belgium to the European Union during the Belgian Presidency of
the Council in 2024. He holds a joint Ph.D. in political and social sciences
from the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the Vrije Universiteit
Brussel (VUB) and is also Associate Research Fellow at ULB’s Centre
for the Study of Political Life (CEVIPOL). Before joining the diplomatic
service, he taught several courses and seminars on the European Union in
different universities in Belgium and Mexico and published several articles
in academic journals. The views and opinions expressed this book are his
owns and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the
entities he works for.
Pauline Thinus is a Ph.D. candidate at the Institute for European Studies
(IEE) and the Centre d’Étude de la Vie Politique (CEVIPOL) at the
Université Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium). Her doctoral dissertation focuses
on the impact of Regulation 2020/2092 on the Commission’s powers
and position within the European Union. She has previously worked
as Academic Assistant at the College of Europe (Bruges, Belgium) and
the Centre Universitaire Francophone (Szeged, Hungary). She graduated
from Sciences Po (Rennes, France) and the College of Europe (Natolin,
Poland).
Sofia Vandenbosch is Postdoctoral Researcher at UCLouvain. She
defended a Ph.D. in Law in 2022 at the same University on the Euro-
peanisation of the Belgian and Dutch parliaments’ treaty-making powers.
Her current research focuses on the case law relating to civilian and mili-
tary missions in the EU, Belgium and France. More broadly, her areas of
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

interest include the external dimensions of Constitutions and the separa-

tion of powers in the field of external relations. Her previous experiences
entail legal adviser at the Belgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2021–
2023) and research and teaching assistant at the University of Liège
(2014–2017).
Thijs Vandenbussche is Research Assistant to the European Energy and
Climate Policy Chair at the College of Europe (Bruges campus) and
External Expert in Climate and Energy Policies at the European Policy
Centre (EPC). He also works as an independent consultant on these
topics. He has several years of experience in research and organising and
moderating conferences in the field of energy and environmental policies.
He is a graduate in Political Sciences and EU Studies (Ghent Univer-
sity, 2014 & College of Europe, Bruges, 2016) and Economics (Ghent
University, 2015).
Wolfgang Wessels is Professor emeritus at the University of Cologne,
where he held a Jean Monnet Chair ad personam for Political Science.
He is Director of the Centre for Turkey and European Union Studies
at the University of Cologne and Visiting Professor at the College of
Europe. His publications include The European Council (Palgrave, 2015)
and The European Council as a Crisis Manager (Nomos, 2022, with
Lucas Schramm & Tobias Kunstein).
Martin Westlake is Visiting Professor at the College of Europe and at
the European Institute at the London School of Economics. He has
published widely on European institutions and European Union politics.
He previously worked in the Council of the European Union, the Euro-
pean Commission and the European Economic and Social Committee,
where he served as Secretary-General, 2008–2013.
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Number of academic articles devoted to the Council.

Total number of articles since 1957–2255 (data retrieved
from Scopus) 5
Fig. 1.2 Number of academic articles devoted to the Council
Presidency (data retrieved from Scopus) 6
Fig. 1.3 Number of articles devoted to the Council Presidency
in four main EU studies journals (data retrieved
from Scopus) 6
Fig. 1.4 Articles devoted to the Council and to the Council
Presidency in the Journal of Common Market Studies
(including the words Council and Council Presidency
in the title. Manual coding, data retrieved via Scopus) 7
Fig. 1.5 Bibliometric Network Analysis of the Council Presidency
in times of crises 10
Fig. 4.1 Council decisions adopted by written procedure 94
Fig. 4.2 Comparison of normal procedure/written procedure 95
Fig. 7.1 Evolution of the number of agreements per presidency.
First and second reading and conciliation (1999–2021) 175
Fig. 7.2 Evolution of the number of agreements per presidency.
First and second reading and conciliation per CPR
(1999–2021) 175
Fig. 8.1 Successive presidencies of the Council of the EU
between the publication of the proposal for a directive
“copyright in the digital single market” and its final
adoption 198

xvii
xviii LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 10.1 Presidency timeline of six-pack negotiations 246

Fig. 10.2 Presidency timeline of BICC negotiations 247
Fig. 10.3 Presidency timeline of NGEU negotiations 255
Fig. 11.1 Number of questions addressed by EU Member States
per hearing with Poland and Hungary (this Figure does
not include the 5th hearing with Hungary and the 6th
hearings with both countries ) 288
Fig. 11.2 Questions per Member State in the hearings
with Poland and Hungary (this Figure does not include
the 5th hearing with Hungary and the 6th hearings
with both countries ) 289
Fig. 11.3 Maps of the Member States which addressed questions
during the five hearings with Poland and the four
hearings with Hungary 290
Fig. 13.1 The “magic square” of the French Presidency 2022
(Source Own compilation) 330

Graph 9.1 Overview of presidencies’ influence on the level

of information of citizens about the EU (Source authors,
based on data from Eurobarometer No. 88–No. 98
[question: ‘And overall, how well informed do you think
you are about European matters?’, data used: total ‘well
informed’]) 225
Graph 9.2 Do you think that the French Presidency
of the European Union will change things for the better,
change things for the worse or neither? 227
Graph 9.3 So far, would you say that the French Presidency
of the European Union is either a failure, a success
or none of this? Source Commstrat/Harris interactive,
2022 228
 List of Tables

Table 5.1 The ratification of the Lisbon Treaty

and the appointment of Herman Van Rompuy
as the first permanent President of the European Council 118
Table 6.1 Timeline of the German Council Presidency 144
Table 6.2 Timeline of the French Council Presidency 149
Table 7.1 Rotating presidency—EP interactions 164
Table 7.2 Intermediate solution “Efficient Presidencies” 176
Table 7.3 Intermediate solution “~ Efficient Presidency” 178
Table 9.1 Overview of presidencies’ influence on the positive view
of the EU (%, differences in percentage points) 224
Table 10.1 Council Presidency across EUCO and Eurogroup
Presidencies 244
Table 10.2 Comparison of the salience of Ecofin issues in presidency
programmes 250
Table 11.1 The rule of law in the Council presidencies’ individual
and Trio programmes (2018–2023) 273
Table 11.2 Timeline of conduct of Art. 7 TEU hearings
under the rotating Council presidencies (2018–2023) 276
Table 11.3 Comparison of procedural modalities of hearings
depending on the type of activation of Article 7(1) TEU 282
Table 11.4 Scope of the hearings organised with Poland
and Hungary in the Council as part of Article 7(1) TEU 285
Table 12.1 The nexus of norms-emotions-action in the EU’s
response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 311

xix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: The Council Presidency in EU

Studies: What Have We Learned and What
Has Changed in the Decade of Crises?

Ramona Coman , Olivier Costa , and Vivien Sierens

1.1 The Council Presidency in EU Studies

The central role of Member States in the process of European integra-
tion is widely recognized and is a fundamental component of its political
nature. Without states, there is no European Union (EU), its Member
States being the high contracting parties that have willingly agreed to
establish “an ever closer union” among themselves. The dominant place
of the Member States in the political regime of the EU is also reflected
in its institutional architecture (Costa & Brack, 2018). Traditionally, the

The views and opinions expressed in this chapter are those of Vivien Sierens and
do not necessarily reflect the views or positions of any entities he represents.

R. Coman
Department of Political Science, Institut d’études européennes, Cevipol,
Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2024
R. Coman and V. Sierens (eds.), EU Council Presidencies in Times of
Crises, Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-44788-4_1
2 R. COMAN ET AL.

Council of the EU has held the position of “most powerful institu-

tion involved in the day-to-day decision-making of the EU” (Naurin &
Wallace, 2008: 1). Prior to the gradual empowerment of the European
Parliament (Costa, 2019), the Council was responsible for translating the
objectives of the EU into tangible policies. Over time, its main respon-
sibilities have evolved in line with the progress of European integration.
These responsibilities have encompassed various aspects, ranging from the
adoption of the acts proposed by the European Commission to the adop-
tion of the EU budget with the EP, the coordination of policies, and the
conclusion of international agreements.
The central role of the Council was not initially anticipated; it emerged
as a result of the tumultuous history of European integration. In the
original treaties, its purpose was primarily as a gatekeeper, ensuring that
the Commission operated within its designated competences and aligned
with the negotiators’ objectives. However, the crisis of the “empty chair”
initiated by Charles de Gaulle in 1965 (Palayret et al., 2006) marked a
turning point, leading to the progressive elevation of the Council’s signif-
icance. This empowerment gave rise to the intergovernmental theoretical
approach to European integration, which has consistently resurfaced since
then (Saurugger, 2013). Each subsequent crisis has fuelled nationalist and
protectionist inclinations among Member States, solidifying the Council’s
role as a venue for continuous negotiations (Lewis, 2010). Consequently,
its centrality has never been questioned by the deepening of European
integration. This presents a paradox: despite encountering numerous chal-
lenges, the Council has continually deepened integration and laid the
groundwork for robust supranational institutions such as the Commis-
sion, European Parliament, and Court of Justice. However, it has not
paved the way for a federal political system nor diminished the crucial role
played by Member States in its functioning. Therefore, both the Council

V. Sierens
Department of Political Science, Cevipol, Université Libre de Bruxelles,
Bruxelles, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
O. Costa (B)
CEVIPOF-Sciences Po, CNRS, Paris, France
e-mail: [email protected]
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE COUNCIL PRESIDENCY IN EU … 3

and, since its institutionalization in 2009, the European Council, hold

equal importance to supranational institutions, creating a distinctive and
original institutional balance within the EU polity.
The Council is not only a central institution at the core of EU decision-
making; it is also rather unique. Contrary to its outward appearance of
unity, it resembles an archipelago linking various large and small islands.
Acting as the pivotal connection point, the Council serves as the inter-
mediary between 27 national governments, their administrations, and the
decision-making core in Brussels. Its broad range of legislative and non-
legislative activities is carried out by national government ministers from
the 27 EU Member States, or representatives empowered to commit their
respective governments. They meet in 10 different formations,1 grouped
by policy areas. The existence of 10 formations within the Council implies
that, in theory, almost all members of national governments are involved,
to some extent, in the day-to-day decision-making process of the EU.
Around 70 to 80 meetings of the Council are organized each year (in
Brussels and in Luxembourg in April, June, and October2 ). Most of
the time, in these meetings, representatives of Member States seek to
accommodate their views on a growing number of policy matters. There
are also a very high number of preparatory meetings at various levels.
Due to the complexity of the tasks involved, the inner structure of the
Council is radial. It brings together a wide range of actors, not only
ministers habilitated to engage the responsibility of their governments
but also the permanent representatives (ambassadors, head of the Perma-
nent Representation of their Member States gathering as COREPER II,
i.e. Committee of Permanent Representatives) and their deputy perma-
nent representatives (also ambassadors gathering as COREPER I) and
ambassadors to the Political and Security Committee (i.e. the body in
charge of EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy [CFSP] and the
Common Security and Defence Policy [CSDP]), who play a fundamental

1 The mandate of two configurations—the General Affairs Council (which ensures the
consistency in the work of different Council formations and prepares and the follow-up to
meetings of the European Council, in liaison with the President of the European Council
and the Commission) and the Foreign Affairs Council (responsible for the EU’s external
action)—is stipulated by the treaties. The mandate of the other configurations follows
from practice.
2 According to the Council’s rules of procedure established in Article 1(3), the Council
or the COREPER, acting unanimously, may decide that a Council meeting will be held
elsewhere.
4 R. COMAN ET AL.

role in the workings of the Council. This has been the case since the
creation of the Communities, as attested by the first treaties. The meet-
ings of COREPER are held weekly, often even twice a week. Additionally,
there are over 150 specialized working groups and committees associ-
ated with the 10 formations of the Council, bringing together national
experts who serve as preparatory bodies for the Council’s work (Puetter,
2014a, 2014b). These working groups, along with COREPER and special
committees, handle the majority of the Council’s agenda (Häge, 2008,
2013). Experts, civil servants, and diplomats collaborate to prepare the
decisions that ministers are required to adopt (Lewis, 1998), with the
former focusing on technical aspects and the latter navigating the intersec-
tion of technical and political considerations. Through their interactions
and coordination with national capitals, they often reach agreements on
issues even before they are presented to the ministers (Hayes-Renshaw
et al., 2006; Lewis, 2005). In fact, recent studies have highlighted a
decline in ministers’ participation in Council meetings, with diplomats
increasingly taking on a more prominent role. This has led some authors
to argue that “de facto control is in the hands of unelected officials”
(Vlcek & Parizek, 2022: 493).
In this complex institutional configuration, many other preparatory
bodies gravitate around the Council liaising with national administration
and the General Secretariat of the Council. The Presidency has histor-
ically played a central role in carrying out the work of the institution.
For six months, each Member State fills this responsibility (Fernández
Pasarín, 2011). The rotation system—which is common in international
organizations—is “a key instrument for ensuring the representation of
the diversity of Member States in an enlarged Union” (Batory & Puetter,
2013: 95), and is symbolically important for both big and small coun-
tries. A “successful” presidency is a source of prestige and credibility for
national political authorities at the EU level. The success of the presidency
also matters in domestic politics. Indeed, during the six-month period the
EU agenda usually occupies a more prominent place in national media,
“sometimes including a political ‘truce’ between the government and
opposition” (Vlcek & Parizek, 2022: 498). For small countries, it is “an
opportunity to present the country” (…) (Pomorska & Vanhoonacker,
2012: 76), while for large ones it is a chance to mark the integration
process. The presidency offers an important opportunity to increase the
awareness of national civil servants about European issues and provide
them with training. This becomes even more crucial as the number of
Other documents randomly have
different content
some mutinies arrising in the Army, he, with certaine Arabians, his Country-
men, by faction, separated themselves, and revolted: Whereupon Mahomet,
encouraging them in their defection, was chosen their Captaine; and so for a
certaine time they continued rebellious Runnagates, Theeves, and Robbers of
all people. The subtilty of this dissembler was admirable; who knowing that he
was destitute of heavenly gifts, to worke miracles, feignd, that God sent him
with the sword: He also promised, at the end of a thousand yeares to returne,
and bring them to Paradice; Mahomet hath broke his promise.but he hath falsified his
promise, for the time is expired forty yeares ago. And they imagining, that he is
either diseased, or become lame in his journey, have ascribed to him another
thousand yeares to come. But long may their wicked and faithlesse generation
gape, before he come, untill such time, that in a generall convocation, they be
partakers of his endlesse damnation in Hell; unlesse it please the Lord in his
mercy to convert them before that time.

Mahomet, chiefly prohibiteth in his Alcoran, the eating of Swines flesh, and
drinking of Wine, which indeed the best sort do, but the baser kind are dayly
drunkards: Their common drinke is Sherpet, composed of Water, Honey, and
Sugar, which is exceeding delectable in the taste: And the usuall courtesie, they
bestow on their friends, who visite them, is a Cup of Coffa, made of a kind of
seed called Coava, and of a blackish colour; which they drinke so hote as
possible they can, and is good to [IV. 152.]expell the crudity of raw meates, and
hearbes, so much by them frequented. And those that cannot attaine to this
liquor, must be contented with the cooling streames of water.

Oppression of Turkes.It
is incident to Turkes, which have not the generosity of
mind to temper felicity, to be glutted with the superfluous fruites of doubtfull
prosperity. Neither have they a patient resolution to withstand adversity, nor
hope to expect the better alteration of time. But by an infused malice in their
wicked spirits, when they are any way calamited, will with importunate
compulsion, cause the poore slavish subjected Christians, surrender all they
have, the halfe, or so forth, sometimes with strokes, menacings, and sometimes
death it selfe; which plainely doth demonstrate their excessive cruelty, and the
poore Christians inevitable misery. And yet being complained upon, they are
severely punished, or else put to death, for committing of such unallowable
Ryots, being expresly against the Imperiall Law of the Turke, concerning the
quietnesse and liberty of the Christians.
I have often heard Turkes brawle one with another most vilely, but I never saw,
or heard, that they either in private or publicke quarrels, durst strike one
another, neither dare they for feare of severe punishment, imposed to such
quarrellors: But they will injure and strike Christians, who dare not say it is
amisse, or strike againe. It is a common thing with them, to kill their servants
for a very small offence, and when they have done, throw them like dogges in a
ditch. And oftentimes (if not so) will lay them downe on their backes, hoysing
up their heeles, bind their feete together, and fasten them to a post, and with a
cudgell give them three or foure hundreth blowes on the soles of their feete:
Whereupon peradventure, some ever go lame after. Their servants are [IV.
153.]bought and sold, like bruite beasts in Markets; neither can these miserable
drudges ever recover liberty, except they buy themselves free, either by one
meane or other. Their wives are not farre from the like servitude, for the men
by the Alcoran, are admitted to marry as many women as they will, or their
ability can keepe. And if it shall happen, that any one of these women (I meane
either wife or Concubine) prostituteth her selfe to an other man besides her
husband; then may he, by authority, bind her hands and feete, hang a stone
about her necke, and cast her into a River, which by them is usually done in the
night.

But when these Infidels please to abuse poore Christian women against their
husbands will, they little regard the transgression of the Christian Law; who as
well defloure their daughters, as their wives; yet the devout Mahometans never
meddle with them, accompting themselves damned to copulate (as they thinke)
with the offspring of dogges. The Turkes generally, when they commit any
copulation with Christians, or their owne sexe, they wash themselves in a
South running fountaine, before the Sun rising, thinking thereby to wash away
their sinnes.

The Turkes Justice.Ifa Turke should happen to kill another Turke, his punishment
is thus; after he is adjudged to death, he is brought forth to the market place,
and a blocke being brought hither of foure foote high; the malefactor is stripd
naked; and then layd thereupon with his belly downeward, they drawe in his
middle together so small with running cords, that they strike his body a two
with one blow: his hinder parts they cast to be eaten by hungry dogges kept for
the same purpose; and the forequarters and head they throw into a grievous fire,
made there for the same end: and this is the punishment for man-slaughter.
[IV. 154.]But for murder or treason he is more cruelly used, for being convicted
& condemned, he is brought forth before the people, where in the street there is
an exceeding high Stripad erected, much like to a May-pole: which tree from
the roote, till it almost come to the top, is all set about full of long sharpe iron
pikes, and their poynts upward: The Villaine being strip’d naked, and his hands
bound backward, they bind a strong rope about his shoulders and cleavings:
And then hoysing him up to the pillow or top of the tree, they let the rope flee
loose, whence downe he falles, with a rattle, among the iron pykes, hanging
either by the buttocks, by the breasts, by the sides, or shoulders; and there
sticking fast in the ayre, he hangeth till his very bones rot and fall downe, and
his body be devoured being quicke, with ravenous Eagles, kept to prey upon
his carkas for the same purpose.

Turkish marriages.But
now I come to their nuptiall rites, their custome and
manner of marriage is thus: If a man affecteth a yong mayd, he buyeth her of
her parents, and giveth a good summe of money for her, and after she is
bought, he enrolles her name in the Cadies Booke, witnessing she is his bound
wife, bought of her father. Loe, this is all the forme of their marriage: This
being done, the father of the woman sendeth houshold-stuffe home with the
Bride; which is carried through the streets on Mulets or Camells backes, the
two new married folkes marching before, are conveyed with musicke, their
owne acquaintance, and friends unto his house.

The Turkes in generall, whensoever they loath or dislike their wives, use to sell
them in markets, or otherwise bestow them on their men-slaves: And although
their affection were never so great towards them, yet they never eate together,
for commonly the women stand, and [IV. 155.]serve their husbands at meate, and
after that, they eate a part by themselves, secretly; without admission of any
mankind in their company, if they be above foureteene yeares of age. They goe
seldome abroad, unlesse it be each Thursday at night, when they goe to the
Graves to mourne for the dead, alwayes covering their faces, very modestly
with white or blacke masks, which are never uncovered, till they returne to
their houses. Many other ceremonies they have, which would be too prolixe for
me to recite. And notwithstanding of all this externall gravity, amongst these
hirelings, yet there are in Constantinople above 40000. brothel-houses,
Turqueski as Libertines; in any of which, if a Christian (especially Francks) be
apprehended, he must either turne Turke, or Slave all his life: But the women
by policy apply a counter-poyson to this severity, for they accustomably come
to the Chambers of their Benefactors and well-willers, or other places
appointed secretly, whereso they learne either a French Syncopa, or an Italian
Bergamasko.

The Emperors Concubines.As for the great Turkes Concubines, they are of number
eight hundred, being the most part Emeeres, Bashawes, and Timariots
daughters: The third and inmost part of the Seraglia is allotted for their
residence, being well attended at all times with numbers of Enuches, and other
gelded officers: Every morning they are ranked in a great Hall, and set on high
and open seats: where when he commeth, and selecting the youngest and
fairest, he toucheth her with a rod; and immediately she followeth him into his
cabine of leachery, where if any action be done, shee receiveth from the Head-
Clarke her approbation thereupon, which ever afterwards serveth her for a
conditionall dowry to her marriage, with much honour and [IV. 156.]reputation
besides: And if any of them conceave, and the child borne, it is suddenly
dispatched from this life: A hundred Concubines changed every moneth.The oldest
hundreth, every first Friday of the moneth are turned out, and another new
hundred come in to make good the number: Their entrie and issue is alwayes at
one of the posterne gates of the Parke, toward the sea side, and joyning nigh to
their Pallace: Whence crossing Bosphore, in an appointed barge, they both goe
and come in one day, from and to the Galata, which I my selfe did see three
several times: The oldest and last hundred that are every moneth dismissed,
they depart from the Galata, home to their Parents and severall Countreys,
rejoycing that they were counted worthy to be chosen and entertained to be
their Emperours Concubines. The custome of the great Turke is, every Friday
being their Sabboth day after divine service and dinner, to run at the Glove in a
open place before all the people, with some Hagars, or yong striplings that
accompany him; who have the Glove hanging as high on a sticke, as we have
the ring with us: And truely of all the Turkish Emperours that ever were, this
Achmet was the most gentle & favourable to Christians; who rather for his
bounty and tendernesse might have beene intitulated the Christian Emperour,
then the Pagane King: for he dissanulled all the exactions that had beene
inflicted by his predecessors upon his tributarie Christian subjects; and
cancelled the custome or tythe of their Male children, abrogating also that
imposition on their Female dowries.
The Lent of the Turkes is called Byrham, which continueth the space of a
moneth once in the yeare: In all which time, from the Sunne rising to his
setting, they neither eate nor drinke: And at their prayers (especially in this
fasting) they use often to reiterate these words [IV. 157.]Hue, hue, hue, that is;
He, he, he, alone is God; or, There is but one onely supreme Power; which they
doe in derision of Christians, who (as they say) adore three Gods. They have
also this sinister opinion, that at the day of Judgement, when Mahomet shall
appeare, there shall be three displayed Banners, under the which all good The
Turkes Paradise.people shall be conducted to Paradise: The one of Moses, under
the which the children of Israel shall be: The second of Jesus, under which
Christians shall be: The third of Mahomet, under the which shall be the Arabs,
Turkes, and Musilmans: All which, they thinke, shall be elevated to severall
honours; and they in promotion shall be discerned from the rest, by Chambers
made of resplendant light, which God will give them; wherein they shall have
banquetings, feastings, dancing, and the best melody can be devised; and that
they shall spend their times with amorous Virgins, (whose mansion shall be
neare by) the men never exceeding the age of thirty yeares, and the Virgines
fifteene, and both shall have their Virginities renewed, as fast, as lost.

They hold also this, as a confident article of their Beliefe, there are seven
Paradises in heaven, the pavements whereof are laid with gold, silver, pearles,
pretious stones, and garnished with stately buildings, and pleasant gardens,
wherein are all sorts of fruit, and Princely Pallaces; through the which runne
Rivers of milke, honey, and wine.

The first Paradise, they call it Genete Alcholde, the second Alfirduzy, the third
Anthinak, the fourth Reduasch, the fift Azelem, the sixt Alcodush, that is holy,
and the seventh Almega, that is, the greatest. And that in the midst of this last
Paradise, there is a stately tree, called Tubah, the leafe of which is partly of
gold, [IV. 158.]and partly of silver: whose boughes extend round about the wals
of this seventh Paradice, whereon the name of Mahomet is written, neare to the
name of God, in these words, Alla, illa, he, allah, Mahomet Rezul allah. The
which words are in such reverence amongst the Turkes, that if a Christian
should happen, unadvisedly to repeate them, he is adjudged to a most cruell
death, or compulsed to renounce his Christian Religion.

The Turkes Lent.Their

Lent lasteth thirty dayes, called Byrham, some name it also
Ramadan; induring which time, they eate nor drinke nothing from Sunne rising
to its setting downe: but when night commeth they Cormandize at their selfe
pleasures: Their moneth of Lent is our January, where every day after their
severall devotions, they goe to solemne playes; and all kind of prophane
pastimes: counting that best devotion, which is most sutable to their
dispositions; allotting fancy to follow their folly, and blindnesse, to overtop the
ignorance of nature, drawing all their drifts within the circle of destruction: But
indeed, as they are blind, in the true way of sacred worship; yet are they
masked with a wonderfull zeale to their devoted blindnesse; surpassing farre in
shew, and observations, the generall Professours of Christianity, and all the
Ceremonies can bee annexed thereunto: Theirs running on with the flouds of
ignorant affection, and ours distracted with the inutile novelties of superfluous
Schoole questions: which indeed do more distemper the truth, than render God
to be rightly glorified.

The Turkes opinion of hell.As

concerning their opinion of Hell, they hold it to be a
deepe Gulfe, betwixt two Mountaines: from the mouth whereof are Dragons,
that continually throw fire, being large eight leagues, and hath a darke entry,
where the horrible Fiends meete the perplexed sinners, conveying [IV. 159.]them
till they come to a bridge, that is so narrow as the edge of a Razor: whereupon
these who have not committed haynous offences, may passe over to Hell, but
those who have done Buggery (as the most part of them do) and homicide,
shall fall headlong from it, to the profoundest pit in Hell, where they shall
sometimes burne in fire, & sometimes be cast into hot boyling waters to be
refreshed. And for the greater punishment of the wicked (say they) God hath
planted a tree in Hell named Sajaratash, or Roozo Saytanah, that is, the head of
the Divell, upon the fruit of which, the damned continually feed: Mahomet in
one of the Chapters of his Alcoran calleth this tree, the Tree of Malediction.

They also thinke the tormented soules may one day be saved, providing they do
indure the scorching flames of Hell patiently. Thus, as briefly as I could, have I
layd open the opinions of the Turkes, concerning their Heaven and Hell, before
the eyes of these, who peradventure have never bene acquainted with such a
ghostly Discourse.

The number of all the Emperours in East and West.And

now I thinke it not amisse to
reckon you up in generall all the Romane and Greeke Emperours, that have
bene from the beginning to this present time, both in the East, and in the West,
with the number of the Turkish Emperours also: Beginning now at Julius
Cæsar, the first Dictatour of Romane Emperour, to Constantine the Great, who
transported the seate of the Empire from Rome to Constantinople, he was the
three score and fourth Emperour: And from Constantine the Great in the East,
to the first made Emperour in the West, there were thirty nine Emperours: of
whom Constantine the sixth, sonne to Leo the third, with Irena his wife was the
last sole Emperour, and she Empresse of East and West: After whose death and
overthrow, Charlemaine was called in to [IV. 160.]Italy to danton the Lombards,
who had oppressed that region, and the peace of the Church for two hundreth
yeares: He chased them from Rome, Apulia, and from all Italy, and was
therefore declared by Pope Leo, the Romane Emperour of the West: from
Charlemaine to this present Ferdinando that now raigneth, Charlemaine being
the hundreth and fourth, there were forty and one Emperors: So in all, with this
Emperour Ferdinando, lately Duke of Grasse, the number amounts to of these
Emperours, counting from Julius Cæsar to Constantine the sixt, the last sole
Emperour of the East, and after him, from Charlemaine the first Emperour of
the West, to this time, their number have bene a hundreth and forty sixe
Emperours.

Some whereof were Greekes, which cannot perfectly be set downe, in regard
some were Empresses, and others suddenly elected, were as suddenly
murthered or poysoned.

Now to reckon the Turkish Emperors, I will first begin from the time that the
Turkes tooke a Monarchick name, under the name of Ottoman, even to
Mahomet the second, the first Grecian Emperour, beginning, I say at Ottoman,
the sonne of Orthogule the first Emperour of the Turkes, and the first that
erected the glory of his Nation; there were nine Emperours to Mahomet the
second: And from him to this present Amurath, that now raigneth, there have
bene eleven Emperours: The number of which are onely twenty, and or they
come to thirty, they and theirs, I hope, shall be rooted from the earth.

The beginning of the Turkes.The

Originall of the Turkes, is sayd to have bene in
Scythia, from whence they came to Arabia Petrea, and giving battell oft to the
Sarazens, in the ende subdued them, and so they multiplied, and mightily
increased: the apparence of their further increasing, is very evident, [IV.
161.]except God of his mercy towards us prevent their blood sucking
threatnings, with the vengeance of his just judgements.
The Sarazens are descended of Esau, who after he had lost the blessing, went
and inhabited in Arabia Petrea; and his Posterity, striving to make a cleere
distinction betweene them, the Ismaelites, and Jewes, called themselves (as
come of Sara) Sarazens; and not of Hagar, the handmaide of Abraham, of
whom came the Ismaelites, neither of the race of Jacob, of whom came the
Jewes. But now the Sarazens being joyned with the Turkes, their Conquerours,
have both lost their name, and the right of their discent.

The Turkes which are borne and bred in the lesser Asia, and East parts of
Europe, The Turkes complexion.are generally well complexioned, proportionably
compacted, no idle nor superfluous talkers, servile to their grand Signior,
excessively inclined to Venery, and zealous in Religion: Their heads are
alwayes shaven, reserving onely one tuft in the top above, by which they thinke
one day to be caught to Heaven by Mahomet, and covered on all sides,
counting it an opprobious thing to see any uncover his head, they weare their
Beards long, as a signe of gravity, for they esteeme them to be wise men, who
have long beards: The women are of a low stature, thicke and round of growth,
going seldome abroad (unlesse it be each Thursday at night, when they go to
mourne upon the graves of their dead friends) and then they are modestly
masked: they are fearefull and shame-fast abroad, but lascivious within doores,
and pleasing in matters of incontinency; and they are accounted most
beautifull, who have the blackest browes, the widest mouthes, and the greatest
eyes.

[IV. 162.]Theother Turkes which are borne in Asia major, and Ægypt, (I speake
not of the Moores of Barbary) are of a greater stature, tanny, cruell, a barbarous
and uncivill people. The better sort use the Slavonian tongue, the vulgar speake
the Turkish language, which being originally the Tartarian speech, they borrow
from the Persian their words of state, from the Arabicke, their words of
Religion, from the Grecians, their termes of warre, and from the Italian their
words and titles of navigation.

The puissance of the great Turke is admirable, yet the most part of his
Kingdomes in Asia, are not well inhabited, neither populous, but these parts
which border with Christians, are strongly fortified with Castles, people, and
munition: If Christian Princes could concord, and consult together, it were an
easie thing in one yeare, to subdue the Turkes, and roote out their very names
from the earth; yea, moreover I am certified, that there are moe Christians, even
slaves and subjects to the great Turke, which do inhabite his dominions, then
might overthrow and conquer these Infidells, if they had worthy Captaines,
Governours and furniture of Armes, without the helpe of any Christian of
Christendome.

And yet againe, I thinke it not amisse to discourse more particularly of the
Turkish manners, of their riches, and of their forces of warres, and the manner
of their conducements.

The Turkes are Tartarians.The Turkesbeing naturally discended of the Scythians or

Tartars, are of the second stature of man, and robust of nature, circumspect and
couragious in all their attempts, and no way given to industry or labour, but are
wonderfull avaritious and covetuous of money above all the nations of the
world. They never observe their promises, unlesse it be with advantage, and are
naturally prone to deceive [IV. 163.]strangers; changing their conditionall
bargaines, as time giveth occasion to their liking: They are humble one to
another, but especially to their superiours, before whom they doe not onely
great homage, but also keepe great silence, and are wonderfull coy during the
time of their presence: They are extreamely inclined to all sorts of Libidinous
Turkes.lascivious luxury; and generally adicted, besides all their sensuall and
incestuous lusts, unto Sodomy, which they account as a daynty to digest all
their other libidinous pleasures. They hold that every one hath the houre of his
death wrot on his fore-brow, and that none can escape, the good or evill houre
predestinated for them: This rediculous errour makes them so bold and
desperate, yea, and often, to runne headlong in the most inevitable dangers:
They are not much given to domesticke pastimes, as Chesse, Cards, Dice, and
Tables, but abroad and in travell, they are exceeding kind disposers of their
meate and drinke to any stranger without exception: The better sort of their
women, are sumptuously attyred, and adorned with pearles and precious stones,
and some of them are accustomed to turne their hands and haire into a red
colour, but especially the nayles of their hands and feete; and are wont to go to
bathe themselves in Stoves twice a weeke, as well as men.

The true Turkes weare on their heads white Turbanes, save a few that are
esteem’d to be of Mahomets kinred, and they weare greene Shashes, being
most part of them Priests: the better part of the Turkes in Asia, care not for fish,
but these Turkes which remaine in Europe love fish better then flesh, especially
at Constantinople or Stambolda, where the best fishes and most abundance of
them are taken, that be in the world, and that in the blacke Sea: They are ever
desirous to seeke advantage [IV. 164.]on their neighbours, which if they cannot
by force, they will under colour of truce, accomplish it with perfidiousnesse.
And if their interprises, finde no happy event, they are never a whit ashamed to
take the flight, yet are they generally good souldiers, and well taught in martiall
discipline: Their Armies in marching, or camping (notwithstanding infinite
multitudes) keepe modestie and silence, and are extreamely obedient unto their
Captaines and Commanders: When the great Signior is abroad with his armie at
warres, the Turkes at home within Townes, use great prayers, and fasting for
him and them: They ingeniously describe the victories of their Ancestours, and
joyfully sing them in rimes and songs; thinking thereby that fashion in recalling
the valiant deeds of their predecessours, to be the onely meane to encourage
their souldiers to be hardy, resolute and desperate in all their interprises: Turkes
are noe Schollers.They are not given to contemplation, nor studdy of Letters or
Arts; yet they have divers faire Schooles, where the publicke lecture of their
legall Lawes are professed, and Mahometanisme; to the intent that Children,
being elected to be brought up there for a nones, may be instructed, to be
profitable expounders of their Alcoran, and judicious Judges for the
government of the Common-wealth: It is seldome, and rarely seene, that a
Turke will speake with a woman in the streets; nay, not so much as in their
Mosquees one to be in sight of another; and yet they are Lords and Masters of
their Wives and Concubines, from whom they receive as great respect, service
and honour, as from their bond and bought slaves.

Now as concerning his riches, the chiefest three parts of Commerce of all kind
of merchandise, and abounding in silver and gold in all the Turkes dominions,
as well [IV. 165.]in Asia, and Affricke, as Europe, are these, Constantinople in
Thracia of Europe: Aleppo in Syria of Asia major; and grand Cayro in Ægypt
of Affricke: for these are the three Maggezzines of the whole Empire, that draw
the whole riches, money, and trafficke to them of all the Imperiall Provinces: It
is thought that ordinarily and The great Turkes yearely rent.annually the rent of the
great Turke amounteth to sixteene millions of gold, notwithstanding that some
doe make it lesser: But because it is so hard to judge of any Monarchs rents;
being like the infinite concavities of the earth, sending, and receiving so
innumerable wayes their streames of riches, I’le desist from any other
instances: And yet the great Turkes revenewes, are no way answerable to his
great & large dominions: The causes arising hereupon are many, of whom I
will select three or foure of the chiefest reasons: First the Turkes being more
given to armes, to conquer, to destroy and ruine, and to consume the wealth of
the people they overcome, leaving them destitute, of nuriture; rather then any
way to give course for their encreasing and stablishing of traffique, out of
which should flow the royall advantages. Certaine reasons.And the reason why
they keepe their subjects poore, and frustrate themselves of great profits; is
onely to weaken, and enfeeble them, whereby they should not have wherewith
to move insurrection or rebellion against them. And on the other part, the
Greekes are as unwilling to be industrious in Arts, traficke or cultivage; seeing
what they possesse is not their owne, but is taken from them at all occasions,
with tyranny & oppression. For what gaines the sower, if another reape the
profit; So in the Ottomans estate, there be great Forrests, and desartuous
Countries; proceeding of the scarcity of people to inhabit there, the multitudes
being drawne from Asia, to strengthen the frontiers of his dominions in Europe.

[IV. 166.]And besides there is another reason of the dispopulosity of these parts;
to wit, when the great Turkes Army, is to march to a farre Countrey to make
warres, then must their vulgar subdued peasants, perhaps twenty or thirty
thousands go along with them, to carry their victuals, and all manner of
provision, being taken from the plough, and constrained to this servitude, and
notwithstanding the halfe of them never returne againe: Partly, because of the
change of food, and aire, and partly because of their long travell and
insupportable service, both in heate and cold: And to these of the first reason,
there is another perpendicular cause; to wit, that the whole commerce of all
commodities in Turkey, is in the hands of Jewes, and Christians, to wit,
Ragusans, Venetians, English, French, and Flemings, who so warily menage
their businesse, that they enjoy the most profits of any trading there,
dissappointing the Turkes owne subjects of their due, and ordinary trafficke.

Parsells of ground for Tymariots.Thelast and most principall reason is, which is a
great deale of more importance than his Revenues; to wit, the great number of
his Timars: for the Turkish Emperours; being immediate Maisters of the lands
they overcome, they divide the same in Timars or commandements: leaving
little or nothing at all to the auncient Inhabitants; they dispose upon these
proportions, to valerous Souldiers, that have done good service: And with this
condition, that they mainetaine, and have alwayes in readinesse Horses for the
warres: which is an excellent good order for the preservation of his Empire; for
if these Timariots were not rewarded, with such absolute possessions of parcell
grounds, the state of his power would suddenly runne to ruine: for the profit of
which lands, maintaining themselves, their horses, and their families, maketh
them [IV. 167.]the more willing to concurre in the infallible service of their
Emperour: These Timars or grounds, entertaine through all his Dominions,
about two hundreth and fifty thousand horses, that are ever in readinesse to
march at the first advertisement, without any charges to the great Signior, being
bound to maintaine themselves in during the warres: And yet these Timariots,
and their horses, cannot yearely be maintained under the value of ten Millions
of Gold: The consideration whereof, makes me astonished, when I recall, the
relations of some ragged Authors, who dare compare the Great Turkes
Revenues unto our petty Princes of Christendome.

This establishment of Timars, and the by-past election of Azamglians, or young

children to be made Jannisaries have bene the two strong Foundations, that
supported so inviolably the Turkish Empire. The Romane Emperours for a long
time used the selfe same manner for the assuring of their persons, and estate, in
election of yong males to be their guard. They were called the Pretorian Army,
and this taxation of children was the first thing that moved the Flemings, to
revolt against the Romanes.

Policies of Turkes.Asfor the Turkish Cavalrie, they sustaine two important effects,
first they keepe under awe and subjection, the great Turks subjects, who
otherwise perhaps wold revolt: And next they are ordained for any dependant
interprise for field Garrisons, yea, and the principall sinewes of the warres: and
yet the election of the grand Signior, lieth most in the hands of the Janizaries,
who can not perfectly say he is Emperour before they confirme him in his
Throne.

The Turkes have three things in their Armies which are very fearefull, to wit,
the infinite number of men, great discipline, and force of Munition: As for
discipline, [IV. 168.]they are not onely governed with great silence, and
obedience, but they are ruled also with signes of the eye, and being tractable,
they are tied to maine conducements: And although their multitudes have often
bred confusion to them, so that little Armies have broke and overcome them;
yet in their flight they are so cautulous, that a small number can do them no
absolute violence nor finall overthrow: for as they assaile, so they flye without
feare.
The first Residence of the Turkish Emperour after his comming from Ægypt,
was at Priusa in Bithinia: thence it was transported to Andreanople, and then to
Constantinople, where it abideth to this day: Besides, all his great Beglerbegs or
Bashaes.Bassaws in Europe, which are eight, one in Buda in Hungary, another in
Moldavia, the third in Dacia, the fourth at Bagaviliezza in Bosna, &c. He hath
also in Affrick a Bassaw, in Algeir, another in Tunneis, the third in Tripolis, and
the fourth in Ægypt, &c. And in Asia major and minor, to wit, one in Aleppo, of
Syria, one in Damascus, another at Balsera, the fourth at Meccha in Arabia
fælix, the fift in Carmania, the sixt in Cyprus, the seventh in the Rhodes, the
eighth at Arzeron in Armenia major, the ninth and tenth at Testis and Upan, on
the Frontiers of Gurgestan and Persia, &c. For Arsenals he hath foure for sea,
to wit, one at Perah or Galata, containing a hundred thirty and three Galleys:
The second at Gallipoli of twenty Galleys: The third Arsenall is at Savezza
upon the Red Sea, consisting of twenty five Galleys: And the fourth is at
Belsara in Arabia fælix, towards the Persian Gulfe, depending of fifteene
Galleys, which are kept there to afflict the Portugals, remaining in the Ile of
Ormus; and other parts adjacent there.

The Turkes have a custome, when they are maisters of any Province, to
extermine all the native Nobility, [IV. 169.]chiefely these of the blood-royall of
the Countrey: And neverthelesse they permit to all and every one of theirs to
live and follow his owne Religion as he pleaseth without violence or constraint.

Amongst the Turkes there is noe Gentility, nor Nobility, but are all as ignoble
and inferiour members, to one maine body the great Turke, lineally descending
of the house of Ottoman: whose magnificence, puissance, and power is such,
that the most eloquent tongue cannot sufficiently declare: His thousands or
Janisaries, Shouses, and others dayly attending him: which are the nerves and
sinewes of the Warlike body of his whole Monarchy and imperiall estate: His
hundreds (besides his Queene) of Concubines, hourely maintained by his
meanes, and monethly renewed: His Armies, Bashawes, Emeeres, Vizier-
bashawes, Sanzacks, Garrisons, and Forces here and there dispersed amongst
his dominions, would be impossible for me briefly to relate. The inhumane
policy of the Turkes, to avoid civill dissention is such, that the seede of
Ottoman (all except one of them) are strangled to death: Wherefore, as
Augustus Cæsar said of Herod in the like case, it is better to be the great Turkes
dogge, then his Sonne. His Daughters or Sisters are not so used, but are given
in marriage to any Bassa, whom so they affect; yet with this condition; the
King saith to his Daughter, or Sister, I give thee this man to be thy slave; and if
he offend thee in any case, or be disobedient to thy will, here I give thee a
Dagger to cut off his head; which alwaies they weare by their sides for the
same purpose.

Noble Persians.The Persians differ much from the Turkes, in nobility, humanity,
and activity, and especially in points of Religion: who by contention thinke
each other accursed; [IV. 170.]and notwithstanding both factions are under the
Mahometanicall Lawe. Neither are the Sonnes of the Persian Kings, so
barbarously handled, as theirs; for all the brethren (one excepted) are onely
made blind, wanting their eyes, and are alwayes afterward gallantly
maintained, like Princes. And it hath oftentimes fallen out, that some of these
Kings, dying without procreate Heires; there have of these blind sonnes
succeeded to the Empire, who have restored againe the seed of that Royall
family.

And now the great advantage, that the Turkes have dayly upon the Persians, is
onely because of their Infantery, which the Persians no wayes are accustomed
with, fighting alwayes on Horse-backe; neither are the Persians adicted or
given to build Forts, or Fortifications, neither have they any great use of
Munition, but exposing themselves ever to the field in the extreame hazard of
battell, become ever doubtfull in their victories: whose Babylon regained by the
Persians.courage and valour cannot be paraleld among all the people of the
Easterne world, as Babylon in their late and last fortunes may give sufficient
testimony thereof.
 THE FIFTH PART

Close bounded Hellespont, Earths Mother sport

I leave: longst the Æolid lists, I Smirna court:
Thence Samothrace, and Rhodos, I accoast,
Which Lilidamus Viliers, manly lost:
The Lycian bounds, and steepe Pamphilian shoares
I strictly view: The sea Carpathian roares,
I land at Cyprus: Seline is the place,
Whence I that Kingdome, to Nicosia trace:
[V. 171.]From Famagust, faire Asia, then I courted
And Libanon; whence Cedars were transported
For Sions temple: And my toyles to crowne
I sight great Aleppe, Syriaes Lady Towne:
Then passing Mesopotame; Chelfanes land,
I stay at Beershack, on Euphrates strand:
Thence backe by Damas, Arabie Petrea,
Galilee, Samaria, mountainous Judea
I toyling came: And at Jerusalem,
I lodg’d neere Moriah, in a Cloystred frame.

he Winter expired, & the Spring gone, time summoned me

T

after three moneths repose, to imbrace the violence of a firy

fac’d season: where having dutifully taken my Counge of
many worthy friends, who both kindly, and respectively had
used me; especially, the aforesayd English Ambassadour, Sir
Thomas Glover: And the new Ambassadour, Sir Paul Pinder,
who had lately arrived there before my departure, and had
bene formerly Consull in Aleppo five yeares.

I left Constantinople, and imbarked in a Ship belonging to London, named the

Allathya, whereof one Maister Wylds in Ratcliffe was Maister; where indeed
both he and his Company kindly and respectively used me, for the space of
twelve daies; being bound for Smyrna, and so we sayled along the coast of
Bithinia in Asia minor.
Bithinia hath on the North Hellespont: On the West Phrigia; on the East Pontus:
and on the South Capadocia or Leuco Syria: The chiefe Citties are Calcedon,
where, by comaund of the Emperour Martianus, the fourth Generall Counsell
was assembled, to repell the Heresie of Nestorius. Nigh unto the side of
Hellespont is Mount [V. 172.]Stella, famous for that victory which Pompey had
over Mithridates: And where Tamberlane with 800000. Tartarians incountred
Bajazet, whose Army consisted of 500000. men; of which 200000. lost their
lives that day: And Bajazet taken by Tamberlane.Bajazet being taken, was carried
about in an Iron Cage on whose necke Tamberlane used to set his foote, when he
mounted on horse-backe; and at last beate out his owne braines against the
barres of the Iron Cage: the next Cities are Nicomedia; and Nyce, where the first
Generall Councell was kept, Anno 314. to which there assembled 318. Bishops
to beate downe the Arian Heresie. The other Townes are Prusa and Labissa; the
former was built by Prusias King of Bithinia, who betrayed Hanniball when he
fled to him for succour; in the latter Hanniball lyeth buried. Prusa was a long
time the seate of the Ottoman Kings, till Mahomet the first began to keepe his
Residence at Andrianople: The chiefe Rivers are Ascanius, Sangaro, and
Granico, nigh unto which Alexander obtained the first victory against the
Persians.

Having passed Bithinia, and the Phrigian coast, we fetched up Cenchrea, where
Saint Paul cut his haire, after his vow was performed, Acts 18. 18. Being a
Towne now inhabited by Greekes, with a Turkish Governour, and of small
importance, in regard of other neighbouring places, that bereave them of their
trafficke; and because the Jewes do not much frequent here: the Inhabitants are
rather turned spectators to Vertue, than any way inherent to necessary
goodnesse: Want of Strangers being one let, and vitious otiosity the other stop:
This City standeth by the sea side in the North part of Ionia, but more truely on
the West frontiers of Lydia. Lydia hath on the West Phrigia minor: on the South
Ionia: on the East Paphlagonia, on the North-west Æolus, & a part of [V.
173.]Phrygia major. The chiefe Metropole is Sardis, once the Royall seat of
Crœsus the richest King in his time, who in his full prosperity, was told by
Solon, that no man could reckon upon felicity so long as he lived, because there
might be great mutability of Fortune, which afterward he found true: The recitall
of which advertisement, when he was taken prisoner by Cyrus saved his life:
The next City is Pergamus, where Parchment was first invented, and therefore
called Pergamenum: here was Galen borne, who lived so healthfully one
hundreth and forty yeares: the reason whereof, he thus affixeth; he never eate or
drunke his full, & ever carried some sweete perfumes with him. The other
Townes are Thyatira, Laodicea, and Philadelphia.

Upon the twelfth day after our departure from Constantinople, we arrived at
Smirna, being foure hundreth miles distant.

The City of Smyrna.ThisCity was one of the seven Churches mentioned Revelation
2. 8. And standeth in Ionia: of this place was the famous Martyr Polycarpus
Bishop, who sometimes had bene Schollar to John the Evangelist: and living till
he was of great age, was at last put to death for Christs sake. It is a goodly place,
having a faire Haven for Ships: They have great trafficke with all Nations;
especially for fine Silke, Cotten wooll, and Dimmety, brought to it by the
Countrey Peasants, which straungers buy from them.

Truely, neare unto this City, I saw a long continuing plaine, abounding in
Cornes, Wines, all sorts of fruitfull herbage, and so infinitely peopled, that
methought Nature seemed, with the peoples industry to contend, the one by
propagating creatures, the other by admirable agriculture.

That for Commodities and pleasure, it is little inferiour unto the valley of Suda
in Candy, which maketh the [V. 174.]inhabitants wondrous insolent: for as mirth
is made of Wealth is the brother of vice.pleasure, and with pleasures all vices are
baited; even so there is not a more incorrigible creature then man in prosperity,
nor so modest nor reformed an one, as he, to whom fortune hath lent but a
sparing and crooked favour, which indeed I hold best of all: for it is the forming
of the mind, not the tongue, nor hand, that can preferre us to true felicitie: And
would to God that these, upon whome none but faire windes have ever blowne,
in the carreire of their supposed happinesse, could but see for all their high and
overtopping places, their end, and resting place: since they are nought but the
arrowes of the omnipotent arme, that are yet flying not at theirs but his marke;
and no more owners of their owne proposed ends, then they are guilty of their
owne beginnings: surely they would cover their faces with another kind of
maske then they do: and make their actions seeme more cleare, then the force of
policie can obumbrate their wicked devices.

Thiatyra now called Tiria, one also of the seven Churches is not from Smirna
above eighteene miles.
From this Citie (having left my kind English men and their stately ship that
carryed 24. pieces of Ordonance,) I imbarked in a Turkish Carmoesalo, that
carried nothing but her loading, being bound for Rhodes. In our sayling along
the coast of Ionia, the first place of any note I saw, was Ephesus decayed.the
ruinous Citie of Ephesus; yet somewhat inhabited with Greekes, Jewes, and a
few Turkes; but no waies answerable to its former glory and magnificence,
being rather a monument for memory, then a continuing Towne of any
excellency: neverthelesse it is pleasantly adorned with Gardens, faire fields, and
greene woods of Olive trees, which on the Sea doe yeeld a delectable prospect:
It was one of the seaven Churches, Revel. 2. 1. This [V. 175.]was one of the most
renowned Cities in Asia the lesser but the same thereof arose from the Temple of
Diana: which for the spaciousnesse, furniture, and magnificent workmanship
was accounted one of the seven worlds wonders: It was two hundred yeares in
building, being foure hundred twenty five foote long, and two hundred broad: It
was seven severall times burnt, whereof the most part was with lightning, and
lastly the finall destruction of it, came by a base fellow Erostratus, who to
purchase himselfe a name, Dianaes Temple burnt.did set it on fire. Timothy was
Bishop of Ephesus, to the people whereof, Saint Paul directed one of his
Epistles, and finally it is famous for the buriall of Saint John the Evangelist: It
was said of this place, in the Acts of the Apostles, that all Asia, and the whole
world did worship here Diana: Tully reporteth, De natura Deorum, that Timæus
being demanded the reason why the Temple of Diana was set on fire that night,
when Alexander the great was borne: gave this jest thereof, that the Mistresse of
it was from home; because she being the Goddesse of Midwives, did that night
wait upon Olimpias the mother of Alexander the great, who was brought to bed
in Macedonia.

The Ile Lango or Cuos.Over against this Citie is the Ile Lango, aunciently called
Coos, wherein the great Hippocrates was borne, and Appelles, the Painter most
excellent. It is both fertile, and populous, and of circuite above fourescore miles.
There is a kind of Serpent said to be in it, so friendly unto the Inhabitants, that
when the men are sleeping under the shadow of trees, they come cralling, and
will lincke or claspe themselves about their neckes and bodies, without doing
any harme, neither when they awake are the beasts affraid.

And neare to Lango, is the Ile Nixa, of old Strangoli; [V. 176.]and by some called
Dronisa and Naxus, an Iland both fruitfull and delightfull. As we sailed by the
West part of the Ile, a Greekish passenger shewed me the place, where (as he
sayd) Ariadne was deceived of Theseus, which is not farre from the irriguate
plaine of Darmille.

Continuing our Navigation, I saw the little Ile Ephdosh, where the Turkes told
me, that all the Ilanders were Excellent swimmers.naturally good swimmers, paying
no more tribute to their great Lord the Turke, save onely once in the yeare there
are certaine men, and women chosen by a Turkish Captaine, who must swimme
a whole league right out in the Sea, and goe downe to the bottome of the waters,
to fetch thence some token they have got ground: And if they shall happen to
faile in this, the Iland will be reduced againe to pay him yearely rent. This I saw
with mine eyes, whiles we being calmed, there came a man and two women
swimming to us, more then a mile of way, carrying with them (drie above the
water) baskets of fruite to sell, the which made me not a little to wonder. For
when they came to the ships side, they would neither boord, nor boat with us,
but lay leaning, or as it were resting them selves on the sea, upon their one side,
and sold so their fruits: keeping complements and discourses with us above an
houre. Contenting them for their ware, and a fresh gale arising, we set forward,
accoasting the little Ile of Samothracia.

Samothracia.This Ile of Samothracia, was called of old Dardania, and now by the
Turkes Samandracho; a place of small note considering the quantity of the Ile,
and the few number of Inhabitants: their lives being answerable to their
meannes; ignorance and servitude; two strong commanders of infirme
weaklings, and no lesse powerfull, then [V. 177.]they are debile in the debt of
worthinesse; which the younglings of understanding, & sucklings of far look’d-
to knowledge, can never be able to escape, although a true profession covereth
many naturall imperfections; and in it a hope for blessednes, which indeed moe
wish for, then rightly understand it. And upon the ninth day after our departure
from Smyrna, we arrived at the City of Rhodes, so called of the Iland wherein it
standeth.

Rhodes lieth in the Carpathian Sea. It was of old called The Ile of Rhodes.Ithrea,
Telchino, and Phiula: Plinie saith it was called Rhodes, because there were
certaine fields of Roses in it; for Rhodos in the Greeke tongue signifieth a
Flower: Not farre from the City, and at the entery of the Haven, The Idoll
Collossus.I saw the relicts of that huge, and admiredly erected Idoll, named
Colossus Rhodius, or the mighty image of the Sunne; which was made in
honour thereof: from the which Saint Paul termed the Inhabitants Collossians. It
was builded by the worthy Canete Lindo in the space of twelve yeares: others
have said, of Callasses the Disciple of Lisippus, taking the name Collossus of
him, and it was thought worthy to be one of the seven earthly wonders, and so it
might justly have beene: The quantity whereof (as yet) may amaze the minde of
the beholder: It was erected in the Image of a man, being eighty cubits high, and
so bigge, that the little finger of it was as bigge as an ordinary man: between
whose legs, (it standing in the harbours mouth, with a legge on each side of the
entery) Shippes were wont to passe under with taunt sayles: When Mnavi
Generall of Caliph Osmen first united this Ile to the Mahometan Empire, and
broke downe the greatest part of this statue; the brasse whereof was said to be so
much that it loaded nine hundred Camells.

This Ile belonged once to the Knights of Malta, and [V. 178.]were then surnamed
Knights of the Rhodes, but they came first out of Acre in the Holy Land; who
were called Knights of St. John; who viriliously expulsed the Saracens from
thence, Anno 1308. who had formerly taken it from the devided Grecians: These
Knights sorely invested the Turkes for the space of two hundred yeares, till
Solyman the magnificent, at last invaded and subdued it: The Rhodians were
ever great friends to the Romanes, insomuch that when all the other
Mediterranean Ilands revolted to Mithridates of Pontus, this onely adhered to the
Romanes.

This Ile of Rhodes within the space of 25. yeares was three times mightily
indangered by violent and extreame Inundation of waters.impetuosities of raine: in
such sort that the last flood did drowne the greatest part of the Inhabitants:
which beginning in the Spring-time, did continue to Summer, and in all this
time, it broke violently downe their houses, and in the night killed the people
lying in their beds; and in the day time such as were sheltered under safegard of
their dwellings: which was a miserable destruction, and the like of it scarcely
heard of since the universall deludge.

But true it is, as these ominous judgements falling upon particular parts &
parcells of people, are justly executed; yet they serve for Caveats for all others
in generall, (sinne being the originall of all) to take heed of offending the
Creator, in abusing the best use of the Creature.

The Citie of Rhodes hath two strong Fortresses, in one of which these Knights
(Lilladamus Villiers being great Master, who were about five hundred onely, and
five thousand Rhodians who asisted them) were besieged by an Armie of two
hundred thousand Turkes, and three hundred Galleys, for the space of sixe
months. The chiefe [V. 179.]obstacle, and impeaching of so great an Army from
taking it, was onely the resolute valour of the defendants. But in end multitude
overmastring valour, and the Cavalieri di Rhodo, wanting furniture to their
munition, and being penurious of victuals, were constrayned to render, upon the
conditionall safety of their lives, goods, and transportation; and remained a long
time without any habitation, till the King of Spaine gave them the barren Ile of
Malta to inhabite: This Ile of Rhodes was lost by the Maltezes, Anno Dom.
1522. Rhodes taken by Solyman.And on Christmas day Solyman entred the Towne as
conquerour, though he might justly have said (as Pyrhus once said of his victory
over the Romanes) that such another victory would utterly have undone him; he
lost so many of his bravest Commanders, and best Souldiers. It is ever since in
the fruition of Turkes: The Fortresse of Rhodes, and that Fortresse Famogusta,
in Cyprus, are the two strongest holds, in all the Empire of the great Turke.

And by the way here I must record, that if the great Turke, and his great
Counsell, were not good pay-masters to their Janizaries, and speedy rewarders
of their common Souldiers; it were impossible for him the Emperour, or them
the Bassawes to menage so great a state, and to keepe under obedience so head-
strong a multitude, & such turbulent forces: for by your leave, Souldiers should be
regarded & rewarded.if a Souldiers industry be not quickned and animated with
bountifull rewards; he hath lesse will to performe any part of Martiall service;
then a dead coarse hath power to arise out of the grave: for what can be more
precious to man, then his blood, being the fountaine & nurse of his vitall spirits,
& the ground of his bodily substance; which no free or ingenious nature wil
hazard to lose for nothing.

[V. 180.]And whosoever shall argument or discourse upon sound reason, and
infallible experience, may easily prove and perceive, that these Commanders
have ever best prospered, which have most liberally maintayned, and had in
singular regard, Military Arts and Souldiers; otherwise the honourable mind,
would account it a great deale better to have death without life, then life without
reward: yea, and the noble Commander, desiring rather to want, then to suffer
worth unrecompensed.

Rhodes joyneth neare to the continent, over against Caria, now called Carmania,
under which name the Turkes comprehend Pamphilia, Ionia, and Lycia: Caria by
the Sea side, hath Lycia to the South, and Caria to the North: The chiefe Cities
are Manissa, and Mindum, which having great gates, being but a small Towne,
made Diogenes the Cynick crie out. Yee Citizens of Mindum, take heed, that
your City run not out of your gates: The third is Hallicarnasso, where Dionisius
was borne, who writ the History of Rome for the first three hundred yeares: Of
which Towne also the Province tooke the name; for Artemisia, who ayded
Xerxes against the Grecians, was by some Authors named Queene of
Hallicarnasso. This was she, Mausolaos Tombe.who in honour of her husband
Mausolao, built that curious Sepulcher, accounted for one of the worlds
wonders; it being twenty five cubits high, and supported with thirty sixe
admirable wrought pillars.

After I had contented the Master for my fraught, and victuals (who as he was an
Infidell, used me with great exaction) I found a Barke of the Arches purposed to
Cyprus, with the which I imbarked, being foure hundred miles distant.

This Tartareta, or Demi galleyeot, belonged to the Ile of Stagiro, aunciently

Thasia, wherein there were [V. 181.]mines of gold, in these times that afforded
yearely to Philip King of Macedon, about fourescore talents of gold, but now
mightily impoverished and of no consequence: The chiefe Towne whereof is
Palmapreto, where diverse Greekes hold the opinion, Homer was interred,
having a famous Sea-port, which is a common resting place for all the Orientall
Pirats or Cursaroes; which maketh the Ile halfe desolate of people; and these
few scarce worthy of their dwellings.

Pamphilia & Lycia.Having past the gulfe of Sattelia, and the Ile Carpathia, whence
that part of the Sea taketh his name: we boorded close along the coast of Lycia,
and the firme land of fruitfull Pamphilia; the chiefe Citie of Lycia is Patras,
watred with the river Zanthus, whence the people were called Zanthi, afterward
Lycians of Lycus sonne to Pandion: It lieth twixt Caria and Pamphilia, as
Pamphilia lyeth betweene it and Cilicia: The chiefe Towne in Pamphilia is
Seleucia, built by Seleucus, one of Alexanders successours: on the East of Lycia
within land bordreth Lycaonia, &c. Having left Pamphilia behind us, we fetched
up the coast of Cylicia, sustaining many great dangers, both of tempestuous
stormes, and invasions of damnable Pirats, who gave us divers assaults to their
owne disadvantages; our saylage being swifter, then either their swallowing
desires could follow, or our weake and inresolute defence could resist.
Here in this Countrey of Cilicia, was Saint Paul borne in the now decayed
Towne of Tharsus, who for antiquity will not succumbe to any City of Natolia,
being as yet the Mistresse of that Province, though neither for worth, nor wealth.

All auncient things by Time revolve in nought

As if their Founders, had no founding wrought.
[V. 182.]But thou torne Tharsus, brookes a glorious name,
For that great Saint, who in Thee had his frame:
So may Cilicians joy, the Christian sort,
That from their bounds, rose such a mighty Fort.

Twelve dayes was I betweene Rhodes and Limisse in The description of

Cyprus.Cyprus; where arrived, I received more gracious demonstrations from the
Ilanders, then I could hope for, or wish, being farre beyond my merit or
expectation; onely contenting my curiosity with a quiet mind, I redounded
thankes for my imbraced courtesies.

The people are generally strong and nimble, of great civility, hospitality to their
neighbours, and exceedingly affectionated to strangers. The second day after my
arrival, I tooke with me an Interpreter, and went to see Nicosia, which is placed
in the midst of the Kingdome. But in my journey thither, extreame was the heate
and thirst I endured; both in respect of the season, and also want of water: And
although I had with me sufficiency of Wine, yet durst I drinke none thereof,
being so strong, and withall had a tast of pitch; and that is, because they have no
barrels, but great Jarres made of earth, wherein their Wine is put. And these
Jarres are all inclosed within the ground save onely their mouthes, which stand
alwayes open like to a Source or Cisterne; whose insides are all interlarded with
pitch to preserve the earthen vessells unbroke a sunder, in regard of the forcible
Wine; yet making the taste thereof unpleasant to liquorous lips; and turneth the
Wine, too headdy for the braine in digestion, which for health groweth difficult
to strangers; and to themselves a swallowing up of diseases.

To cherish life and blood, the health of Man,

Give me a Tost, plung’d in a double Cann,
[V. 183.]And spic’d with Ginger: for the wrestling Grape
Makes Man, become from Man, a sottish Ape.
Nicosia is the principall Citie of Cyprus, and is invironed with mountaines, like
unto Florence in Ætruria; The sixe Cities of Cyprus.wherein the Beglerbeg
remaineth: The second is Famegusta, the chiefe strength and Sea-port in it:
Selina, Lemisso, Paphos, and Fontana Morosa, are the other foure speciall
Townes in the Iland.

This Ile of Cyprus was of old called Achametide, Amatusa, and by some
Marchara, that is happy: It is of length extending from East to West, 210. large
60. and of circuit 600. miles. It yeeldeth infinite canes of Sugar, Cotten-wooll,
Oyle, Honney, Cornes, Turpentine, Allum, Verdegreece, Grogranes, store of
Mettals and Salt; besides all other sorts of fruit and commodities in abundance.
It was also named Cerastis, because it butted toward the East with one horne:
and lastly Cyprus, from the abundance of Cypresse trees there growing. This
Iland was consecrated to Venus, where in Paphos she was greatly honoured,
termed hence, Dea Cypri,

Festa Dies Veneris tota celeberrima Cypro,

Venerat, ipsa suis aderat Venus aurea festis.

Venus feast day, through Cyprus hollowed came,

Whose feasts, her presence, dignified the same.

Cyprus lyeth in the gulfe betweene Cilicia and Syria, having Ægypt to the West:
Syria to the South: Cilicia to the East: and the Pamphilian Sea to the North: It
hath foure chiefe Capes or headlands: first, Westward the Promontore of
Acanias, modernely Capo di Santo Epifanio: to the South the Promontore
Phæuria, now Capo Bianco: to the East Pedasia, modernely Capo di [V.
184.]Greco: to the North, the high foreland of Cramineon, now Capo di
Cormathita: these foure are the chiefest Promontores of the Iland, and Cape di S.
Andrea is the furthest poynt Eastward toward Cilicia: Diodore and Pliny say that
anciently it contained nine Kingdomes, and fifteene good Townes: Cerania, now
Selina, was built by Cyrus, who subdued the nine petty Kings of this Ile: Nicosia
is situate in the bottome or plaine of Massara, and thirty foure miles from
Famagusta; and the Towne of Famagusta was formerly named Salamus: I was
informed by some of sound experience here, that this Kingdome containeth
about eight hundreth and forty Villages, besides the sixe capitall Townes, two
whereof are nothing inferiour for greatnesse and populosity to the best Townes
in Candy, Sicily, or Greece.

Trohodos a huge hill in Cyprus.The

chiefest and highest mountaine in this Ile, is by
the Cypriots called Trohodos, it is of height eight, and of compasse forty eight
miles, whereon there are a number of Religious Monasteries, the people whereof
are called Colieros, and live under the order of Saint Basile. There is abundance
here of Coriander seede, with medicinable Reubarbe, and Turpentine. Here are
also mines of gold in it, of Chrysocole, of Calthante, of Allome, Iron, and
exceeding good Copper. And besides these mines, there are diverse precious
stones found in this Ile, as Emeraulds, Diamonds, Chrystall, Corall, red and
white, and the admirable stone Amiante, whereof they make Linnen cloth, that
will not burne being cast into the fire, but serveth to make it neate and white.

The greatest imperfection of this Ile, is scarcity of water, and too much plenty of
scorching heate, and fabulous grounds. The Inhabitants are very civill,
courteous, and affable; and notwithstanding of their [V. 185.]delicious and
delicate fare, they are much subject to Melancholy, of a Robust nature, and good
Warriours, if they might carry Armes: It is recorded, that in the time of
Constantine the Great, this Ile was all uterly abandoned of the Inhabitants, and
that because it did not raine for the space of sixe and thirty yeares. After which
time, and to Cyprus replanted.replant this Region againe, the chiefest Colonies
came from Ægypt, Judea, Syria, Cilicia, Pamphilia, Thracia, and certaine
Territories of Greece: And it is thought, in the yeares 1163. after that Guy of
Lusingham, the last Christian King of Jerusalem had lost the Holy Land, a
number of French men, stayed and inhabited here; of whom sprung the greatest
race of the Cyprian Gentility; and so from them are discended the greatest
Families of the Phenician Sydonians, modernely Drusians: though ill divided,
and worse declined; yet they are sprung both from one Originall: the distraction
arising from Conscience of Religion, the one a Christian, the other a Turke.

The three Iles of Cyprus, Candy, and Sicily, are the onely Monarchicke Queenes
of the Mediterranean Seas: Comparisons of Iles.and semblable to other in fertility,
length, breadth, and circuit: save onely Candy that is somewhat more narrow
then the other two, and also more Hilly and sassinous: yet for Oyles and Wines,
she is the Mother of both the other: Sicily being for Graine and Silkes the
Empresse of all: and Cyprus for Sugar and Cotton-wooll, a darling sister to both;
onely Sicily being the most civill Ile, and nobly gentilitat, the Cypriots
indifferently good, and the Candiots the most ruvid of all.

The chiefe Rivers are Teno, and Pedesco: Cyprus was first by Teucer made a
Kingdome, who after the Trojane Warre came and dwelt here: and afterward
being divided [V. 186.]betweene nine petty Princes, it was subdued by Cyrus, the
first Monarch of the Meedes and Persians. After the subversion of which
Empire, this Ile was given to the Potolomies of Ægypt: from whom Cato
conquered it to the benefit of the Romans. The Dukes of Savoy were Kings of
Cyprus.The Dukes of Savoy were once Kings of Cyprus; but the Inhabitants
usurping their authority, elected Kings to themselves, of their owne generation:
and so it continued, till the last King of Cyprus, James the Bastard (marrying
with the daughter of a noble Venetian, Catherina Cornaro) died without children,
leaving her his absolute heire. And she perceiving the factious Nobility, too
headstrong to be bridled by a female authority, like a good child, resigned her
Crowne and Scepter to the Venetian Senate, Anno 1473. Whereupon the
Venetians imbracing the opportunitie of time, brought her home, and sent
Governours thither to beare sway in their behalfe; paying onely as tribute to the
Ægyptian Sultans 40000. Crownes, which had been due ever since Melecksala,
had made John of Cyprus his tributary.

It was under their Jurisdiction 120. yeares and more; till that the Turkes, who
ever oppose themselves against Christians (finding a fit occasion in time of
peace, and without suspition in the Venetians) tooke it in with a great Armado.
Anno 1570. and so till this day by them is detayned. Oh great pitty! that the
usurpers of Gods word, and the worlds great enemy, should maintaine (without
feare) that famous Kingdome, being but one thousand & fifty Turkes in all, who
are the keepers of it: unspeakable is the calamitie of that poore afflicted
Christian people under the terrour of these Infidels; who would, if they had
Armes, or asistance of any Christian Potentate, easily subvert and abolish the
Turkes, without [V. 187.]any disturbance; yea, and would render the whole
Signiory thereof to such a noble Actor. I doe not see in that small judgement,
which by experience I have got, but the redemption of that Countrey were most
facile; if that the generous heart of any Christian Prince, would be moved with
condigne compassion to relieve the miserable aflicted Inhabitants. In which
worke, he should reape (questionlesse) not onely an infinite treasure of Worldly
commodities, that followeth upon so great a conquest, but also a heavenly and
eternall reward of immortall glory. The Florentines attempted to conquer Cyprus.The
which deliverance Ferdinando Duke of Florence, thought to have accomplished
(having purchased the good will of the Ilanders) with five Gallounes, and 5000.
Souldiers: Who being mindfull to take first in the Fortresse of Famogusta,
directed so their course, that in the night, they should have entred the Haven,
disbarke their men, and scale the walles.

But in this plot they were farre disappointed by an unhappy Pilot of the Vice-
admirall, who mistaking the Port, went into a wrong bay: which the Florentines
considering, resolved to returne, and keepe the sea, till the second night; but by
a dead calme, they were frustrated of their aymes, and on the morrow
discovered by the Castle: Whereupon the Turkes went presently to armes, &
charged the Inhabitants to come to defend that place: But about foure hundred
Greekes in the West part, at Paphos, rebelled; thinking that time had altered their
hard fortunes, by a new change: but alas, they were prevented, & every one cut
off by the bloody hands of the Turkes. This massacre was committed in the
yeare 1607. Such alwaies are the torturing flames of Fortunes smiles, that he
who most affecteth her, she most, and altogether deceiveth: But they who trust
in the Lord, shall be as [V. 188.]stable as Mount Syon, which cannot be removed;
and questionlesse, one day God, in his all-eternall mercie, will relieve their
miseries, and in his just judgements, recompence these bloody oppressors with
the heavy vengeance of his all-seeing Justice.

In my returne from Nicosia, to Famogusta, with my Trench-man, we

encountered by the way with foure Turkes, who needs would have my Mule to
ride upon; which my Interpreter refused: But they in a revenge, pulled me by
thee heeles from the Mules backe, beating me most pittifully, and left me almost
for dead. In this meanewhile my companion fled, and escaped the sceleratnesse
of their hands; and if it had not beene for some compassionable Greekes, who
by accident came by, and relieved me, I had doubtlesse immediately perished.

Here I remember betweene this Ile and Sydon that same Summer, there were
five galleouns of the Duke of A sea cumbat.Florence, who encountred by chance
the Turkes great Armado consisting of 100. gallies, 14. galleots, and two
galleasses: The Admirall of which ships did single out her selfe from the rest,
and offered to fight with the whole Armado alone; but the Turkes durst not, and
in their flying backe, the Admirall sunke two of their gallies; and had almost
seazed upon one of their galleasses, if it had not beene for 20. gallies, who
desperatly adventured to row her away against the wind and so escaped.
For true it is, the naturall Turkes were never skilfull in menaging of Sea battells,
neither are they expert Mariners, nor experimented Gunners, if it were not for
our Christian Runnagates, French, English, and Flemings, and they too sublime,
accurate, and desperate fellowes; who have taught the Turkes the airt of
navigation, and especially the use of munition; which they both cast to [V.
189.]them, & then become their chiefe Cannoniers; the Turkes would be as
weake and ignorant at sea, as the silly Æthiopian, is unexpert in handling of
armes on the Land. Christiane Runagates.For the private humour of discontented
castawayes is alwaies an enemy to publicke good, who from the society of true
beleevers, are driven to the servitude of Infidells, and refusing the bridle of
Christian correction, they receive the double yoake of dispaire and
condemnation. Whose terrour of a guilty conscience, or rather blazing brand of
their vexed soules, in forsaking their Faith, and denying Christ to be their
Saviour, ramverts most of them, either over in a torment of melancholy,
otherwise in the extasie of madnesse: which indeed is a torturing horrour, that is
sooner felt then knowne; and cannot be avoided by the rudenesse of nature, but
by the saving grace of true felicity.

The City of Tripoly.Fromthe Fort and City Famogusta, I imbarked in a Germo, and
arrived at Tripoly being 88. miles distant, where I met with an English ship
called the Royall Exchange of London, lying there at Anker in the dangerous
Road of Tripoly, whose loves I cannot easily forget, for at my last good night,
being after great cheare, and greater carrousing, they gave me the thundring
farewell of three pieces of Ordonance. Tripoly is a City in Syria, standing a mile
from the marine side, neere to the foot of Mount Libanus: since it hath beene
first founded, it hath three times beene situated, and removed in three sundry
places: First it was overwhelmed with water: Secondly, it was sacked with
Cursares, and Pirates: Thirdly, it is like now to be overthrowne with new made
mountaines of sand: There is no haven by many miles neere unto it, but a
dangerous roade, where often when Northerly winds blow, ships are cast away.

[V. 190.]Scanderona.The great Traffique which now is at this place, was formerly at
Scanderona or Alexandretta, a little more Eastward; but by reason of the
infectious ayre, that corrupted the bloud of strangers, proceeding of two high
Mountaines; who are supposed to be a part of Mount Caucasus, which withhold
the prospect of the Sunne from the In-dwellers, more then three howers in the
morning. So that in my knowledge, I have knowne dye in one ship, and a
moneths time, twenty Marriners: for this cause the Christian ships were glad to
have their commodities brought to Tripoly, which is a more wholesome and
convenient place.

The dayly interrogation I had here, for a Carravans departure to Aleppo, was not
to me a little fastidious, being mindfull to visite Babylon: In this my expectation
I tooke purpose, with three Venetian Merchants, to go see the Cedars of
Libanon, which was but a dayes journey thither. As we ascended upon the
mountaine, our ignorant guide mistaking the way, brought us in a Laborinth of
dangers; Insomuch that wrestling amongst intricate paths of Rockes: two of our
Asses fell over a banke, and broke their neckes: And if it had not bene for a
Christian Amaronite, who accidently encountred with us, in our wilesome
wandring, we had bene miserably lost: both in regard of Rockes, and heapes of
snow we passed; and also of great Torrents, which fell downe with force, from
the steepy tops: wherein one of these Merchants was twice almost drowned.
When we arrived The Cedars of Libanus.to the place where the Cedars grew, we
saw but twenty foure of all, growing after the manner of Oke-trees, but a great
deale taler, straighter, and greater, and the braunches grow so straight, and
interlocking as though they were kept by Arte. And yet from the Roote to the [V.
191.]toppe they beare no boughes, but grow straight upward, like to a Palme-
tree; who as may-poles invelope the ayre, so their circle spred tops, do kisse or
enhance the lower cloudes; making their grandure over-looke the highest bodies
of all other aspiring trees: and like Monarchick Lyons to wild beasts, they
become the chiefe Champions of Forrests and Woods.

Although that in the dayes of Salomon, this mountaine was over-clad with
Forrests of Cedars, yet now there are but onely these, and nine miles Westward
thence, seventeene more. The nature of that tree is alwayes greene, yeelding an
odoriferous smell, and an excellent kind of fruite like unto Apples, but of a
sweeter taste, and more wholesome in digestion. The Rootes of some of these
Cedars are almost destroyed by Sheepheards, who have made fires thereat, and
holes wherein they sleepe; yet neverthelesse they flourish greene above in the
tops, and branches. The length of this mountaine is about forty miles, reaching
from the West, to the East: and continually, Summer and Winter, reserveth Snow
on the tops. It is also beautified with all the ornaments of nature, as Herbage,
Tillage, Pastorage, Fructiferous Trees, fine Fountaines, good Cornes, and
absolutely the best Wine that is bred on the earth. The Prince of Libanus.The
Signior thereof is a Freeholder, by birth a Turke, and will not acknowledge any
superiour, being the youngest sonne of the Emeere or Prince of Sidon, who
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookgate.com