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facts
Eating disorders
SEVENTH EDITION
SUZANNE ABRAHAM
Professor, The Faculty of Medicine,
The University of Sydney, Australia
1
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Oxford University Press 2016
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 1984
Seventh Edition published in 2016
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015944826
ISBN 978–0–19–871560–3
Printed and bound by
Ashford Colour Press Ltd, Gosport, Hampshire
Oxford University Press makes no representation, express or implied, that the
drug dosages in this book are correct. Readers must therefore always check
the product information and clinical procedures with the most up-to-date
published product information and data sheets provided by the manufacturers
and the most recent codes of conduct and safety regulations. The authors and
the publishers do not accept responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the
text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work. Except where
otherwise stated, drug dosages and recommendations are for the non-pregnant
adult who is not breast-feeding
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Preface and
acknowledgements
This book is written for patients, their families, and health professionals, par-
ticularly family doctors. The previous edition of this book (the sixth edition)
was highly commended at the 2009 British Medical Association Medical Book
Awards in the category of popular medicine. This edition has retained the pre-
vious successful format and updates the information in the light of recent and
proposed changes to the diagnostic criteria for eating disorders and scientific
thinking, including the field of epigenetics.
In this book I have chosen to classify the eating disorders as: (1) anorexia
nervosa and anorexia nervosa-like disorders; (2) bulimia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa-like disorders; and (3) binge-eating disorder and binge-eating-like
disorders. I hope this will allow readers to select the features from the dif-
ferent sections that are relevant for them at the time. I have included ano-
rexia nervosa not for weight or shape with anorexia nervosa-like disorders and
v
Eating disorders · facts
purging disorder and regurgitation disorder with bulimia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa-like disorders. Obesity is considered a disorder by physicians but not
by psychiatrists. Obesity and eating disorders related to overeating are includ-
ed with binge-eating and binge-eating-like disorders.
◆ Will she ever get better or will she always have an eating disorder?
◆ Is it genetic?
vi
Preface and acknowledgements
Nowadays most people with eating disorders recover and maintain a good
quality of life. They frequently form relationships and desire children; and if
they are not achieving pregnancy they will seek assisted conception. Not a lot
is known about disordered eating and pregnancy. The chapter on pregnancy
and the post-partum period addresses many issues including the challenge of
pregnancy and the possible outcomes for both mothers and their babies.
Eating Disorders: the Facts could never have been written without discussions
and help from our colleagues and friends. They include: Tarek Ali, Catherine
Boyd, Janet Conti, Susan Hart, John Kellow, Astrid von Lojewski, Maala Lal,
Michael Mira, Sarah Maguire, Sian Ong, Amanda McBride, Janice Russell,
Jim Telfer, Kathryn Velickovic, and Jeremy Wang. For this edition I am very
grateful to my colleagues Jessica Anderson, Elise Coker, Hannah Kluckow,
Victor Lam, and Georgina Luscombe.
Most of all I would like to thank our patients. Without them there would be no
book. I would particularly like to thank those patients who permitted us to use
their emails and diaries (appropriately modified for reason of privacy) for the
case histories and quotations.
Note
Because of problems of gender in the English language, and because we treat
more women than men with eating disorders, we have chosen to use ‘she’
rather than ‘he’ in most cases. We believe that an increasing interest in appear-
ance among men and easy access to online information is resulting in a greater
number of men seeking treatment.
The generally accepted measure of body thinness and fatness is the body mass
index (BMI, kg/m2) (see Appendix A). Conversion for height and weight units
is given in Appendices A and B.
vii
Eating disorders · facts
We have been very careful to use the word obesity to mean a BMI of 30 kg/m2
or greater (depending on ethnic variations in fat distribution) and not to con-
fuse with overweight BMI (25–29 kg/m2).The formal diagnostic criteria for
the eating disorders are available online:
viii
Contents
ix
1
Adolescent eating
behaviour
% Key points
◆ During puberty a woman’s energy intake increases as unknown factors
stimulate her to eat more
◆ Women’s concerns over their body weight, shape, and appearance increase
during adolescence, and these are accompanied by a loss of self-esteem
and an increase in feelings of anxiety, depression, and social unease
‘If I was going to get a job when I left school, I felt I had to be thinner.
All my friends were dieting but my mother disapproved. She said it was
puppy fat which would disappear. I knew it wouldn’t, so I had to pretend
I was not hungry because I wanted to be slim.’
1
Eating disorders · facts
A woman’s curvaceous body indicated that her husband (or father) was pru-
dent, efficient, and affluent. It also indicated that the woman was prepared for
times of food shortage. Her family would be protected because she had suffi-
cient energy, stored in her body in the form of fat, to look after them.
Over the past 75 years, in countries with abundant food supplies and good food
distribution, slimness has become fashionable. This is documented in fashion
magazines and in records of the ‘vital statistics’ of women who have won beauty
contests. Fashion models became taller and thinner, and reached body weights
at least 20% less than those of a woman of similar age and height (Figure 1.1).
Slimness became associated with being attractive, desirable, and successful.
Over the same period of time, the body weight of men and women of all ages
has risen and is continuing to increase at an alarming rate. Obesity is con-
sidered to be the major global health problem of this century. Not surprising-
ly, this has led governments worldwide to consult their public health experts
and produce guidelines for ‘healthy eating and exercise as a way of life’.
A major global health message is to be, or to become, slim, and to look and
be ‘fit and healthy’. The messages ‘to lose weight’ and ‘to be fit and healthy’
particularly influence teenage women at a time in their lives when they seek to
achieve independence from their parents, compete with their peers, and find
their identity. Adolescence is a time of concern about appearance.Young women
believe that achieving the ideal body image will ensure success and happiness.
2
chapter 1 · Adolescent eating behaviour
Figure 1.1 The changing fashion in women’s figures. Example from an obstetrics
textbook of the 1840s (a) and a second an example based on a modern textbook (b)
Fat is also deposited beneath the skin, in the breasts, and over the hips.
Obviously the amount of fat deposited is related to the energy absorbed
from the food a girl eats and is influenced by the hormonal changes that are
occurring at this time. During early adolescence, unknown factors stimulate
teenagers to eat more, with the consequence that the energy intake for girls
reaches a maximum between the ages of 11 and 14, a time when energy needs
are great. From about the age of 14, a teenage girl’s energy needs fall, but if
3
Eating disorders · facts
10 4
8
Girls Boys 3
1
2
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Data from Tanner Age (years)
she continues to eat the same amount she had been eating she will absorb an
excess of energy, which will be converted into fat, and she may gain weight.
" Fact
In contrast to boys, girls do not lose fat during the growth spurt.
At puberty, both sexes show an increase in muscle bulk, but this is much
more marked in boys.
We measured the height and weight of over 300 female school students aged
11–16 and asked them about the weight they would like to be, how they felt
about their body appearance, and how many months it had been since their
first menstruation.
4
chapter 1 · Adolescent eating behaviour
" Fact
Women gain weight following first menstruation.
Body mass index (BMI) was calculated from the students’ height and weight
measurements (see ‘Defining weight ranges’, p. 21) and is shown in Figure 1.3.
In the 6–12 months after a woman has her first period there is an increase in
her BMI, almost all of which is due to a rapid rise in body weight, although
women are still growing a small amount in height at this time. The decreas-
ing BMI that occurred more than a year after first menstruation suggests that
these students had changed their eating and exercise habits and lifestyles,
some because they were responding to their bodies’ altered energy needs while
others were starting to use methods for weight loss.
The students desired BMI, which is the weight they would like to be for their
height, and their rating of their body appearance (out of 10, with 10 being
the best) are shown in Figure 1.3. At all times, they wanted their body weight
to be less than their actual weight, and did not like their body appearance as
23.0 7.00
BMI
22.5 Desired BMI
Body appearance 6.75
22.0
21.5 6.50
Body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2)
21.0
6.25
Body appearance
20.5
20.0 6.00
19.5
5.75
19.0
18.5 5.50
18.0
5.25
17.5
17.0 5.00
Before 1–6 7–12 13–24 >25
Months since first menstruation
Figure 1.3 BMI, desired BMI, and increasing negative feelings about body appearance
(on a scale of 0–10) following first menstruation
5
Eating disorders · facts
much after their weight gain in the year after first menstruation. This can be a
challenge for the adolescent woman.
It is these changes around first menstruation, including weight gain, that are
accompanied by a loss of confidence and a decrease in self-esteem among
young women. Not only is their opinion of their body appearance poorer, but
their overall self-esteem is lower; this includes the areas of self-esteem that are
valued most by young women—relating well to others and having close relation-
ships, doing well at school or work, and being romantically attractive to others.
Young men are different. In a study of pre- and post-pubertal male and female
school students, we found that post-pubertal male students had the greatest
self-esteem and post-pubertal female students the lowest. There was a big dis-
crepancy between what young women feel they ‘should be like’ and how they
‘feel they are’. In other words, young women in their early teens already feel
they have failed to reach their expectations of themselves, whereas young men
are fulfilling their own expectations.
" Fact
Young women experience a decrease in their self-esteem after first
menstruation.
Being overweight and obese in the teenage years also affects students’ self-
esteem. Overweight young people, both male and female students, have a
lower self-esteem than their normal-weight male and female peers.
in feelings of depression and anxiety during adolescence for both young men
and young women. This change was greatest for young women at the time of
first menstruation. The results led the researchers to conclude that ‘menarche
marks a transition in the risk for depression and anxiety in young women’.
One particular type of anxiety, called ‘social anxiety’, becomes apparent dur-
ing puberty. The main feature of social anxiety is a fear of embarrassment or
humiliation in social situations where someone worries that others are judging
her performance. It is a fear of failing in front of others. This can occur when
people are eating or speaking in front of other people and in the classroom
when someone watches them working. They may avoid eye contact with peo-
ple, blush, stop what they are doing, and appear generally anxious.
" Fact
Feeling anxious around people, particularly people they do not know well,
is a common worry of people with eating problems.
Pre-pubertal girls who report dieting for weight loss have usually been advised
by their school to lose weight and exercise more as they have been classified
as overweight or obese, while others are shown how to diet by an older sister
or their mother as they wish to avoid becoming like family members who are
overweight or obese. Frequently, they ‘diet with’ their sister or mother and
understand dieting to be a lifestyle that is continued throughout life.
7
Eating disorders · facts
◆ ‘You feel you’re getting fat. I don’t want to turn out like my stepmum’
◆ ‘My sister’s friend was anorexic. She didn’t get periods. She stopped
eating to stop her periods’
Nine studies on the body size perception of teenage women from Sweden, the
USA, and Australia have been conducted over the decades ranging from the
1960s to the present. The investigations showed that between one-third and
one-half of teenagers whose weight was normal perceived themselves to be
overweight, and three-quarters wanted to lose weight. These percentages have
remained constant over the decades.
Like Swedish and American teenagers, most Australian women want to lose
more weight from certain parts of their body. When asked ‘From where do you
want to lose weight?’ their answers were:
◆ thighs 64%
◆ bottom 45%
◆ hips 43%
◆ waist/stomach 22%
◆ legs 20%
8
chapter 1 · Adolescent eating behaviour
◆ face 9%
◆ all over 9%
◆ breasts 6%
◆ arms 6%.
As women become older they integrate the parts of their body and look at the
total.
11
10
4
Undereating to change
3 weight or shape
2 Bodyweight feelings
Shape feelings
1
Psychological feelings
0
Before 1–6 7–12 13–24 >25
Months since first menstruation
Figure 1.4 Increasing negative feelings (on a scale of 0–20) about body shape and
weight and dieting following first menstruation
9
Eating disorders · facts
◆ Individual women show a wide variation in the amount of food eaten, fre-
quently depending on how the woman is feeling.
Women find dieting and control around food more difficult between ovulation
and menstruation.
" Fact
It is easier for women to diet and control their eating in the week after
their period.
Usually, the greater the food restriction early in the menstrual cycle, the more
likely that a craving for food will result in overeating or binge eating after ovu-
lation in the pre-menstrual phase of that menstrual cycle.
In four Australian studies of young women aged 13–25, from 1980 to the
present, the findings have been very similar. Most women had tried to diet
at some time, the majority first trying between the ages of 13 and 18. Most
said that they wanted to weigh a little or a lot less and one-third said they
had difficulty in controlling their weight. The behaviour of these women over
10
chapter 1 · Adolescent eating behaviour
the past month is given in Table 1.1. The only difference in the numbers of
women employing these behaviours in the twenty-first century compared with
the twentieth century is the introduction of social ‘party’ drugs (Table 1.1).
The weight control measures described by these healthy women are also used
by women who have an eating disorder.
Many young women start by trying simple and safe methods of weight con-
trol, such as not snacking between meals and exercising (Table 1.2). By the
age of 15 or 16, young women have gone online and checked out weight-
loss information available on numerous sites and may commence dieting for
shorter or longer periods, with about a quarter of those who diet doing so
‘seriously’. By the age of 18, on average, a minority of adolescent women who
are having serious problems with eating, body shape, and body weight may try
fasting for a day or two, self-induced vomiting, and laxative abuse. These more
serious behaviours usually first occur by the age of 22.
Table 1.1 The behaviours present among secondary and tertiary students and
patients with eating disorders in the previous month (age 13–25)
11
Eating disorders · facts
12
chapter 1 · Adolescent eating behaviour
what they see and read in the media; for example, they know the tricks used
by photographers of teen models in the production of fashion magazines and
know that most women can never become a model, even with the help of an
‘extreme makeover’.
The message that ‘exercise is healthy and more exercise is healthier’ is still
being promoted by health experts and the fitness industry. Currently, there is
no information about how exercise may be unhealthy, except on the internet.
When energy intake in the form of food is not sufficient to meet the needs of
the body and the energy expended during exercise, this can result in the loss
of menstrual periods, and if sustained can trigger the onset of an eating dis-
order or compulsive exercise disorder (see Chapter 2).
Currently the social media are being ‘blamed’ for eating disorders among teens.
The internet and social network sites provide readily available advice about
losing weight and eating without weight gain. Many sites give sensible advice,
while also promoting the diet or exercise industry. Other sites provide informa-
tion and online support for the development and maintenance of behaviours
associated with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Research has shown
that viewing these sites can have profound and lasting negative effects on peo-
ple who have never had issues with eating or body weight. The pros and cons
of internet sites for information and treatment are discussed in Chapter 6.
" Fact
There are online sites promoting the development and continuation of
anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and obesity-related behaviour and
thinking.
13
Eating disorders · facts
who use smoking to control their weight has not fallen and remains around
12%. Findings in the UK and USA suggest that the greater the concern
a young woman has about her weight, the greater is her use of cigarettes.
Weight control is often cited as a reason for starting to smoke, particularly
among teenage girls. Taking up smoking does not usually lead to weight
loss but can lessen weight gain. The effect of smoking on the average weight
of young people is very small and occurs very slowly over many years. It
is thought that the weight gain after quitting smoking is a result of a per-
son returning to their ‘normal’ body weight. Tobacco smoking is thought
to cause an artificially lower body weight for a variety of physiological
and psychological reasons. Possible reasons for weight gain after stopping
smoking are:
◆ Nicotine has a stimulatory effect and contributes to the overall lower body
weight of smokers.
In some cases, her psychological and physical health is affected as she bat-
tles to have control over her eating behaviour. If this occurs regularly she
may develop binge-eating disorder, and if she employs extreme methods
of weight control she may develop bulimia nervosa. If she binge eats with
14
Other documents randomly have
different content
— Carichiamo le armi e procediamo con precauzione. Attenti alle
freccie che possono essere intinte nel succo del curare.
— Non abbiamo da fare cogl’indiani, — disse Yaruri, dopo d’aver
osservata attentamente la riva.
— E con chi adunque?
— Guarda, padrone!
Don Raffaele, che aveva terminato di caricare il suo fucile, si fece
innanzi e scorse, non senza un fremito, delle ombre vagare sotto i
rami degli alberi.
— Dei giaguari forse? — chiese.
— O dei coguari? — disse l’indiano.
— Preferisco questi ai primi.
— Ma nemmeno i coguari sono avversarii da disprezzarsi,
specialmente se sono più d’uno, — rispose il dottore.
— Quanti ne hai veduti, Yaruri? — chiese don Raffaele.
— Mi parvero quattro, padrone.
— Diavolo!... Dopo gl’indiani ed i caimani ecco le fiere delle
foreste!...
— Cosa decidiamo? — chiese Alonzo. — Non possiamo rimanere fino
all’alba immersi fino alle anche.
— Proviamo a forzare il passo, — rispose il piantatore. — Se non
sono affamati, spero che se ne andranno.
— Eccone uno là, sotto quella pianta, — disse Alonzo, alzando il
fucile. — Provo a fare una scarica.
Presso il tronco d’una massimiliana si vedeva agitarsi un’ombra e
brillare due occhi che avevano dei riflessi verdastri. Si udì un sordo
brontolìo a cui rispose una specie di miagolìo che usciva da una
macchia vicina. Alonzo s’avanzò verso la sponda e puntò l’arma, ma
la riabbassò quasi subito, emettendo un grido di dolore.
— I caribi! — aveva esclamato.
Quasi nell’istesso istante Yaruri aveva spiccato un salto innanzi,
emettendo pure un grido acuto.
— Fuggite! — esclamò don Raffaele, che si sentiva già mordere le
gambe da quei feroci pesciolini.
Senza più pensare ai coguari che miagolavano sotto gli alberi, i
quattro naufraghi, inseguiti dai piccoli mostri, si precipitarono verso
la sponda perdendo già sangue da più ferite e s’arrampicarono su
per l’erta, riparandosi ai piedi degli alberi.
Si erano appena riuniti, quando udirono un rauco ruggito echeggiare
quasi sopra il loro capo.
— Il coguaro! — esclamò don Raffaele, scostandosi rapidamente
dalle piante.
— È sull’albero! — gridò Alonzo, additando quello che avevano
appena lasciato.
— Badate che non vi piombi addosso! — disse Velasco.
Si erano ritirati sull’orlo della sponda armando precipitosamente i
fucili e guardavano fra i rami d’un saponiere.
Colà un animale grosso quanto e forse più d’un cane di Terranuova,
ma di forme più slanciate, si teneva rannicchiato, fissando su di loro
due occhi che brillavano stranamente fra quell’oscurità.
Emetteva dei bassi ruggiti, ma non osava ancora assalire, tenuto in
rispetto dalle canne dei tre fucili.
— Lascia fare a me, Alonzo, — disse don Raffaele, traendolo
indietro. — Quell’animale può piombarti addosso anche dopo ferito.
— E poi ve n’erano degli altri su questa sponda, — disse il dottore.
— Pensiamo anche a quelli per non farci sorprendere.
Il piantatore si era avanzato di qualche passo e aveva alzato il fucile,
mirando attentamente e con grande sangue freddo.
Il coguaro continuava a ruggire e lo si udiva stritolare la corteccia del
maot colle potenti unghie.
Il piantatore lasciò partire la scarica. Il fumo non si era ancora
dissipato che la fiera, con un balzo immenso, si precipitava in mezzo
agli avversarii. Cadde, tentò di risollevarsi per gettarsi addosso a
Yaruri che era vicino, ma le forze le mancarono e stramazzò al suolo
rimanendo immobile.
L’indiano con un colpo di scure le spaccò il cranio, per essere più
certo di non vederla rialzarsi.
— Bel colpo, cugino mio! — esclamò Alonzo, rivolgendosi a don
Raffaele.
— Ma la mia palla per poco non bastava, — rispose il piantatore. —
Ma.... dove sono fuggiti gli altri coguari?
— Avranno preso il largo, — rispose il dottore.
— Non fidatevi e rimanete uniti, — comandò Yaruri. — Forse ci
spiano e strisciano fra i cespugli.
Si addossarono al tronco colossale d’un summameira che stava
dietro di loro e attesero l’alba coi fucili montati.
Alonzo aveva trascinato presso l’albero il cadavere della belva e lo
osservava con viva curiosità.
Era un vero coguaro, chiamato anche puma dagli indiani e leone
d’America dagli uomini bianchi. Come dicemmo, era grande quanto
un cane di Terranuova, ma nelle forme e anche pel colore del
pelame, rassomigliava assai alla femmina del leone africano. Aveva
la testa rotonda come quella dei gatti, ornata di lunghi baffi irti, gli
orecchi corti e la coda era lunga e sottile.
Questi animali hanno una forza straordinaria quantunque siano
relativamente piccoli e sono feroci al pari dei giaguari, e assaltano
nello stesso tempo animali e indiani. Di solito, specialmente se non
sono affamati, evitano gli uomini bianchi sapendoli armati di fucili,
ma se sono messi alle strette si difendono con accanimento senza
pari e si slanciano sui cacciatori senza contarli.
Tuttavia, quantunque siano così sanguinari, presi piccini si
affezionano ai loro padroni, ma non bisogna fidarsi troppo, poichè
qualche giorno, quando meno si sospetta, giuocano dei pericolosi
colpi e non è raro che finiscano col divorare i loro guardiani.
Intanto i coguari, poco prima veduti ronzare sulla sponda, non si
facevano vedere. Spaventati forse da quello sparo, si erano internati
nella foresta, in mezzo alla quale si udivano a ruggire e balzare fra i
cespugli.
Verso l’alba però scomparvero, nè più si fecero vedere, nè udire.
— Andiamo a visitare questa sponda, — disse don Raffaele. — Poi
penseremo a metterci al lavoro ed a rifabbricare la nostra scialuppa.
XIX.
Il pane degli indiani.
Il luogo ove avevano approdato era una lunga striscia di terra, larga
forse venti metri, coperta di grandi alberi e che aveva dietro di sè
una savana tremante d’una estensione così immensa che non si
potevano scorgere i confini.
Su quell’istmo, che divideva le acque dell’Orenoco da quelle nere
della savana, crescevano colossali bambù d’un diametro di uno o due
metri; macchioni di spine ansara e di erbe taglienti che producono
ferite pericolose; ammassi di calupi, piante le cui frutta tagliate a
pezzi dànno una bevanda rinfrescante, e di calupi diavolo i cui semi,
messi in infusione coll’acquavite, sono uno specifico contro i morsi
dei serpenti; gruppi di niku, gambi sarmentosi simili alle liane, colla
scorza bruna e che tagliati a pezzi dànno un succo lattiginoso che si
lascia colare negli stagni per ubriacare i pesci; poi un grande numero
di palme, le graziose bactris, le nane marajà, le esili euterpe edulis,
le folte cargia (atlalea spectabilis) che sono quasi senza fusto e che
si curvano verso terra, le spinose javary (astrocaryum) e le grandi
manassù (atlalee speciosæ).
Numerosi uccelli svolazzavano fra quelle piante e sull’orlo della
savana tremante: i maithaco, piccoli pappagalli, cicalavano su tutti i
toni; le arà lanciavano le loro grida acute di arà, arà; gli aracari,
uccelli simili a un merlo ma col becco grossissimo volavano via a
stormi; gli azulao, piccoli uccelli colle penne azzurre, canticchiavano
fra i niku e le spine ansara, mentre gli japu, appollaiati sulle cime
degli alberi, facevano un baccano indiavolato col loro cinguettìo
sgradevolissimo.
Fra i cespugli poi, svolazzavano gli splendidi colibrì, i piccolissimi
uccelli mosca chiamati anche beja-flores perchè pare che bacino i
fiori e dagli indiani capelli del sole o piccoli re dei fiori. Erano grossi
come un tafano e mostravano, ai primi raggi dell’astro diurno, le loro
splendide penne scintillanti.
V’erano anche i trochilus pella o colibrì topazii; i trochilus auratus o
colibrì granato e i trochilus minimus, i più piccoli di tutti, ma i più
battaglieri. Trillavano sull’orlo dei loro nidi graziosissimi, fatti in forma
di coni rovesciati, facendo scintillare le loro piume verdi, o turchine,
o nere porporine a riflessi dorati.
Gli animali invece mancavano ed anche i quadrumani, di solito
numerosi sulle sponde dell’Orenoco, non facevano udire le loro grida
discordi. Solamente una coppia di saiminé, o scimmie scoiattolo,
saltellavano fra i rami d’una lantana camara, gentile arbusto
rampicante carico di graziosi fiori variopinti.
— È un luogo tranquillo, — disse Alonzo.
— E sicuro, — aggiunse il dottore. — Questa savana tremante
impedirà ai misteriosi indiani, che si ostinano a perseguitarci, di
sorprenderci.
— A te, Yaruri, — disse don Raffaele. — Affidiamoci all’uomo dei
boschi.
— Prima di tutto pensiamo al canotto, — rispose l’indiano. — Ecco là
un grosso bambù che fa per noi.
— È grosso come una botte, — disse Alonzo. — Sarà facile
abbatterlo?
— Impossibile per un uomo bianco, ma non per un indiano, —
rispose Yaruri.
— Resisterà alla scure?
— L’arma rimbalzerebbe senza intaccarlo. Questi bambù sono leggeri
ma tenaci.
— Ed allora come farai ad atterrare questo gigante?
— Lo vedrete, — rispose Yaruri.
Si mise a raccogliere dei rami morti e li accumulò alla base del
bambù, poi vi diede fuoco.
— Ecco fatto, — disse. — Il legno si consumerà lentamente ed il
colosso questa sera cadrà. Intanto possiamo metterci in cerca di
viveri per preparare le nostre provviste di viaggio.
— Non so dove ne troverai, — disse Alonzo. — Non vedo che uccelli.
— La foresta ha mille risorse per l’indiano, — rispose Yaruri. — Voi
incaricatevi della selvaggina, ed io ed il padrone penseremo a
procurare il pane.
— Quello dei palmizi forse?
— No, il manioca, — rispose Yaruri.
— Ma speri di trovarne qui? — chiese don Raffaele, con tono
incredulo.
— Qui no, ma presso la cascata sì. Un tempo vi sorgeva una
missione di padri bianchi e so che gl’indiani vanno ancora a
raccogliere la manioca.
— Verremo con te, — disse Alonzo. — Sono curioso di vedere questa
pianta e di assistere alla preparazione della farina.
— Ma non abbiamo nè un colubro, nè uno staccio, nè una piastra di
ferro per cucinarla, — disse il dottore.
— Yaruri avrà tutto, — rispose l’indiano. — In cammino.
— Ma io ho fame, — disse Alonzo. — La foresta non potrebbe
regalare qualche cosa all’indiano?
Yaruri gettò intorno un rapido sguardo, poi prese una fiaschetta che
il dottore portava appesa alla cintola, dicendo:
— La foresta vi offre del latte.
— Hai scorto qualche mucca? — chiese Alonzo, ridendo.
Yaruri non rispose, ma s’avvicinò ad un grande albero col tronco
liscio, alto dai venticinque ai trenta metri, colla corteccia rossastra e
coi rami carichi di frutta rotonde, grosse come aranci e giallastre.
— La mimosops balata, — disse il dottore. — Avremo del buon latte
che nulla avrà da invidiare a quello delle mucche.
L’indiano aveva estratto il coltello e fatta sul tronco di quell’albero
una profonda incisione. Tosto un getto di succo lattiginoso zampillò,
cadendo entro la fiaschetta del dottore.
— A voi, — disse l’indiano, porgendola ad Alonzo. — Bevete.
Il giovanotto, dopo una breve esitazione, mandò giù due o tre sorsi.
— Ma è vero latte! — esclamò. — Foresta benefica!... Si sono mai
veduti degli alberi surrogare le bovine?
— Bevete, o il succo sfuggirà tutto, — disse l’indiano.
Alonzo vuotò la fiaschetta, poi bevettero il piantatore, Velasco e
ultimo Yaruri.
— Ora in marcia, — disse questi.
Rinvigoriti da quel latte, si misero in cammino costeggiando la
savana tremante e oltrepassata la lunga lingua di terra che la
divideva dal fiume, guadagnarono la grande foresta che si estendeva
lungo la cateratta.
Yaruri s’arrestò alcuni istanti per orientarsi, poi condusse i suoi
compagni nel folto della selva e s’arrestò sul limite d’una radura, in
mezzo alla quale si vedevano ancora sorgere gli avanzi di alcune
capanne.
Tutto all’intorno il terreno era diboscato per un grande tratto e
portava ancora traccie di coltivazione. Qua e là crescevano alberi di
cocco, ma ormai mezzi selvatici; banani già carichi di frutta deliziose
e profumate; piante di batolo le cui foglie, messe in infusione,
calmano le febbri, piante di tabacco che un tempo dovevano aver
servito alla missione; aranci, cedri, mangli che si curvavano sotto il
peso dei loro frutti che sono eccellenti e succosi ma impregnati d’un
legger sapore di terebintina, qualche albero di cacao e qualche
pianta di caffè, ma ormai semi-infruttifera per mancanza di cure.
Yaruri però non si curava di quelle piante. Egli mosse diritto verso
certe pianticelle, sollevò rapidamente la terra ed estrasse un grosso
bulbo somigliante ad una patata, esclamando:
— La manioca!... Il pane è assicurato.
— È buona questa manioca? — chiese Alonzo.
— Eccellente, — rispose il dottore.
— Assaggiamola.
— Sei pazzo! — esclamò Velasco. — Se la mangi così morrai.
Alonzo lo guardò con stupore.
— Ma contengono del veleno questi bulbi?
— E potente, giovanotto mio. Basta una piccola dose del succo di
questi tuberi per produrre vomiti, convulsioni, gonfiezza del corpo e
quindi la morte.
— Ma come si mangiano adunque?
— I bulbi devono prima subire una speciale preparazione per
sbarazzarli del succo velenoso. Vedrai Yaruri all’opera.
— Tutti gl’indiani sanno prepararli?
— Tutti, e nell’America del Sud si fa un consumo enorme di cassava
e di cuac.
— Cosa sono la cassava e il cuac?
— Te lo dirò poi. Al lavoro.
L’indiano continuava a scavare aiutandosi col suo largo coltello e
accumulava i bulbi. Don Raffaele ed il dottore si accomodarono per
terra, si misero a pelarli, poi a tagliarli in fette sottili.
— Sarebbe necessaria una raspa, — disse il dottore ad Alonzo, — ma
in mancanza di questa faremo col coltello.
— Posso aiutarvi?
— Sì, ma bada a non ferirti, poichè una scalfittura fatta con un
coltello bagnato nel succo di questi tuberi produce la morte.
— Agirò con prudenza, dottore. Ma non vi è alcun antidoto per
questo veleno?
— Sì, uno solo, il succo della rundiroba cardifolia, ma non ho veduto
nessuna di queste piante in questa foresta.
Yaruri aveva terminata la raccolta e si era seduto dinanzi ad un
ammasso di foglie che aveva prese nella foresta. Erano di palme
murumurò, adoperate dagli indiani per fabbricare delle stuoie
finissime.
L’indiano le intrecciava rapidamente formando una specie di budello
lungo e grosso come la coscia d’un uomo.
— Cosa intreccia? — chiese Alonzo al dottore.
— Prepara il colubro, — rispose questi.
— Ma a cosa servirà quel budello? A fare dei salami forse?...
— A sbarazzare la manioca del veleno. Affrettiamoci, chè Yaruri ha
quasi terminato.
Mezz’ora dopo l’indiano sospendeva il colubro, che era lungo due
metri, al ramo d’un albero e lo riempiva, a tutta forza, in modo da
farlo quasi scoppiare, di pezzi di manioca. Ciò fatto si mise a
comprimerlo cominciando dall’estremità superiore, facendo
schizzare, attraverso i pori delle foglie, un succo lattiginoso. Era il
veleno.
Spremuta per bene quella polpa farinacea, di colore giallastro,
l’indiano vuotò il colubro e ripetè l’operazione con tutta l’altra,
aiutato dal piantatore e anche da Velasco.
— È mangiabile ora? — chiese Alonzo che seguiva attentamente quel
lavoro.
— Non ancora, — rispose il dottore. — La manioca non s’e
sbarazzata del tutto del veleno e potrebbe ancora procurarti la
morte.
— Cosa richiede ancora prima di venire adoperata?
— Innanzi tutto uno staccio per sbarazzare queste fecole dei
filamenti che contengono.
-Ma noi non lo possediamo.
— S’incaricherà Yaruri di fabbricarlo colle fibre dei cocchi.
— E poi?
— Poi Yaruri con dell’argilla fabbricherà un piatto, non possedendo
noi alcuna piastra di ferro. Stenderà la manioca su quel piatto e la
lascierà seccarsi a lento fuoco per far sparire gli ultimi residui di
veleno. Si potrebbe farne anche a meno però della piastra, poichè
lasciando la manioca un paio di giorni all’aria libera, perde
egualmente le sue proprietà velenose.
— E perchè?
— Pel semplice motivo che il veleno della manioca si volatilizza al
pari dell’acido cianidrico. La farina ottenuta si chiama cuac e si mette
in commercio entro barili ove si conserva benissimo per lungo
tempo.
— E le cassava cosa sono?
— Sono le galette fatte colla farina di manioca.
— È vero, dottore, che questi tuberi sono molto nutritivi?
— Basta mezzo chilogramma di cassava per nutrire ed
abbondantemente un uomo per ventiquattro ore.
— Allora noi abbiamo qui....
— Tanto cuac da vivere un mese.
In quell’istante verso la savana tremante echeggiò uno schianto
formidabile.
— Cosa succede? — chiese Alonzo afferrando il fucile.
— È il bambù che è caduto, — rispose il dottore. — Fra due giorni
avremo anche un canotto.
XX.
La prima minaccia dei figli del sole.
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