Graph Theory, 5th Edition, by Reihard Diestel

Solutions to Selected Exercises: Chapter 4

1. Show that every graph can be embedded in R3 with all edges straight.

Proof. Let G be a graph on n vertices. Consider the curve

p⃗(t) = {(t, t2 , t3 ) | t ∈ R} ⊆ R3 .

Note that for every distinct t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 ∈ R, since

1 1 1 1
t1 t2 t3 t4 Y
= (tj − ti ) ̸= 0,
t21 t22 t23 t24 1≤i<j≤4
t31 t32 t33 t34

the points (ti , t2i , t3i ), i = 1, 2, 3, 4, are not coplanar. In other words, every four points on p⃗ are not coplanar,
hence the line segments joining every two distinct pairs of points on p⃗ do not intersect, unless there is one
common point in both two pairs at which two line segments intersect.
As a result, we can embed the vertices in G to n arbitrary points on p⃗, and draw a line segment between
two points whenever the corresponding vertices are adjacent. No two line segments could intersect unless
they share one common endpoint as shown before, so we get the desired embedding of G in R3 .

2. Show directly by Lemma 4.1.2 that K3,3 is not planar.

3.

4. Show that every planar graph is a union of three forests.

1
5. The ancient Greeks loved regular plane graphs whose faces were bounded by cycles of the same length.

(i) Show that such graphs exist for finitely many pairs (d, ℓ) of degree d ≥ 3 and cycle length ℓ. Can you
give an upper bound?

(ii) Show that there are only finitely many such plane graphs, up to topological isomorphism.

Proof. (i) Let G be such a plane graph of order n. Then by counting the size of G, we have

dn fℓ
= ∥G∥ = .
2 2
This gives us that f = dn/ℓ. By Euler’s identity, we have

dn dn
2=n− + ,
2 ℓ
so  
n−2 1 1
=d − .
n 2 ℓ
Because G is plane, we shall have d ≤ 5.

• When d = 3, we have  
2 1 1 3 3
1− =3 − = − ,
n 2 ℓ 2 ℓ
so
2 3 1
= − .
n ℓ 2
Since both sides are positive, we should have ℓ < 6, namely ℓ ≤ 5. Then the integer solutions to the
above equations are (n, ℓ) = (4, 3), (8, 4), and (20, 5).

• When d = 4, we have  
2 1 1 4
1− =4 − =2− ,
n 2 ℓ ℓ

2
 so
2 4
= − 1.
n ℓ
Again, because both sides are positive, we necessarily have ℓ < 4, namely ℓ ≤ 3. However, since ℓ ≥ 3,
we should have ℓ = 3 actually. As a result, we have n = 6.

• When d = 5, we have  
2 1 1 5 5
1− =5 − = − ,
n 2 ℓ 2 ℓ
so
2 5 3
= − .
n ℓ 2
Again, because both sides are positive, we necessarily have ℓ < 5/3, namely ℓ ≤ 1, which is impossible.

3
6. A fullerene is a molecule that is made up entirely of carbon atoms forming a cubic plane graph all whose
faces are pentagons or hexagons. Show that, since carbon atoms can form double bonds, every such graph can
be realized in principle by (4-valent) carbon atoms.

7. A football is made of pentagons and hexagons, not necessarily of regular shape. They are sewn together so
that their seams form a cubic planar graph. How many pentagons does the football have?

8. Fullerenes are less stable if they contain adjacent pentagons. Show that stable fullerenes have at least 60
carbon atoms.

9. Let G be a graph of order n that is embedded in a surface of Euler characteristic χ and cannot be embedded
in a simpler surface (one of larger Euler characteristic). Show that G has at most 3n − 3χ edges.

10. Find a direct proof for planar graphs of Tutte’s theorem on the cycle space of 3-connected graphs (Theorem
3.2.6).

11. Show that the two plane graphs in Figure 4.3.1 are not combinatorially (and hence not topologically) iso-
morphic.

12. Show that the two graphs in Figure 4.3.2 are combinatorially but not topologically isomorphic.

13. Show that our definition of equivalence for planar embeddings does indeed define an equivalence relation.

14. Find a 2-connected planar graph whose drawings are all topologically isomorphic but whose planar embeddings
are not all equivalent.

15. Show that every plane graph is combinatorially isomorphic to a plane graph whose edges are all straight.

Do not use Kuratowski’s theorem in the following two exercises.

16. Show that any minor of a planar graph is planar. Deduce that a graph is planar if and only if it is the minor
of a grid. (Grids are defined in Chapter 12.3.)

17. (i) Show that the planar graphs can in principle be characterized as in Kuratowski’s theorem: that there
exists a set X of graphs such that a graph G is planar if and only if G has no minor in X .
(ii) Can every graph property be characterized in this way? If not, which can?

18. Does every planar graph have a drawing with all inner faces convex?

19. Modify the proof of Lemma 4.4.3 so that all inner faces become convex.

20. Does every minimal non-planar graph G (i.e., every non-planar graph G whose proper subgraphs are all
planar) contain an edge e such that G − e is maximally planar? Does the answer change if we define ‘minimal’
with respect to minors rather than subgraphs?

21. Show that adding a new edge to a maximal planar graph of order at least 6 always produces both a T K5
and a T K3,3 subgraph.

22. Prove the general Kuratowski theorem from its 3-connected case by manipulating plane graphs, i.e. avoiding
Lemma 4.4.5.

23. A graph is called outerplanar if it has a drawing in which every vertex lies on the boundary of the outer face.
Show that a graph is outerplanar if and only if it contains neither K4 nor K2,3 as a minor.

4
24. Show that a 2-connected plane graph is bipartite if and only if every face is bounded by an even cycle.

Proof. Let G be a 2-connected plane graph. Then every face of G is bounded by a cycle. Clearly, if G is
bipartite, then every cycle in G is necessarily even.
Conversely, suppose that every face of G is bounded by an even cycle. Assume, to the contrary, that G
is not bipartite. Then it contains some odd cycle. Let C be an odd cycle in G of smallest order. Then C
must be the boundary of a face: If not, there exists a path joining two vertices in C. Then there is always
an odd cycle in G of length smaller than C, a contradiction.