Maps, GIS, and Remote Sensing
This document explores the fundamental tools and technologies geographers use to collect,
analyze, and visualize spatial data, collectively known as Geospatial Technology.
I. Introduction to Cartography (Mapmaking)
• History of Mapmaking: Cartography, the art and science of map-making, has evolved from
ancient clay tablets and exploration sketches to modern digital mapping. Early cartographers like
Ptolemy laid the groundwork for coordinates.
• Essential Map Elements: For a map to be useful, it must include:
• Scale: The relationship between a distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the
ground.
• Legend (Key): Explains the meaning of the symbols used on the map.
• North Arrow/Orientation: Indicates direction, typically North.
• Title: Summarizes the map's content and purpose.
• Grid/Graticule: The system of coordinates (latitude and longitude) used for location.
• Map Projections: The process of transferring the Earth's three-dimensional surface onto a two-
dimensional flat map. This process always involves distortion in one or more areas (shape,
distance, size, or direction).
• Types of Projection Surfaces: Cylindrical (e.g., Mercator), Conic, and Planar (or Azimuthal).
• Purpose: Projections are chosen based on their purpose (e.g., Mercator preserves direction,
making it useful for navigation, but severely distorts size near the poles; Peters preserves relative
size, useful for global comparisons).
II. Map Scale and Generalization
• Types of Map Scale: Scale defines the level of detail a map can show.
• Fractional/Ratio Scale: Expressed as a ratio (e.g., 1:100,000, meaning one unit on the map
equals 100,000 of the same units on the ground).
• Verbal Scale: Expressed in words (e.g., "One inch equals one mile").
• Graphic Scale (Bar Scale): A line marked to show the distance on the ground.
• Large-Scale Maps (e.g., 1:1,000) show a small area with great detail (like a city map). Small-
Scale Maps (e.g., 1:10,000,000) show a large area with less detail (like a world map).
• Map Generalization: The necessary process of simplifying map features (e.g., selecting,
smoothing, displacing features) when converting from a larger scale to a smaller scale. Without
generalization, a small-scale map would be too cluttered and illegible.
III. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
A GIS is a computer system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and
present all types of geographical data.
• Definition and Components: GIS is a powerful tool for spatial analysis. Key components include:
• Hardware (computers, servers)
• Software (ArcGIS, QGIS)
• Data (maps, spreadsheets)
• People (users and experts)
• Methods (analytical techniques)
• Data Layers (Vector and Raster Data): GIS organizes information into layers that can be overlaid
for analysis.
• Vector Data: Represents geographic features as points (e.g., cities), lines (e.g., roads, rivers),
and polygons (e.g., countries, lakes). Ideal for precise location and network analysis.
• Raster Data: Represents the world as a grid of cells (pixels). Each cell holds a value, such as
elevation or temperature. Ideal for continuous data and imagery.
• GIS Applications: GIS is used extensively in urban planning (zoning, utility management),
disaster management (flood risk assessment, emergency response), environmental monitoring,
and market analysis (site selection).
IV. Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance,
typically using aircraft or satellites.
• Principles of Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR): Remote sensing works by measuring EMR that
is reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. Different materials (water, concrete, vegetation)
reflect and absorb EMR differently across the spectrum (e.g., visible light, infrared).
• Satellite Imaging and Aerial Photography:
• Aerial Photography: Images taken from aircraft, providing very high-resolution views of local
areas.
• Satellite Imaging: Images collected by sensors on orbiting platforms (e.g., Landsat, MODIS).
These sensors scan the Earth's surface in multiple spectral bands (multispectral imaging),
allowing geographers to identify vegetation health, land cover change, and more.
• Interpreting Satellite Imagery: Interpretation involves analyzing tone/color, shape, size, pattern,
texture, site, and association to identify features and patterns on the ground.
V. Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
• The GPS Constellation and Triangulation: GPS is a satellite-based navigation system. It relies on
a network (constellation) of at least 24 orbiting satellites. A GPS receiver calculates its position
by measuring the time it takes for signals from at least four satellites to arrive (a process called
trilateration).
• Applications and Limitations of GPS: GPS is essential for navigation, vehicle tracking, mapping,
and data collection (geotagging). A primary limitation is signal interference (e.g., tall buildings or
dense foliage) and a dependence on battery power.
