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R E SU R R E C T IO N O F T H E D E A D I N E A R LY J U DA I SM
2 0 0 b ce – c e 2 0 0
Resurrection of the Dead
in Early Judaism
200 bce–ce 200

C . D. E L L E D G E

1
 1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
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© C. D. Elledge 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 For Beki
(Matthew 22:30)
 Acknowledgments

I wish to express my gratitude to the many people whose generous contributions

enriched the planning, research, and writing of this book.
Tom Perridge, Senior Commissioning Editor in Religion at Oxford University
Press, was invaluable in the planning and development of this volume, as were
Karen Raith and the entire production staff in bringing it to completion.
Several important scholars gave unstintingly of their own research time and
expertise to offer early assessments of individual chapters, including J. Blake
Couey, Alex Jassen, Jonathan Klawans, Outi Lehtipuu, and Émile Puech. Their
insights and criticisms substantially contributed to my research.
Oakley Clark evaluated individual chapters for style and argument. Sonja
Timmerman of the Gustavus Adolphus College library greatly assisted in the
availability of many an obscure tome important to my research.
Many scriptural citations follow the New Revised Standard Version, and are
so acknowledged throughout the book; copyright © 1989 National Council of
the Churches of Christ in the United States of America, used by permission, all
rights reserved. Several citations of 1 Enoch follow George W. E. Nickelsburg’s
translation and are used by permission of Augsburg Fortress © 2001, all rights
reserved (1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1–36;
81–108, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2001)). I am grateful to
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company for permission to utilize a chart that
appeared in an earlier publication.
Most importantly, this book would not have been possible apart from the
patient understanding and virtuous support of my wife Beki, who gracefully
shouldered innumerable tasks, great and small, that made it possible for me to
invest my fullest energies in this project. It is only right that this book be dedi-
cated to her in the fullest appreciation of her love and unwavering commitment
to myself and to our beloved children, Annabelle and Elijah.
 Contents

List of Abbreviations xi

1. Studying Resurrection Today 1

2. Diversity 19
3. Origins, Contexts 44
4. Legitimation 66
5. Denial 87
6. Resurrection and Immortality 107
7.   Resurrection and the Book of Watchers 130
8. The Dead Sea Scrolls 150
9. Josephus 175
Conclusion 199

Bibliography 217
Index of Modern Authors 241
Index of Ancient Sources 245
 List of Abbreviations

Note: Abbreviations of ancient writings may be found in their full form in the
Index of Ancient Sources.

AB Anchor Bible
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary
AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des
Urchristentums
ANCL Ante-Nicene Christian Library
ANET James Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old
Testament, 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1955)
AnBib Analecta biblica
APOT Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BBB Bonner biblische Beiträge
BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium
BFCT Beiträge zur Förderung christlicher Theologie
BibOr Biblica et orientalia
BJS Brown Judaic Studies
BO Bibliotheca orientalis
BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin
BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
CBET Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series
CBR Currents in Biblical Research
CEJL Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature
CIIP Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae
ConBNT Coniectanea biblica, New Testament Series
ConBOT Coniectanea biblica, Old Testament Series
CRINT Compendia rerum iudaicarum ad novum testamentum
xii List of Abbreviations

DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert

DSD Dead Sea Discoveries
EB Études bibliques
ESCJ Studies in Christianity and Judaism
FB Forschung zur Bibel
HdO Handbook of Oriental Studies
HDR Harvard Dissertations in Religion
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
HTR Harvard Theological Review
HTS Harvard Theological Studies
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion
JAL Jewish Apocryphal Literature
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JGRChJ Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism
JIGRE Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt
JJMJS Journal of the Jesus Movement in its Jewish Setting
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JR Journal of Religion
JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism
JSJSup Journal for the Study of Judaism Supplement
JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement
JSP Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha
JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
KJV King James Version
LCL Loeb Classical Library
LXX Septuagint
MT Masoretic Text
NKZ Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift
 List of Abbreviations xiii

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSup Novum Testamentum Supplement
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
NZSTh Neue Zeitschrift für systematische Theologie und
Religionsphilosophie
OTL Old Testament Library
OTP James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,
2 vols (New York: Doubleday, 1985)
OtSt Oudtestamentische Studiën
PTSDSSP Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Project
RB Revue biblique
REJ Revue des études juives
RevQ Revue de Qumrân
RSR Recherches de science religieuse
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLEJL Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and its Literature
SJHC Studies in Jewish History and Culture
SJT Scottish Journal of Theology
SNTSMS Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series
SPhilo Ann Studia Philonica Annual
STDJ Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah
StPB Studia Post Biblica
SVF Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta
SVTP Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha
TANZ Texte und Arbeiten zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter
TSAJ Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism
VC Vigiliae christianae
VT Vetus Testamentum
VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplement
WBC Word Biblical Commentary
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
WZKM Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes
ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZTK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche
 1

Studying Resurrection Today

Scholarly interest in the afterlife and resurrection has always been strong. Yet
recent decades have generated a broad spectrum of reflection on the question
in biblical, religious, and theological studies. Monumental volumes surveying
a broad range of evidence have proposed large-scale theoretical approaches to
resurrection in Judaism and Christianity—and beyond.1 The purpose of this
book is to reexamine a narrower range of crucial evidence for resurrection
within early Judaism, beginning with its first clear attestations in Jewish litera-
ture in the Hellenistic period (c.200 bce). The evidence for resurrection would
flourish in subsequent centuries prior to the redaction of the Mishnah, which
would bring its own distinct reinterpretation of earlier hopes in the revivifica-
tion of the dead (c.ce 200). The scope of the study will, thus, focus especially
upon resurrection in the latest writings of the Hebrew Bible, the Apocrypha,
Pseudepigrapha, Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as the writings of other Hellenistic
Jewish authors. Later rabbinic writings, early Christian sources, and inscrip-
tions are also incorporated secondarily as they shed additional light upon select
features of the evidence in question. This prioritization of materials allows for
a deeper look into how particular literary works utilized the discourse of resur-
rection, while also retaining larger comparative insights into what these mater-
ials may teach us about the gradual flourishing of resurrection within the early
Jewish environment.
Such a reexamination is urgent on a number of interrelated fronts. The treat-
ment of resurrection in early Judaism has frequently become the “background”
to its later reinterpretations in rabbinic Judaism and Christianity. While such a
treatment is certainly reasonable, it also invites the occasional hazards of retro-
jecting theories about later evidence into earlier contexts or creating linear devel-
opments that only reach fruition within later normative traditions. There are
also the hazards of either overemphasizing or neglecting the actual significance
of resurrection, as its own standing among early Jewish theologies remains a

1 N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God,
vol. 3 (Minneapolis, M.N.: Fortress Press, 2003); Alan Segal, Life after Death: A History of the
Afterlife in the Religions of the West (New York: Doubleday, 2004).
2 Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism

matter of dispute.2 Additionally, more recent discoveries have offered new evi-
dence for assessing the varied forms that resurrection took even within its early
Jewish context. One may cite advances in the interpretation of 1 Enoch 1–36
and 91–108,3 as well as more recently published Dead Sea Scrolls, like the Messianic
Apocalypse and Pseudo-Ezekiel4—alongside renewed interest and controversy
surrounding Josephus as a source for early Jewish theologies.5 Social-scientific
methods of analysis have been applied to resurrection in Judaism and Christianity,
yielding new possibilities for understanding the roles that it played within the
diverse currents of Jewish religion in the Hellenistic and Roman eras.6 The
problems raised by these developments transcend the wooden structure of a
“background” to later normative traditions. This study prioritizes the early
Jewish evidence as historically and theologically momentous within its own
contexts. The theological vibrancy of its varied expressions and its diverse
receptions in multiple constituencies make resurrection a remarkable instance
of the characteristics of early Jewish thought in the broadest sense. The prob-
lems encountered in the study of resurrection today—its diversity, its varied
receptions among multiple movements, the forms of its legitimation, and its
relation to earlier scriptural traditions—also frequently parallel the contempor-
ary challenges of studying other major concerns among early Jewish theologies.

DEFINING RESURRECTION

Early Judaism envisioned resurrection in varied ways. Given the wide spectrum
of literary and conceptual expression, definitions will necessarily fall short of
the complexities posed by the evidence. Even so, it is necessary and possible to
describe the general contours of the discourse of resurrection. These basic
structures of resurrection were already available in earlier prophetic texts (Isa.

2 On the tendency to neglect resurrection in modern Judaism, for example, see Segal, History
of the Afterlife, 597–99; and Jon D. Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel: The
Ultimate Victory of the God of Life (New Haven, C.T.: Yale University Press, 2006), 1–22.
3 George W. E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1–36,
81–108, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, M.N.: Fortress Press, 2001); Loren T. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch
91–108, CEJL (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007).
4 Émile Puech, Qumran Cave 4.XVIII: Textes hébreux (4Q521–4Q528, 4Q576–4Q579), DJD 25
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1998); Devorah Dimant, Qumran Cave 4.XXI: Parabiblical Texts, part 4:
Pseudo-Prophetic Texts, DJD 30 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2001).
5 Jonathan Klawans, Josephus and the Theologies of Ancient Judaism (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2012); Steve Mason, Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees: A Composition-Critical
Study, StPB 39 (Leiden: Brill, 1991); “What Josephus Says about the Essenes in His Judaean War,”
in Text and Artifact in the Religions of Mediterranean Antiquity: Essays in Honour of Peter Richardson,
ed. S. Wilson and M. Desjardins, ESCJ 9 (Waterloo, O.N.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000),
423–55.
6 Segal, History of the Afterlife, 293–350; Claudia Setzer, Resurrection of the Body in Early Judaism
and Early Christianity: Doctrine, Community, and Self-Definition (Leiden: Brill, 2004).
 Studying Resurrection Today 3

26:19; Ezek. 37:1–14); yet the Hellenistic–Roman eras saw an increasing literal­
ization of such precedents across multiple sectors of Judaism in a diversity of
forms. Resurrection did differ significantly from other popular conceptions of
the afterlife in antiquity. Those who asserted resurrection made a specialized
claim that was conscientious and selective. Above all, resurrection is distin-
guished by divine agency, it is an eschatological and gracious event whose
ultimate cause is God. As stated by Hiroshi Obayashi, resurrection “must be
conferred by God by his gratuitous act of raising humanity out of death.”7
Likewise, Jon Levenson regards this eschatological feature of divine agency as
essential to its proper definition: “Resurrection we must define as an eschato-
logical event, that is, one that is expected to occur in history but also to trans-
form and redeem history and to open onto a barely imaginable world beyond
anything that preceded it.”8 It is nothing less than a divine intervention that
turns the scales of existence from the present reality of death toward the eschato-
logical reality of a renewed life.
Levenson’s further reference to the new and ideal world that resurrection
inaugurates also poses the qualitative character of the hope. Resurrection is to
be defined by the new, qualitatively different life into which the dead are raised.9
This distinguishes resurrection from mere resuscitation and from reincarna-
tion. This new, exalted existence, however, is reflected in a wide diversity of
expressions within early Jewish literature. Some Jews expressed this qualitative
enhancement through emphasis upon a new form of embodiment; others,
in the new sphere of the cosmos into which the dead would be raised; others, in
the contrast between the present mortal life and everlasting life; others, in com-
parisons between risen humanity and angelic existence; others, in the restor-
ation of life to an ideal past; still others, in the belief that resurrection will
represent a new creation of the deceased. Jewish thought within this era, in fact,
displays substantial creativity, variation, and imagination in its exploration of
how the risen life would be distinguished from the old. Yet what the varied forms
of expression commonly indicate is that resurrection will mark the entrance
into a new and exceptional mode of human existence. This realization is insight-
fully stated in the Dead Sea Scroll known as the Messianic Apocalypse, which
enumerates the resurrection among the unprecedented works that will inaug-
urate the eschatological age: “wondrous things which have not existed, the
Lord will do, even as he s[aid. For he will heal the slain, and the dead he will
cause to live” (4Q521 frgs. 2 II + 4 lines 11–12).10
Accentuating this enhanced life, of course, is the full acknowledgment of
death itself as a cessation of the meaningful, vital existence one enjoys among

7 Hiroshi Obayashi, ed., Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions, Contributions to
the Study of Religion 33 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), xix.
8 Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel, 20.
9 Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel, 106–107.
10 Puech, Qumran Cave 4, 10–11.
4 Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism

the living. As the “reversal of death,”11 resurrection is a divine grace bestowed

explicitly upon “those who sleep in the land of dust” (Dan. 12:2). Of course,
conceptualizations of “death” within the biblical world did not typically mark
total annihilation, but could be characterized by degrees of lifelessness that might
range from endangerment or sickness to actual biological death.12 The descent
from life into death could be experienced amid current persecutions, national
decline, or personal calamity, circumstances that might lead to eventual and
literal death. While scholarly discussions have been most concerned with res-
urrection from literal death, select pieces of the literary evidence in early Judaism
(e.g., the Thanksgiving Hymns) also meaningfully apply the discourse to a lar-
ger range of death scenarios. Moreover, even the fully dead are frequently
imagined as somehow still lifelessly existent within Sheol. Some expressions
of resurrection, thus, remained compatible with an interim existence for the
lifeless dead. Yet even in these cases, resurrection carried with it the realization
that death marked the definitive end of meaningful existence in the world as
presently constituted. As the Epistle of Enoch poignantly consoles the right-
eous dead, they must not grieve, even if their souls have descended into Sheol
in sorrow (1 En. 102:5). As it embraces the full reality of mortality, resurrection
is to be distinguished from conceptions of afterlife that diminish or detract
from the full and decisive impact of death.
Since resurrection insists upon a gracious act of divine agency to restore life
among the dead, it can sometimes be distinguished from another ancient con-
ception of the afterlife with which it was also occasionally combined—the immor-
tality of the soul.13 The varied forms in which resurrection is attested indicate
that it was not an exclusive belief that banished all other possible conceptions
of the afterlife from consideration. While resurrection made a specialized claim,
it was still adaptable to belief in the immortality of the soul and a variety of
mythological conceptions about the fate of the dead. At the same time, the dis-
tinctive character of the resurrection claim limited the boundaries of its adapt-
ability. Unlike some versions of immortality, resurrection does not directly rely
upon an anthropological understanding of the human soul as possessing innate
elemental properties that are themselves essentially immortal. Resurrection
does not depend upon the inherent properties of the soul, but rather upon the
God who raises the dead, who actively bestows life once again after it has fully
ceased. Even where the two conceptions are combined, the present existence of
the immortal soul/spirit beyond the death of the human still awaits a future
divine action that awakens it into a more glorious existence. Neither is the risen
life a cyclical probationary experience or a purgation to a higher state;14 resur-
rection inaugurates the final blessed state itself.

11 Geza Vermes, The Resurrection: History and Myth (New York: Doubleday, 2008), 3.
12 Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel, 38–44.
13 Vermes, Resurrection, xvi.
14 T. Francis Glasson, Greek Influence in Jewish Eschatology (London: S.P.C.K., 1961), 30.
 Studying Resurrection Today 5

While resurrection may sometimes take place through an explicit restor­

ation of the spirit to the risen body of the deceased, this is by no means univer-
sal. What has sometimes been classified as a “resurrection of one’s spirit”15 is
also attested among apocalyptic traditions, one in which the spirit itself survives
death and is raised by the deity into a higher mode of existence, without neces-
sarily any concern for the physical remains of the deceased. As John Collins
comments, “these formulations cannot be categorized in terms of the familiar
binary contrast of resurrection of the body and immortality of the soul.”16 Yet
even in such cases, it is the deity’s own power that grants resurrection to the
dead, not an innate power of the spirit itself. Richard Bauckham perceptively
states: “It was not from reflection on what human nature is that Jews came to
hope for eternal life, but from reflection on who God is: the sovereign Creator,
the righteous Judge, and the faithful Father of his people.”17
Early Jewish thought is frequently concerned with the new forms of embodi-
ment to which the dead will be raised.18 God will act, somehow, upon what
remains of the deceased to bring them into a new form of existence. Yet as the
phenomenon of the “spiritual resurrection” suggests, there is considerable diver-
sity in the ways in which that future embodiment is imagined. Later scholarly
and dogmatic terms, like “bodily resurrection,” seem only to approximate the
deeper complexity. As Alan Segal writes, the concept of “revivification of the
dead,” as articulated in the Mishnah, represents a broad, inclusive category that
extends eschatological life in the land of promise for “all Israel” (m. Sanh. 10:1),
in fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 60:21.19 The usefulness, perhaps even
the necessity, of this broadly inclusive view of revivification consists precisely
in its ability to encapsulate the variety of highly diverse conceptual expressions
of embodiment that had characterized earlier Jewish thought. Writings like
2 Maccabees, for example, certainly demand a literal restoration of the very same
members of the body lost in death. Likewise, the Enochic Book of Watchers
appears to restore the dead to a very material life on earth that involves eating
the fruits of a paradisiac world (1 En. 24–25). Yet portions of the Epistle of
Enoch (1 En. 91–108) register no direct concern with the mortal body at all, but
envision resurrection as the future glorification of the spirit of the deceased

15 George W. E. Nickelsburg, Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins: Diversity, Continuity, and
Transformation (Minneapolis, M.N.: Fortress Press, 2003), 151; Pierre Grelot, “L’eschatologie des
Esséniens et le livre d’Hénoch,” RevQ 1 (1958–59): 118–21.
16 John J. Collins, “The Angelic Life,” in Metamorphoses: Resurrection, Body and Transformative
Practices in Early Christianity, ed. T. Karlsen Seim and J. Økland, Ekstasis: Religious Experience
from Antiquity to the Middle Ages 1 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009), 291–92.
17 Richard Bauckham, “Life, Death, and the Afterlife in Second Temple Judaism,” in Life in the
Face of Death: The Resurrection Message of the New Testament, ed. R. Longenecker (Grand Rapids,
M.I.: Eerdmans, 1998), 86.
18 Leonard J. Greenspoon, “The Origin of the Idea of Resurrection,” in Traditions in Transformation:
Turning Points in Biblical Faith, ed. B. Halpern and J. Levenson (Winona Lake, I.N.: Eisenbrauns,
1981), 252–53.
19 Segal, History of the Afterlife, 603–609.
6 Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism

into a new mode of heavenly existence.20 Resurrection certainly restores the

dead to some type of embodied existence, yet the more precise details of that
existence remained open to a variety of explorations.
Many specimens of Jewish thought on resurrection are less directly con-
cerned with the embodiment of the risen than with the new cosmic locale into
which the dead will be transferred. Much of the discourse on resurrection in
early Judaism exhibits a strong cosmic-spatial orientation, a characteristic that
it shares with a broader range of early Jewish literature and thought.21 In this
sense, defining resurrection exclusively as a restoration to embodied life may
be insufficient. In many cases, resurrection is primarily a transference from
the spatial realm of the dead into another sphere in which the fullness of life is
restored. The locus classicus for resurrection in Daniel 12:1–3 describes resur-
rection as the exaltation of the dead from “the land of dust” to a new state of
existence that is compared with the brilliance of “the firmament” and “the
stars” of the celestial realm. For the Enochic Book of Watchers, resurrection
also involves a transference from the realm of the dead (1 En. 22:13) into other
spheres of the cosmos. The discourse of resurrection in early Judaism thus
embraces both anthropological and cosmic dimensions. It realigns the rela-
tionships between the body and the cosmos, as the dead pass from life, to death,
to revivification. The discourse of resurrection, in fact, offered powerful appeal
for early Jewish theologies to transform existing relationships between the body,
society, and the cosmos into an ideal reconfiguration.

CONTEMPORARY STUDY OF RESURRECTION

Certainly, newer literary and inscriptional evidence pertaining to afterlife has

demanded reconsideration of the different ways in which resurrection was
envisioned, as well as to the varied roles it played in different literary and social
contexts. The Dead Sea Scrolls that were more broadly publicized in the early
1990s featured at least two writings that featured resurrection, including the
Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521) and Pseudo-Ezekiel (4Q385)—and possibly other
manuscripts, as well. As they seem to date from the latter second century bce,
these compositions significantly increase awareness of the further develop-
ment of Jewish hope in resurrection within Palestinian society in the gener-
ation after the Maccabean Revolt (167–164 bce) and the composition of Daniel

20 Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 497, 524.

21 Christopher Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early
Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982); Jonathan Z. Smith, “Earth and Gods,” JR 49 (1969):
103–27; J. Edward Wright, The Early History of Heaven (New York: Oxford University Press,
2000); see also Martin S. Jaffee, Early Judaism (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1997),
92–124.
 Studying Resurrection Today 7

7–12. Moreover, these writings highlight the intertextual character of Jewish

discourse about resurrection, as scribes articulated the hope in the language of
earlier scriptures. The reception of writings favorable to resurrection by the
greater community of the Dead Sea Scrolls also provides an important vantage
for charting how resurrection gradually came into broader circulation and
incremental acceptance by a variety of Jewish movements in the second cen-
tury bce. Advances in the literary history of particular documents also have
important implications for resurrection. The Enochic Book of Watchers pro-
vides an important case in point. Due to increased awareness of the incremen-
tal development of 1 Enoch 1–36 in the late third century bce, an important
window into the character of resurrection prior to the Maccabean Revolt now
lies open. Inquiry into resurrection, therefore, must now consider its emergence
and meaning in Judaism prior to its later roles within the political crisis of the
Maccabean Revolt.
While newer evidence emerges, certain older problems persist. Perhaps
the most significant of these concerns ongoing debate over how to address the
question of origins. The old history-of-religions question of “internal Israelite
development” versus “foreign influence” continues to cast its shadow over more
recent approaches. While Jon Levenson articulates his own case for internal
development,22 other approaches continue to work within the parameters of a
model in which postexilic Jewish thought interpreted earlier traditions in the
confluence of Jewish interactions with Canaanite, Persian, Egyptian, Babylonian,
and Greek contemporaries. While this debate is typically waged over the latest
writings in the Hebrew Bible, Jewish literature of the Hellenistic and Roman
eras may also contribute additional insight to this ongoing discussion. The
diversity of varied conceptions of resurrection within this epoch discourages
the attempt to trace their origins to a single line of development. Amid the
diversity, one may identify a strong intertextual reliance upon earlier scriptural
traditions—as well as the occasional articulation of the resurrection hope in
the mythological language of its regional neighbors. In this sense, the forms
in which early Judaism expressed resurrection seem to forbid a dichotomous
approach to this old problem. Instead, they pose the larger question of how
particular expressions of resurrection may have emerged from a matrix of both
Israelite-Jewish and other ancient traditions.
A developing front in the study of resurrection has further involved the use
of social-scientific criticism. Social awareness of the flourishing of resurrection
in the Hellenistic and Roman eras was certainly already a feature of earlier com-
mentary on resurrection prior to the increasing development of socio-literary
approaches of the 1980s. Louis Finkelstein’s study of the Pharisees illustrates a
remarkable early twentieth-century attempt to address the social factors that
shaped the Pharisaic acceptance of resurrection:

22 Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel, 180–85.

 Another Random Document on
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86 : ' our full power and autorite . . . the same tenant} and
tenantdris til distreyn and hald, till all rerages and dettes therof
aught of tyme begane and for to come til us be assethid.' N.E.D.
1481. Boll, sb.^ 1357. v//>/»^«^/V xxvi, p. xxxii : ' in grangia de
frumento nichil, de avena vj holies, de ordeo pro semine, secundum
estimacionem, xiiij bolles.' N.E.D. c. 1375. Bolting, vbl. sb.^ 3. 1446.
Appendix Ixvii, p. Ixxxiv : ' in pistrino ij pipis pro le bowtyng, ij
bowtyng-clays.' N.E.D. 1452. Brod. \jh}- 5. a. = a round-headed
nail.] 1345. Appendix Ixix, p. cvi : ' in D de doublethaknanayll emptis
in Dunelmo cum broddis et aliis clavis v°, vj"*.' N.E.D. gives no
examples in this sense. Buffet, sb.^ I. 1374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxv : '
in camera . . . j parva catedra cum ij bouifFatis de Flandria.' N.E.D.
1432. Bulst. ib.^ 1374- Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxv : ' in camera . . . j par
de coffrcs quae vocantur buysse.' N.E.D. 1393 {s.vv. Buste, BoiST,
the date ante 1 225 is given). Capacity. 10. c. 1472. ccxxix. 227 : ' I
undirstode that your Breves & the Capacite wer sped.' N.E.D. 1480,
but no concrete sense such as the above is recorded. Cf. Faculty, ii.
Car. [ji.i I , a. = a cart.] 1 363. Appendix xxxv, p. xli : ' et in una
carre pro lapidibus cariandis.' N.E.D. 1382. Ceiling. \ybL sb. I. i. =
lining with boards.] 1354. Appendix xxiii, p. xxviii : 'item computat in
selinge et reparacione cori ecclesiae de Coldingham xlvj'. viij".' P.
xxix : ' item computat in xiij tignis emptis pro selingg ecclesiae iij".
iiij".' N.E.D. 1497 (earliest ex. in any sense, c. 1380). Coble.i I. 1374.
Appendix bd, p. Ixxvii : *j cobil cum iiij remis,' . . . 'j cobil ad
LouyfFh cum ij remis.' An example is given in N.E.D. c. 1375, but an
exact date is preferable. In the example from the Lindisfame
Gospels, c. 950, the word is in the form " cuople." Collar. [sb. 6 : for
a horse.] 1365. Appendix xxxix, p. xlviii : ' item in uno curru, in j
scleyd, in ij paribus de trays, ij colerys, cum una sella et cruper, ad
unum currum pertinentibus.' N.E.D. c. 1440 (earlier examples in
general senses). Coupbody. [sb. — a cart with a body that can be
tilted.] 1374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi. * Item Iij acrae de faulffh
seminatae cum frumento, ij coupbodys.' Not in N.E.D., but see Coup-
cart, 2 ; and cf. ' coup-wrain ' in Durham Account Rolls (Surtees
Soc), pp. 71, 200, 205. Court, sb.^ 17. 1441. cxxxv. 121 : ' thayre
full power and auctoritee . . . thayre men of the said barony and
land}, when ever thay be attachied, till borowe agayn till thayre
fredom and courte.' N.E.D. 1590. Cuve. [Obs. =a cask, vat.] 1 343.
Appendix xii, p. XV : ' item computat in tabulis, mappis, et
manutergiis, emptis pro aula, cunis [for cuvis], barellis, pro cellario '
: 1345. p. xvii : 'cune' [for cuve], so 1346. p. xix, 1347. p. XX. N.E.D.
14 — . _ Derision, to have in. i. d. 1442-3. clx. 147 {David Home's
Lettre of all his Grievances) : ' and nw I am had in derysion w'
dyverss contre men saying " Se nw his , rewarde for lang gude
servyce." ' N.E.D. 1494. Dimission. 2. 1447. clxxii. 161 : 'as for the
dimission made to the abbot of Melrosse of certeyne teende}, I will
the said dimission be keppide to him like as the writyng purportej.'
N.E.D. 1495: an earlier ex. is cited in the sense "demission,"
"resignation," 1494. Droit.1 I,, c, 1472. ccxxx. 228 {Letter from the
King of England) : ' wherefore we . . . licence you to ordeyne and
provide for : the payment and contentacion of the said finannce of
your said commoigne, with his droits and expenses therein.' N.E.D.
1481. Duplicate, v. 1472. ccxxvii. 224: 'and att the last, iff ned be,
Andreas de Sene} shall duplicat his replicacion with Andrew de
Sancta Cruce and Joachyn.' N.E.D. 1623. Easement. 3. 1429-30.
cxvi. 104 : 'also yt es accordit that the sayd Thomas and his wyfe
and thair servands dwellyng wythin the sayde wode and landys sail
have resonable esement of fewell of fallyn and dede wod foroutyn
waste of whik wod, whilke may serve for tymbre.' N.E.D. 1463.
Eastlandboard. 1 33- Appendix vii, p. x : ' in ducentis Estlandburdis
emptis in Berwico xxx' [i.e. xxx'.]. N.E.D. s.v. Eastland. 2. fl//r/i.
1739. Estrangely. 1442-3- cbc 148 {David Home's Lettre of all his
Grievances) : ' item }e wrate to me in }our lettres estraungeley, be
the qwilk it semit me that }w missett rny servyce.' This adv. from "
estrange " (adj.) does not occur in N.E.D, Executorial, {adj. and sb.).
i47'ccxxiv. 220 : ' that lettre} executoriall wer theruppon decreed' . .
. 'according unto the said executoriall}.' N.E.D. adj. 1748. sb. 1525.
Farm, sb.^ 3. 'let to farm.' 142930. cxvi. 104 : ' the said Priour . . .
has sett, and to ferme latyn ... all the landys of Brokholl . . .' N.E.D. f
1461 (with earlier exx. for ' set to farm,' ' put to farm '). Fatlgation.
1467-8. ccxx. 215: 'we fonde ij men that has testifyed the same, and
layd the remyssory, fatigacion, and grevous costes, apart.' N.E.D.
1504. Fetterlock. 2. 1366. Appendix xli, p. 1 : ' item ... in ferris equi
is cum clavis et capestris, in j fetir lok . . .' i N.E.D. c. 1440.
 Fining, vbl. sb. {cf. Fine v.^ 8 and Fine sb} 7, 8). 1442-3.
clx. 147: 'the change of Aid Cambos to gidder with the fining of
certayne lands the maynis of the same, for othir lands of my sonnis
& myne.' N.E.D. 1599 {s.v. FiN« V." 8, in different sense). Firlot. [2.
= a vessel used to measure a firlot of corn, etc.] 1446. Appendix
Ixvii, p. Ixxxiv : ' in ustrino . . . ij ferlottis.' N.E.D. 1573. Fish-boat.
1446. Appendix Ixvii, p. Ixxxiv : ' iiij fysbottis, ij cobyllis, xxxiiij
remys.' N.E.D. j.t;. Fish, ji.^ 6. b. 1663. Fore-hammer. 1374.
Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi : ' in domo fabri . . . ij forhamers, . ij
handhammcrs.' N.E.D. 1543. Frontal. \jb, 2 = movable covering for
the front of an altar.] 1376. Appendix Ixii, p. Ixxviii : ' item in uno
frounteylle pro summo altari . . .' N.E.D. 1381. . Gimmer.* i . 1 364.
Appendix xxxvi, p. xliii : ' item cc de gymbris et dynmonth.' N.E.D.
1424. Girth, [sb?- I. = a belt placed round the body of a horse, etc.]
1 364. Appendix xxxvii, p. xliv : ' in iij therys et in iiij ulnis de gerthys
emptis.' N.E.D. 13 — , 1377Gralp. [i, = a pronged fork.] 1374.
Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi : ' tribuli et forkys et rakyse pro feno et j
grabyse et alia instrumentJi necessaria ad husbandriam.' 1446. Ixvii,
p. Ixxxiv : ' vj yrnforkys, ij grapys, XXX spades et schollis.' N.E.D.
1459. Handlron. (Obs. form of Andiron). 1374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi
: ' in coquina , . .ij haundirrins de ferro.' N.E.D. c 1475. Hang. \y. 17.
b. = to remain unsettled or unfinished.] 1462. ccvii. 190 : 'our
materj of plee that hangith undiscussed in his gracieux audience at
Rome.' N.E.D. 1494. Head-kirk. r. 1441. ccxiiv. 258 : 'to cum to
presens of thair spirituale fader & ordyner & hedekirk of
Santandrois.' Not in N.E.D., but see Mother-church i. b. Hereafore.
1467-8. ccxx. 215 : ' thanking you of all tendrenes shoinge to me
heraffor.' Not in N.E.D., but see Herebefore and Heretofore.
Inlortune. \ib. i. b. = a misfortune.] 1463-4. ccviii. 191: 'thegrete
infortune} & hurts that hath happynd us now late in brynyng of our
kirke . . . N.E.D. f. 1477. Inhability. 1441. cxx.xiii. 117: 'na monke of
seynt Benett ordour, be mediacion of secular persone3 suld be
promote to priore dignite or office, of payn of cursyng and
inhabilite.' N.E.D. 1488. Inhere, [v. 4. = to adhere, be a partizan.] . 1
44 1 -2. cxlvi. 130 : ' and now the Abbot of Dunfermelen with other
inherying to hym, ar about to spoyll and exclude saynt Cuthbert and
the said Priour and covent of thair aid possession.' N.E.D. 1563.
Inspirit. .V. I. 1472. ccxxvii, 224 : . . . Saynt Cuthberte} commyssyon
: ye will inspyrett Maister Jaume3 '^ynd in the makyng therofF.'
N.E.D. f. 1610, Instant, a. 2. b. 1442. cliii. 139: ' Writtyn undyr oure
signet in Halis, the xiii day of this instant monthe of Aprill. Willm.
Dominus de Crechtone, Cancellarius Scociae.' N.E.D. 1547 (in this
use) : the earliest ex. of the adj. in any sense is 1494. Joyse (Joice).
[-y. = to enjoy.] f. 1417. cii. 89 : ' quhen the kyng of Scotland wald
let thaym joyse no land, at thay had in Scotland, safe that at thay
had of my predecessors & me, 3it alway thay joisit that.' Not in
N.E.D., but cf. Rejoice, i, trans, (which occurs in The Priory of
Coldingham, pp. 130, 187). Mandatary, i. 1465. ccxii. 203: *I,
Willyam Barton, messynger and mandatary of our said haly fadre, by
th' auctority of the forsaid lettre} citatory and inhibitory sufficiently
deputed , . . openly protest by thes present3 . . .' N.E.D. 1611. Meal-
sieve. 1446. Appendix Ixvii, p. Ixxxiv : ' in pistrino . . . twa
melsywys.' N.E.D. Meal, shy 3. a. meal-sieve. 1565. Mind, from time
of. 1471. ccxxv. 222 : ' the said celle and barony . . . wherof we and
our praedeccssourj have been peaseably possessid from tyme of
mynde afor the said intrusion.' N.E.D. s.v. Mind sby 2./. 1473-5, "
without tyme of mynd," but 1414, " si the tyme of mynde." Oppyle.
[to shut or block up.] 1442-3. clx. 149 ' the said dan John has gert
opin the strentht of the kyrk, the qwilk he had gert oppyle of befor.'
Not in N.E.D., but see the medical term Oppilate v. 1547, Oppilation
sb. c. 1400. Ordyner. (ordiner) [ = ordinary, sb. i.] (See above s.v.
Head-kirk. The con- , tracted form is not given in N.E.D., but cf. "
comissar' " = commissary, The Priory of Coldingham, ^. 152. Paper,
sb. i. 1364. Appendix xxxvii, p. xliv ; ' in percameno, et in j quaterno
de . VJ :a » N.E.D. 13paper emptis ni' f-i374Peasely. [adv. =
peaceably, peacefully.] 1 44 1 -2. cxlvi. 130 : '. . . suffre the sayd
monke3 of Durham to hafe occupy and rejoyse the said celle of
Coldyngham . . . as peasely as thay have doon afortyme3.' Not in
N.E.D. Plough-beam. 1446. Appendix Ixvii, p. Ixxxiv : ' item
plewbemis plewger cum axiltres et gyrdys pro uno anno integro.'
N.E.D. 14—, 14— 1523. Plougliing-irons. 1374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi
: 'in husband ria . . . j par de pluynghirins.' N.E.D. 1636, but
Ploughiron, 1418-19. Reaggravate. />/>/. a. 1471 (See supra s.v.
Aggravate). Not given as ppl a. in N.E.D., which cites only two
examples of the verb (Obs. rare) from 161 1, 1626. , , Reassume. [v.
3. b. of a charge or office.] 1472. ccxxvii. 224 : ' Andreas de Sancta
Cruce shall reassume our commyssion.' N.E.D. 1632 (earliest ex. in
any sense 1494). Recognize, v.^ i. 1414. xcviii. 86 : ' our full power
and autorite .... tenantdrye to recognise.' N.E.D. 1456. Remissory.
1467-8. ccxx. 215 (see quotation s.v. Fatigation). Not given as a
substantive in N.E.D. : as an adj. — rare — first occurrence given as
1548. Repair, [sb.^ 3. c. = retinue, company.] 1441. cxxxiii. 118 : '
hitt is report to sir Davy Home att the priour of Doresme is informed
att the said Davy wyth his repayr suld overlay the house of
Coldyngham, till grctt hyndryng therof.' Of this " Obs. rare " use the
N.E.D. gives only two examples — c. 1470, «. 1548. Ridel. ■ [sb. = a
curtain.] 1 374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxv : ' in camera j par de ridalys.'
N.E.D. 13— ,f. ij8o. Saddle-tree. i. 1364. Appendix xxxvii, p. xlv ; ' in
uno pari de sadilstreys pro sella cariagia.' N.E.D. 141 1. Scaf. [^i. =
a light boat, skiff.] 1374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvii : ' ad portum de
Coldyngham . . . j scaffe.' N.E.D. c. 1375. Scotnail. 1 33- Appendix
ix, p. xiii : ' in m. c. longspykyngs x*. In ccc scothnale ij*. In cc
smallnayls viij".' N.E.D. 1349-50. Skiff. jA.i I. 1374. Appendix Ixi, p.
Ixxvii : ' j schefFe cum iiij remis, j cobil cum iiij remis.' N.E.D.
I575Sled, ji.i I. 1374. Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi : ' vj herpices, ij sledys.'
N.E.D. 1388. Slid. sb. a. 1365. Appendix xxxix, p. xlviii : ' item in uno
curru, in j scleyd, in ij paribus de trays . . .' N.E.D. 15 13. Cf Slide,
sb. 4. a. Small-boat. 1374- Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvii : 'j magnus limbus.
. . . Item j smalynbat cum omnibus pertinentiis . . . Item ad portum
de Coldyngham j smalynbat cum mastis et velu cum vj remis.' N.E.D.
s.v. Small, a. 22. a. small-boat. 1897. [The two compounds obviously
have different connotations: in the 1374 example " small " may
mean " narrow " (see Small. A. 2)] Sore. <7.* (of herring). 1374.,
Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi : ' xiij mayse de alecibus sore.' N.E.D. (only of
bird or horse), earliest ex. a. 1400. Stotsteyt. (? anvil). 1374.
Appendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi : ' in domo fabri j par de belyse, j magnum
stotsteyt, j stety minoris , . .' Not in N.E.D., but cf. Stot v. i + ' stithy.'
Surrogate. sb.i.\). 1465. ccxii. 203: * in thair defense byfor the said
right worshipful doctour and auditour or his surrogate at Rome,
other elle3 whairsomever itt shall "happyn hym or his said surrogate
to sitt in jugement that day.' N.E.D. 1603.
 • Temple, [sb.^ 2. = ' templet,' in building.] 133-. Jppendix
viii, p. xii : ' in coopertura cancelli de novo, cum stramine empto, viz.
iiij'''. traves, lattes emptis in Berwico, et cariagio eofundem, wilcer
tempel! ' ct bordcs emptis, .\'. viii".' NED 1688. Tether, sb. i. 1368.
Jppendix xlvii, p. Ivii : ' item in ferura equorum, capistris, singulis,
'thethyrs.' N.E.D. 1376-7. Thack-nail. 1345. Jppendix \xvx.,^.c\\.
doublethaknanayll [«V] (quoted supra s.v. Brodj. N.E.D. Thack. sh.
4. thack-nail. 1846. Trest. [ji.2 I. = trestle.] 1374. Jppendix Ixi, p.
Ixxv : ' in camera . . . j mensalis, j par de trestis formulae
sufficientibus.' N.E.D. 13 — , 13 — , 1432. Trussing-cofler. 1374.
Jppendix Ixi, ' p. Ixxv : ' in camera . . . j par de thurrsyngcoffres.'
N.E.D. s.v. Trussing, vbl. sb. 3. attrib. trussing-coflFer. 1387. [sb. 2.
= an ecclesiastical 1362. Jppendix xxxiv {Sacxl : 'in primis tres
capae, iiij tunnykklys.' N.E.D. c. 1425 in general sense, i. 1377). tfi.
1374. Jppendix Ixi, in prompt uario . . . ij mappae manutergium
tweld.' N.E.D. Tunlcle. vestment.] ristaria), p. casulae, ij (earliest ex.
Twilled, p. Ixxv : twelid, j c. 1423. Unralsed. (unrayslde). [ppl. a. =
not collected.] 1447. clxxii. 161 : 'in supplement of the forsaide
soeme, it is my will and my brother afor reherside, that yhe take the
hendez [sic : heuedez, i.e. heads] of the arrerage of his tyme thatt is
unrayside of dan Richard Wrake.' N.E.D. 1523. cf. N.E.D. s.v. Raise
v.^ 25. Ush. [sb. 2 = issue, end.] 1442-3. clviii. 145 : ' . , , cccupy
and have the said office of bailyery to the usche of the termej of the
said sexty yhere}.' N.E.D.! J 463 (earlier examples in other senses). !
Windlass. sb.^ i, 1345. Jppendix Ixix, p. cvi : 'item eisdem
[carpentariis] pro reparacione quorundam spurbandis, wyndelawes
et cujusdam alii operis circa posicionem . , .' N.E.D. c. 1400.
Window-Cloth. 1374. Jppendix Ixi, p. Ixxvi : ' in torali j hayr, j
vynduclath, v sacci.' 1446. Jppendix Ixvii, p. Ixxxiv : ' in ustrino . . .
xvij saccis, iij wyndowclaytis.' N.E.D. s.v. Window, sb. 5. d. window-
clothes. 1584-5. YetUng. [sb. 1 = a pot or boiler.] 1374. Jppendix Ixi,
p. Ixxvi : ' in coquina j plumbum in fornace, j zetlyng continens xij
lagenas, iij zetlyngs minoris mensurae.' N.E.D. 1378-9. Mr. Waddell
also writes: In reading through the documents of The Priory of
Coldingham (Surtees Society, 1841), besides noticing a number of
words that antedate the earliest examples in the Oxford English
Dictionary (see Bulletin, v. 188-9), I ^^^^ detected some misprints,
a list of which may be useful to others. The most interesting, I think,
is that on p. 161, 1. 2, hende; : on consulting the MS. in the Chapter
Library at Durham (this is one of the few originals that are
available), I found that an e stands between the n (or u) and the d,
and hence I take the true reading to be heuedc^, i.e. heads
(=headings, N.E.D. V.-y. Head. sb. 13, perhaps in the sense of '
totals '). The use of the form heued in 1447 is justified by the N.E.D.
quotation dated 1450 from St. Cuthbert (Surtees See.) 924, ' his fete
upwarde, his heued doune.' Other presumed corrections are : p.
Ii3,cxxvii.l. 7,39ttM^(/tf (youthhead); p. 136, 1. 15, j«M^x/ (in the
notable phrase' veraysuthefast in the self '); p. 140, civ. 1. \$,thes
lese (this lease, as suggested by Mr. C. T. Onions) ; p. 232, 1. 1 1,
disposicion ; p. 258, 1. (),predecessoure (?); Jppendix, p. xv. 2nd
last 1. cuvis (so also pp. xvii, xix, xx); p. cvii, note 1. 2, cenevettorio
or cenevectorio. A complete list of errata is not attempted here :
sometimes the number of the Registrum is given incorrectly in the
heading, e.g. Nos. cxvi, cxlvi, and cxlviii all belong to Reg. I. (not
II.). May I add references to certain usages that appear interesting,
uncommon, and in part unique,
 BIND^^!G 'm 2 r 196? Murray, (Sir) James Augustus Henry
New English dictionary on historical principles RoEiifi PLEASE DO
NOT REMOVE SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY
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