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AND
MUGHAL LIFE

by
Dr. N. L. Mathur

with a foreword by
Dr. Grace Morley
© Copyright Reserved by the Author, 1964

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Price Rs. 5.50
ep
FOREWORD
Any effort to provide accurate information on the history
and daily life of the RED FORT is most welcome. The
majesty and beauty of this great monument of Delhi, demand
recall in concrete terms of the principal figures of its history,
of the busy court life centred there, as well as of the sparkling
flow and splash of its canals and fountains, to give it the
dimensions of reality of the crowded, colourful Imperial activity
for which it was the setting during two centuries of Delhi’s
history. The stately routine of the court, the daily ceremonial
of officials, the bustle of courtiers coming and going with their
retinues, the disciplined changing of guards and reviewing of
troops, the fleeting glimpses of the ladies of the court, hidden
from public view but always so influential, and the intimate
details of the Emperor’s day explain the arrangements of the
vast structure. The careful provisions in the Fort for the
public business and ceremony of the ruler of a vast domaine,
with all the officers required to carry on government functions,
and for the religious and private life of.the Emperor and of his
large family, with the nobles and officials‘needed to serve them,
must be understood to be appreciated! fully as both functional
and monumental architecture. Tite Explanations and illustrations
of the use for which each part о the Fort was designed, drawn
from contemporary accounts, représeht а valuable contribution `
to thorough enjoyment of a visit theres. _ кы?

Dr. N. L. Mathur has gone to great pains to search out

original records, accounts of travellers and foreign visitors to
the Court and other primary contemporary sources of
information. With their help he has recreated the daily life
that went on in the Fort at different periods in every sphere of
 activity. His brief introductory historical survey establishes
well the factual background and recalls the associations with
those vivid personalities who lived there; his description of the
plan of the Fort and the uses to which all parts of its vast
complex of buildings were put, and then the descriptions oflife
there, with brief anecdotes and sketches of some of its
personalities as reported by contemporaries, make the monument
come alive for the attentive visitor. Not only tourists, but
indeed all who love Delhi and desire to know better its past,
have reason to feel thankful to Dr. Mathur for this illuminating
description of itsRED FORT.

GRACE MoRLEY
22nd Типе, 1964 Director, National Museum,
New Delhi.

‫س‬
 PREFACE
A historical building, whatever be its grandeur in the past, is
nothing more than a pile of bricks, stone and mortar to an ordi-
nary visitor unless he is told something abouts it antecedents. A
word of explanation may bring to his imagination the splendour
of even the crumbling walls, dimmed by the dust of ages.
Numerous guide books on the Red Fort are available but none
provides an adequate account of the life and court of the grand
Mughals whose fabulous wealth had bewitched the people in
distant countries and lured the adventurers to brave the dangers
of the unknown seas in search of the fairy land. It is only with
this background that the Fort which though now bereft of its
former beauty and ornamentation still stands out in vivid colours
of romance. I have presented in this booklet a brief description
of the Fort and the palace, as well as a sketch of the daily life of
the Emperor and the royal family, with a short history of the
ruling dynasty. It is hoped that the information contained in
this volume would enable the visitor to have a clearer impression
of the monument and would secure a permanent place іп his
memory.
I am grateful to Dr. (Mrs) Grace Morley, Driector, National
Museum, New Delhi, for writing a foreword to this treatise and
also for permitting me to publish four paintings ‘Wedding of a
prince’, ‘A prince and a princess enjoying music’, ‘Schooling
of princesses’, ‘A princess retires at night’ from the collection of
the National Museum. My thanks are due to the Director
General of Archaeology for permitting me the use of two blocks
of Diwan-i-Amm and Diwan-i-Khas. I have also to thank Shri
Rai Krishnadasa, Director, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, for
generous permission to use a colour block of the painting “A
Mughal Lady” from his collection.

New Delhi
22nd June, 1964. N. L. MATHUR
 CONTENTS

І. Historical background 1

“п. The Fort 8

ІП. The Emperor 21
IV. The Palace 38
V. The Prince 41
VI. The Princess 44
VII. Intrigues in the Palace 41
VIII. Bibliography 50

ILLUSTRATIONS

' 1. A Mughal Lady Title Раре

2. Diwan-i-Amm (The Hall of Public Audience) Plate I
3. Diwan-i-Khas (The Hall of Private Audience) Plate II
Wedding procession of a prince Plate IIL
A prince and a princess enjoying music Plate IV
Schooling of princesses Plate -У
45
60
GY
1 A princess retires at night Plate VI
 1

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A visitor to Delhi will not fail to notice the rising walls of

the Red Fort on the right bank of the river Jamuna near the old
city of Delhi. Built by the Emperor Shahjahan, fifth in descent
of the Mughal dynasty, during the years 1639-48, it symbolised
for about two centuries the might and wealth of the Mughal
Emperors and the world wondered at the beauty and
magnificence of their palaces with gorgeous апа tasteful
decorations. The enormous amount of jewellery displayed by
the royal family dazzled the vision of the people living in distant
lands. They imagined that if there was any place in the world
where the splendours of the Arabian Nights were still credible,
where emeralds as big as an egg embellished the palaces
with golden roofs, where female slaves had the voice ofa
nightingale and where the enchanted princesses surrounded by
beautiful damsels in their lovely costumes of velvet and brocade
sat on couches of gold studded with gems, it was within the red
sand stone walls of this Fort.

It was during the year 1526, that Babar, the Great Mughal,
a descendant of Tamerlane, marched to India at the head of a
small army of veteran soldiers and having defeated and killed
Ibrahim Lodi, the King of Delhi at the battle of Panipat,
occupied Delhi and later Agra where he held his court.
Humayun, the son and successor of Babar, was expelled by Sher
 2

Shah and forced to seek shelter in Persia. Іп 1555, Humayun

regained the throne with the assistance of Shah Tahmasp, King
of Persia, but died within six months of his success. His
successors Akbar and Jahangir resided principall y at Agra. The
latter’s son Shahjahan, desirous of shifting his capital to Delhi,
laid the foundations of a palace for the royal family known as
the Red Fort in 1639. The Fort was completed in 1648 and
Shahjahan entered into it with a gorgeous retinue, prince Dara
Shikoh scattering gold and silver over his father’s head till he
reached the gates. The palace buildings had already been
decorated, and the courtyards covered with rich carpets and
hangings. The Emperor signalised the occasion by the distribu-
tion of lavish gifts. The artistic and literary taste shown by the
Emperor attracted to his court poets, philosophers, scholars,
artists and artisans and henceforth the Fort at Delhi became a
throbbing centre of royal activity.
че
Shahjahan had four sons—Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb and
Murad, and two daughters—Jahanara who favoured Dara
and Roshanara who sided with Aurangzeb. While Dara
stayed with his father, the other three sons held charge of
viceroyalties in the provinces. Dara, the heir apparent, held the
viceroyalty of the rich provinces of Allahabad, the Punjab and
Multan. He enjoyed the lofty title of Shah Buland Iqbal and
the unprecedented rank of a Commander of forty thousand
horses. In court, he was allowed to be seated ona gold couch
below the throne and every aspirant to office or title solicited his
mediation with the Emperor. Jahanara, the eldest princess, was
very beautiful and was passionately loved by her father. She
enjoyed the title of Begum Sahib and received the most valuable
gifts from the amirs, whose affairs were confided to her charge.
She thus amassed a great fortune. Roshanara was very
intriguing and kept Aurangzeb informed of all the doings
at the
court which enabled him to pave his way to the throne.
At
this time, the grandeur of the Mughal empire in India had
 3

reached its zenith of fame and all imaginable luxuries of the age
marked the daily life of the royal family. The magnificence of
the Court was such that tales of the Great Mughal reached
remote parts of Europe, and inflamed the public imagination
with visions of boundless wealth and the splendour of India.

Shahjahan had thus spent about eight years in this magnificent

Fort, when in September, 1657, he suddenly fell ill.
Immediately the wildest rumours spread throughout the empire
that Shahjahan was dead. His sons set out to fight out their
claims to the throne. In the contest, Aurangzeb was successful
and was enthroned оп the 21st July, 1658. Shahjahan was
imprisoned at Agra and the other sons, including Dara’s eldest
son, were either executed or murdered. Jahanara chose to
share her father’s life-long captivity ; while Roshanara, who was
a warm partisan of Aurangzeb, now occupied ап exalted
position in the palace.

Aurangzeb had five sons and five daughters. The sons were
Sultan, Muazzam, Azam, Kam Baksh and Akbar. The eldest
son Sultan had died when he was thirty-nine years ofage.
Akbar, after rebelling, first sided with the Rajputs and then
fled to the Maratha court and thence to Persia. The daughters
of Aurangzeb were Zeb-un-nissa, Zinat-un-nissa, Badr-un-nissa,
Zubdat-un-nissa and Mihr-un-nissa. Zeb-un-nissa, the eldest
was a very learned and accomplished lady. She had a great
influence in the court over her imperial father. When she
reached the age of 25, she was worshipped as the dominant
star of the Mughals.

Aurangzeb was a puritan and noted for his rigid attachment

to religion. His relations with the Rajputs got estranged and
he was engaged for twenty-five years in fruitless campaigns in
the Deccan, firstly against the two Shia kingdoms of Bijapur
and Golcunda which he annexed and later against the Marathas
4

whom he could not crush. Due to the long absence of the

Emperor in the Deccan, the power-house of Mughal rule at
Delhi slowly crumbled to pieces. Mughal nobles set about
ensuring their own power and wealth leading to the collapse
of the central power. The death of Aurangzeb on February 21,
1707 was the signal for disintegration of the mighty Mughal
Empire.

The three surviving sons of Aurangzeb, Muazzam, Azam and

Kam Baksh entered into a fratricidal quarrel for the throne of
Delhi. Muazzam and Azam met іп the battle field at Jajau, a
few miles from Agra. Azam lost the day as well as his life.
Muazzam then marched towards the Deccan and defeating Kam
Baksh near Hyderabad ascended the throne under the title of
Bahadur Shah. His death in 1712 was followed by the customary
struggle for power. Jahandar Shah who secured the throne was
given to a life of pleasure. He was completely under the influ-
ence ofa dancing girl named Lal Kanwar. She was allowed to
display the imperial umbrella and to march with drums beating
as if she had been the Emperor in person. Grand illuminations
were arranged three times every month and the prices of the com-
modities rose very high. Jahandar Shah was, however, deposed
and strangled in the Fort in 1713 and Farrukhsiyar was elevated
tothe throne by the two Saiyyad brothers—Husain Ali and
Abdullah—the king makers. After a few years, Farrukhsiyar
was also blinded and executed in an ignonimous manner.

Muhammad Shah was then placed on the throne in 1719.

He plunged into a life of pleasure and amusement and
the
administration was totally neglected. In 1739, Nadir Shah
of
Persia, marched to Delhi and was met with little
resistance
on the way. He established his quarters in the palace
where
he was entertained by Muhammad Shah. Within
a few days
of his stay in Delhi, a rumour spread in the city that
Nadir
Shah had been assassinated and this gave rise
to a tumult
 5
in which some Persian soldiers were killed. To avenge it,
Nadir Shah ordered a general massacre in which twenty
thousand people—men, women апа children—were killed.
He spent many days in plundering the city and obtained
from the Emperor, his nobles and the people, money, jewels
and other objects estimated at 70 crores of rupees. He
ultimately left Delhi carryingthe booty, including the Peacock
throne and the most famous and matchless diamond, the
Koh-i-noor. Іп 1754, Muhammad Shah was deposed and blinded
by the Wazir. Ahmed Shah, his son, was then placed on the
throne but he was unable to cope with the disintegrating forces
that had grown so alarmingly on all sides. In 1757, Ahmad
Shah Abdali, the Afghan King, invaded India, ransacked Delhi
and carried away the booty valued at 12 crores of rupees.
Ahmed Shah was also removed from the throne and Azizuddin,
son of Jahandar Shah, known as Alamgir II, was enthroned.
He was practically a prisoner in the hands of his Wazir, and an
attempt to free himself from his control resulted in his ruin
апа he was put to death in 1759 by the latter’s orders. Shah
Jahan (Ш) was then proclaimed as Emperor.

In 1760, the Marathas occupied Delhi. Their chief,

Sadashiv Bhao, entered the Fort and deposed the Mughal ruler,
Shah Jahan ІІІ, and enthroned another phantom king. Не
took possession of all the property and goods that he could
find in the old repositories of treasures and stores of the royal
family. He also broke into pieces the silver ceiling of the
Diwan-i-Khas and coined seventeen lacs of rupees out of it.
Just then Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded India with a large army
and inflicted a serious defeat on the Marathas in the battle
fought at Panipat. Due to the hostility of the ambitious and
unscrupulous nobles at the court at Delhi, Shah Alam the
son and successor of Alamgir II, moved as a wanderer from
place to place. In 1761, he regained the throne of his fore-
fathers with the assistance of the Abdali. In 1787, Ghulam
 e

6
Qadir, son of a Rohilla chief, who aspired to the position of
the premier noble at the court of Delhi, negotiated with Shah
Alam, to throw off the Maratha yoke. Forcing his entry
into the Fort with a small body of troops, he disarmed the
old king and with a dagger struck out one of his eyes, while
his attendant deprived him of the other. The news of this
awful deed leaked out and the Marathas soon appeared on the
scene, pursued Ghulam Qadir and put him to death.

Shah Alam died in 1806 and was succeeded by his son

Akbar II, who lived in Delhi with the title of Emperor till 1837.
An English woman who gained admission to the royal Zenana
about 1827 has given a pleasing and vivid picture as below :

“I was conducted to the Queen’s Mahal (palace for females),

where his Majesty and the Queen were awaiting my arrival.
I found on my entrance the King seated in the open air in an
arm chair enjoying his hookka ; the Queen’s masnud was оп
the ground, close by the side of her venerable husband.........
After having left my shoes at the entrance I advanced towards
them, my salaams were tendered and then the usual offering of
nazar, first to the King and then to the Queen, who invited
me to a seat on her carpet......... The whole period of
my
visit was occupied in very interesting conversation, eager
enquiries were made respecting England, the Government,
the
manners of the Court, the habits of the people, my
own family
affairs......... On taking leave His Majesty very
cordially shook
me by the hand, the Queen embraced me with
warmth. Both
appeared, and expressed themselves, highly
gratified with the
visit of an English Lady......... Iwas grieved
to be obliged to
accept the Queen’s parting present of
an embroidered scarf,
because I know her means were exceedingly
limited compared
with the demands upon her bounty.........
A small ring,
of trifling value, was then placed
by the Queen on my finger,
as she remarked ‘to remind me
of the giver’. The King’s
 7

of extreme
countenance, dignified by age, possessed traces
very amiabl e and
Беашіу......... The Queen’s manners were
gifted with
condescending; she is reported to be as highly
is with genuine
intellectual endowments as I can affirm she
politeness.”

II ascended the
On the death of his father, Bahadur Shah
as a
throne. Не remained for the most part in Delhi Fort
had nothing to do
pensioner of the East India Company and
countr y around it
with the administration of the city and the
which remained in British hands. He was banished for life to
in their War
Rangoon in 1858, for having sided with the people
He later died in Rangoon
of Independence against the British.
and was buried there.
 II

THE FORT

In 1628, Shahjahan ascended the throne of Hindustan.

Within the first ten years of his reign, he desired to remove his
capital from Agra to Delhi, as according to Bernier, ‘the
excessive heat to which that city (Agra) is exposed during the
summer rendered it unfit for the residence of a monarch.’ Other
reasons stated were, ‘the broken ravines throughout the latter
city, want of space in the Fort, narrowness of the streets, and the
inconvenience caused to the inhabitants by the large crowds of
troops and elephants and retinues of the Emperor and his
Omrahs.’ Perhaps his passion for splendour and the
extravagance of his tastes, led him to found a city. It is
equally probable that Shahjahan desired to perpetuate his
memory by building a new Capital there. Before deciding upon
a site for his new metropolis, Shahjahan paid several visits to
the neighbourhood and critically reviewed remains of
those ancient capitals that had flourished at Indraprastha of the
five Pandava princes, the Delhi of Prithvi Кај, Tughlaqabad,
Jahan Panah, Siri and Firozabad. After consultations with
various astrologers and sages, he approved a site on the
mainland on the west bank of the Jamuna and south
of a fortifi-
cation nearby, the still surviving Salimgarh, built nearly
a century
ago by Sultan Salim Shah Suri to guard the fords of
the Jamuna
against an attempt by Humayun to regain his throne,
The stars
and planets pointing to Friday, the 9th Maharram,
A.H. 1048
 9
(1638 A.D.) as auspicious for the Purpose, the foundat
ion
stone of the Fort was laid on that date. Nine years later
the
work was completed.

This magnificent royal residence, the finest of its kind,

was constructed under the supervision of Makramat Khan,
Superintendent of Works, at an estimated cost of 100 lacs of
rupees, excluding the expenses for the building material which
was supplied by the Governors of various provinces. It hada
number of enclosures, опе for disposal of official work, i.e. for
public and private darbars ; another for the palaces of the
Emperor and the royal family ; anda separate enclosure for
royal store-rooms, regalia chambers, kitchens, horse and
elephant stables, houses of the enormous retinue attached to
the court, various departments ofthe royal house-hold, a large
number ofwell-organized factories manufacturing articles for
royal use. There was also the Imperial Secretariat and various
departments for disposal of official work. The palaces enclosed
a garden intersected into flower beds by water courses with an
ornamental fountain in the middle. Their outside crowned the
sandstone ramparts with a succession of turrets, gilt domes,
hanging balconies, arcades and perforated screens, which were
remarkably picturesque and breathed the very spirit of
romance.

The original plan of the palace was as follows :一 “Erom the

Lahori Gate there ran eastwards a succession of buildings and
courts devoted to the more public ceremonies of the Emperor.
Along the top of the eastern wall, above the Tiver, were his
private apartments, in a line from north to south—baths, hall
of private audience, sleeping apartments and zenana. The first
line, meeting the second at right angles, formed and still forms,
a T-shaped arrangement. These buildings remain tolerably
intact. The spaces westwards of the two arms of the top of
the T were filled with subsidiary courts and buildings—kitchens,
10
4
ern arm of the T being
store-houses, etc. Northwards (the north
ns, called the Hayat
longer than the southern) were the garde
Baksh (giver of life) and Mehtab Bagh (garden of the Moon) ;
s of the royal
and adjoining the northern wall, were the house
Running northwards from the Delhi Gate and
princes,
forming, so to speak, the base of the parallelogram of which
а broad road
the top or eastern side is the river frontage, was
lined with the houses of retainers, shops, etc.”

shorn
This great citadel, unfortunately got damaged and was
to cons-
much of its grandeur during the later Mughals owing
A number of palaces , courts and
tant struggle for power.
ndence in
gardens were removed soon after the War of Indepe
the
1857. The spacious halls of the Karkhanajat (factories),
royal stores and stables have disappeared. The existing build-
ings in the Fort too have lost their origina l beauty and
ornamental work.

The Fort is an irregular octagon in plan. In circumference,

it is about a mile and a half, with 3,200 feet from north
to south and 1,800 feet from east to west, enclosed by a
formidable wall. It has two main entrances, called the Lahori
Gate, facing Chandni Chowk, and the Delhi Gate, facing the
city of Delhi. Two gigantic elephants carrying the two stone
figures of the Raja of Chitor, Jaimal and his brother Pattah,
who had put up a determined resistance to Akbar, stood at the
entrance of the Delhi Gate. The Fort has around it a moat,
75 feet wide and 30 feet deep, which was filled with water in
the event of war. Adjoining the moat were large gardens, full
of variegated flowers and green shrubs.

Square

Next to the gardens, was a large square which presented a

brilliant spectacle at the time of adarbar. Men, women and
 11
4
children clad as for a feast thronged the place. Elephants and
young bulls in their best trappings were brought there for
display. Little bells rang from the collars of the animals and
there was a clang of brass ornaments from the ankles and
wrists of the women. An odour of saffron and musk of aloes
and sandalwood floated in the air. Princes, omrahs, rajas,
nobles and high military officials arrived at the Fort with
streaming standards and large escort, some on horse-back and
the others on majestic elephants. Many of them carried in
richly decorated palanquins were seen chewing betels while
leaning against a thick cushion of brocade. On one side of
every palanquin, a servant walked with a spittoon of porcelain
or silver, and on the other, two servants fanned their lord or
flapped away the flies with a peacock’s tail fan. Three or
four footmen marched in front to clear the way, anda few
brilliantly mounted horsemen followed the palanquin. Dancing
girls in gorgeous attire moving on towards the darbar were
seen in glimpses behind the silk nets of the palanquins. Huge
elephants, painted in black with silver bells and white cow tails
from Tibet hanging down from their ears, passed on majesti-
cally between small elephants.

Chatta Chowk

Entering through the Lahori Gate, there was the roofed street
which was described by Fergusson “ав the noblest entrance to
any existing palace.” On its two sides were two storeyed
shops. Here merchants sold their wares to the nobles of the
court.

Courtyard

At the end of the Chatta Chowk was an open courtyard,

with a beautiful tank in its centre and a strong balcony around it.
In its south-west corner.stood some public buildings where the
 12
>

Emperors Nazir (Superintendent of the House-hold) conducted

business. From the courtyard to the Delhi Gate, were the
arcaded streets where the officers of the lower rank transacted
business and mounted guard during the night.

Naubat Khana

The Naubat Khana (the Royal Drum House or the Music

Gallery) was separated from the rest of the courtyard by a
stone railing. All persons admitted to the palace, except the
princes of the royal blood, had to dismount here to proceed to
the Emperor’s presence on foot. Even іп the last days of the
titular Mughal Emperor, this entrance was jealously guarded.
A British Resident of Delhi who violated the sanctity of the
Royal palace by riding under the gate-way of the Naubat Khana,
was removed from his appointment. The music gallery is a
handsome and well-proportioned building. It has а fine
archway through the centre, and a large open gallery, 99’ long
and 68’ broad, for the musicians. Robes of honour conferred
by the Emperor were placed in side rooms and were carried
from there through the assembled crowd to the Darbar Hall.
The royal band played five times a day. The music was on for
the whole day on Sundays, as it wasa day sacred to the sun.
Similarly, music was provided on the day of the week on which
the reigning king was born.

Diwan-i-Amm

Inside the Naubat Khana is the court of the Diwan-i-Amm.

It was originally 550’ x 300” in area and on its two side меге
arcaded apartments raised almost 34’ from the ground. Each
bay of the arcade was separated by a wall, with a provision for
a small door to pass from one apartment to another. These
rooms were occupied by the Omrahs who decorated them on
special occasions and vied with each other in adorning them
 >

Plate
1

Diwan

Я
3
N
ri
Я
Я“ғ
ШЕЛ
ЗЕШУ-І-ШЕМІГІІ
 13
with a profusion of the richest tapestry, velvets
and silks.

The hall of audience measures 80’ x40’

and stands on a
stone plinth 4’ high. It was once richly painte
d and over-laid
with gold. It was known as the Chihclstoon, ог
forty-pillared
hall. In the centre of the back wall of the hall was
the recess
for the royal throne, in front of which stood or were
seated the
principal grandees of the court, separated from the rest
of the
hall by a silver railing. Under the recess is the marble
platform,
measuring about 7’ x 3’ standing on which the Wazir or his
secretaries could hand over the petitions to the king.
On special
occasions the Peacock throne was brought from the Diwan
-i-Khas
and placed in the recess. Set in the recess in the centre of the
back
wall, was a marble baldachine known as the Nashiman-i-Zill
i-lahi
(the seat of the shadow of God), inlaid with precious stones
.
Behind the Emperor’s throne, there is some mosaic work done by
a French artist Austin de Bordeaux representing beautiful birds,
flowers and fruits in the most natural manner. One of the
figures represents Orpheus sitting under a tree and fiddling to a
herd of animals, sitting in а circle. In front of the Diwan-i-Amm,
а space was enclosed by a red stone railing ornamented by
gilded spikes, and this enclosure was called Gul-i-Bari, and was
allotted to the minor officials of the court. The general throng
stood outside the last enclosure to have a view of the darbar.
Shahjahan and Aurangzeb sat in this hall twice a day on most
of the days of the week to conduct business of Government. It,
however, fell into disuse during the later Mughals who led a
life of ease and neglected the State work. The last Mughal
emperor, Bahadur Shah II, held the daily darbar іп this hall
during the War of Independence of 1857.

Mumtaz Mahal

The Mumtaz Mahal, now the Museum, is the southern

most of the buildings in the Fort. It was one of the apartments
 14
>

of the royal princesses.

Rang Mahal

The Rang Mahal, measuring 1534’х 59}’, is immediately

to the north of the Mumtaz Mahal. On account of its
coloured decoration, it came to be called Rang Mahal. Its
original ceiling was ofsilver but Shahjahan had it gilded and
ornamented with golden flowers. It was then known as the
Imtiyaz Mahal (Palace of distinction) and surpassed in lustre
and colour all other palaces іп the Fort. Farrukhsiyar had the
silver ceiling removed and replaced by one of copper. In the
reign of Akbar II, this was also taken off and a wooden ceiling
was put up instead. Five screened windows in its back wall
overlooked the river and through these the begums and
princesses had the glimpses ofthe fights of elephants and other
wild beasts which were arranged on the sandy ground at the
foot of the walls. The Emperor watched these from the
adjoining Muthamman Burj.

It had a tank made of marble and fashioned like a flower in

bloom. It was exquisitely inlaid with coloured stones set in
design of floral and foliage. When the tank was full of rippling
water, the foliage of the inlay work appeared to wave to and
fro. In its centre was a beautiful cup shaped like a flower of
marble. On each curving point and arch, were flowers and
leaves with creeping plants of coloured stones. Within the cup
was a hole through which the water bubbled up from a hidden
channel below. The sheet of water falling from the edges of
the cup and the waving of the plants and flowers under the
dancing water presented a scene of magic.

Khas Mahal

To the north of the Diwvan-i-Khas is a set of three marble

 15

apartments, the Tasbih-Khana (or the house of Worship), the

Khwab-Gah (or the Bed Chamber), and the Baithak (or the
Conversation House), communicating with one another, through
arched doors in the central room. The walls were at one time
inlaid with precious stones. A pair of scales was suspended over a
stone seat to indicate that justice alonc was administered there.
The north and south walls of the centre room have arched doors
covered with marble screens, and under the arches are inscribed
legends of historical importance. A rhapsodist sat before the
bed chamber of the great Mughal, telling tales in a loud voice.
A simple curtain hung between him and the king who lay on a
couch,

Muthamman Burj

To the east of the Khwab-Gah is the Muthamman Burj, a

tower which the Emperor visited daily at dawn to appear before
the crowds gathered below the Fort. This ceremony was
considered an essential part of the daily routine observed by
the earlier Mughal Emperors. Its apartments were decorated
with gold, exquisite paintings and magnificent mirrors. Akbar II
had added a small covered balcony to it and engraved two
inscriptions under its arches.

Diwan-i-Khas

The Diwan-i-Khas is a magnificent pavilion built of fine

marble. It stands on aplinth of 43’ and measures 90’ x 67’.
Its ceiling, originally of silver, was inlaid with precious gems
and was supported by thirty-two richly carved pillars. It was
considered to be the most profusely ornamented of all
Shahjahan’s buildings. Over an arch in the central hall an
inscription in Persian runs as: ‘Gar Fiardaus bar rue zamin
ast, Hamin ast, Hamin ast, wa Hamin ast’ (if a paradise be on
the face of the earth it is here, it is here and it is here). A white
 16

marble slab supported Shahjahan’s famous Takhat-e-Taus (the

Peacock Throne) valued at nearly 18 crores of Tupees. This
magnificent throne was constructed in the reign of Shahjahan
under the superintendence of Bebadal Khan in seven years.
The throne was shaped like a bedstead on golden legs. Its
enamelled canopy was supported by twelve emerald pillars,
each of which bore two peacocks encrusted with gems. A tree
covered with diamonds, emeralds, rubies and pearls stood
between the pairs of peacocks. Three steps led to one ofthe
longer sides of the throne, on which were three golden
cushions, around which were suspended a mace, a shield, a
bow and a quiver for arrows. The tail of the peacock was
made of sapphires and other coloured stones, the body
being
of gold inlaid with precious stones. This gorgeous structure
remained in use until 1739 i.e till the reign of Muhammad
Shah
when it was carried off by the Persian invader Nadir
Shah.

After his morning darbar in the Diwan-i-Amin,

the Emperor
sat on the throne in this Hall to hold confidential
discussions
with high officials and transacted important busine
ss of the
State. In this Court, the Omrahs and nobles
of the highest rank
waited on the Emperor.

Hamam or the royal bath

Near the Diwan-i-Khas is the Hamam,

the bath room for
the royal family. Тһе two rooms on either side of the Hama
m
were used as the bath for the royal children.
There were three
main apartments which were divided
by corridors. A room
facing the river was the dressing room
and contained two
fountain basins, one of which was
for the use of‘rose water
spray.’ The second apratment had a
basin in the centre only.
This could be used both for hot and
cold baths. It is said
that 125 maunds of firewood was Tequi
red to heat the water.
All these apartments were built in fine
marble and inlaid with
 17
precious and rare stones of various colours, representing flowers
|
|
and branches, executed with great taste. The fountains were |
placed in the centre, with passages to carry water into different |
apartments and light was admitted through windows with |
Stained glass. The baths were a favourite resort of the Mughal |
Emperors and business of the most important character was
transacted here.

Мо Masjid or the Pearl Mosque

On the northern side of the baths is the Moti Masjid, or

|
the Pearl Mosque. It is built of white marble ona plinth 33’
in height. It measures 40’x 30’ and is 25” high. Its entrance
is made of brass gates which appear to be the work of an
Italian artificer. (The original domes of the mosque, made
of heavily gilded copper, were destroyed during the War of
Independence and later on, the existing marble domes were
added). The mosque was built by Aurangzeb in 1662 to enable
him to offer prayers at various times of the day and night
without undertaking a journey to the Jama Masjid which stands
at a distance outside the Fort.

Hira Mahal

The small white marble building is situated on the north of

the Натат. It measures 224”x 193’ and has three open arches |
on each side. It was built in 1842 by the last Mughal |
Emperor Bahadur Shah in order to enjoy the river scene from
this place.

Shah Burj or the King’s Tower

This building is situated at the north-eastern corner of the

Fort, measuring 63’x32’ and is lined with marble. It
is three-storeyed, and presents a fine view. The Mughal
 18

emperors used to hold secret talks with their ministers in this

tower. The centre ofits northern wall is occupied by a marble
water cascade which slopes into a scalloped marble basin. In
1784, Jawan Bakht, the eldest son of Shah Alam made his
escape from this Burj by a ladder of turbans and eluded the
vigilance of his father’s ministers.

Gardens

Within the palace walls were two large gardens called the
Hayat Baksh or life giving garden and the Mahtab Bagh or
Moon garden. These gardens formed two separate enclosures
treated in one design. Each was a square of about five hundred
feet.

The Hayat Baksh garden was like the garden of Eden and
was known for its beautiful flowers of purple or red in line.
The Love-lies-a-bleeding in purple, the marigold in saffron,
the roses in crimson colour, the rhododendrons and the violet
grey holitropes gave a glow to the entire palace garden and
their delicate aroma created a heavenly atmosphere. Inithe
centre of the garden was a reservior through which 49 silver
Jets rose, while 112 silver jets, set around it, burst forth
con-
stantly. The four sides of the tank had six yards broad
channel
with 30 fountains playing in each.

The Moon Garden had only white flowers

and the whole
atmosphere was laden with the scent of jasmin
e and tuberose,
of lily and narcassus. The double row of cypresses stood on
either side of the road and the white lotus
flowers shone like
kindly stars from the water mirror of the large
fountain.

Sawan and Bhadon

On the left and right sides of the Hayat Baksh

garden there
 19

are two charming buildings known as ‘Sawan’ and ‘Bhadon’.

The Sawan was named after the first and Bhadon after the
second month of the rainy season. In the walls of these
pavilions there are tanks. Through the two water ways of the
tanks in the centre of the building, water was constantly running
and falling into the tank below in the form ofacascade. In the
niches, flower vases were placed during the day and white
candles at night to create an impression ofthe rainy season.

Zafar Mahal or Jal Mahal

Between the Sawan and Bhadon, a red sand stone pavilion

stands in the centre of the main tank. It was built by the last
Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II, ‘Zafar’ was his poetical
suffix.

Naher-i-Bahisht

In planning the construction of the Fort, arrangements

were ensured for a full and continuous supply of water through-
out the entire enclosure. А canal known as the Naher-i-Buhisht
or canal of Paradise was brought from the river Jamuna near
Khizrabad, a distance of 50 miles into the Fort through a
sluice under the Shah Burj or King’s Tower, at the north east
corner. The canal was originally constructed by Feroz Shah
in 1291 and after his death it became dry. Shahjahan ordered
it to be cleared and brought to Fort at Delhi. Ali Mardan,
the famous engineer, of the time drew the canal to Delhi, first
by way of Gohana, along a natural depression, now occupied
by a main drain, and when this failed, by way of Panipat and
Sonepat. The cost of the work is reported to have been very
great, and the canal ran into the palace, divided and intersected
every part and fell into the moats of the fortification. Such a
constant stream enabled the chain of gardens to be ornamented
with fountains, cascades, water-falls and pools enchantingly
 20

deposed and designed and also furnished the Haman (bath)

adjacent to the palace, with its requirements. Bernier, who
saw the zanana quarters during the King’s absence from Delhi,
says that, “nearly every chamber has its reservoir of running
water at its door; on every side are gardens, delightful alleys,
shady retreats, streams, fountains, grottos, deep excavations
that afford shelter from the sun by day, lofty divans ‘and
terraces, on which to sleep cool at night.”

Salim Garh

Close to the Fort wasa citadel known as Salim Garh. It

was built in 1546 by Salim Shah, son and successor of Sher
Shah Suri. The whole circuit of the walls is about three
quarters of a mile. During Mughal days, the Salim Garh
served the purpose ofa state prison. Akbar II had preserved
a garden in this Fort and occasionally used to take an airing
undisturbed by the public.
 III

THE EMPEROR

The most important figure in this magnificent Fort was the

Emperor. He had a commanding personality with dignified and
majestic appearance. He wore a long shirt (Jama) normally
coming down to the ankles, a pajama tied by a string with tassels
at the waist and a turban embellished with pearls, gems and
jewels, and an aigrette adorning its front part. A bejewelled
dagger hung from his waist. The jewellery which Shahjahan
ordinarily had on his person was valued at two crores and
was kept in the harem in charge of female servants, while
another three crores worth was in the custody of slaves
in the outer apartments. The sarpech or aigrette of large
rubies which he wore in his turban was estimated to be
twelve lacs. The ministers, high military officials and
petty chiefs waited on him and a large retinue followed him
at all hours and at all times and waited outside when he
entered the harem or the secret chambers. Later Mughals
lost much of the lustre that surrounded Shahjahan and
Aurangzeb and were left only with a semblance of the regal
authority. Shahjahan and Aurangzeb led a strenuous life
and devoted a good amount of their time to looking after
the administration of the State as may be gleaned from their
daily routine described in detail below. The successors of
Aurangzeb, however, did very little work and the state fell into
disorder,
 22

Merning Prayer

The Emperor woke up about two hours before ѕип-гіѕе,

After his daily morning ablutions he spent some time in
religious devotion.

Appearance at the Balcony

His first work was to appear after sun-rise at the balcon

y
facing the bank of the river Jamuna. Vast crowds of expectant
people, soldiers, traders, merchants, artisan
s and peasants
all alike assembled on the bank every morning.
They greeted
the Emperor with the cry ‘Long Live the
Кіпр”. Shahjahan
usually sat in the balcony for about forty-eight
minutes or more
or less as business required. Here, people
could submit their
petitions or present their cases without
undergoinga formal
procedure. The king did not deal with the
cases on the spot.
The clerks of the Judicial Department took
notes and laid them
before the king in Diwan-i-Khas, or Diwan-i-Amm. After a
public salute, military officers would pass
their contingents for
review. The newly captured elephants
which could not be
brought into the courtyard facing the
hall of Public Audience,
were also shown to the Emperor.
Thereafter, the elephant
. fights took place, whenever the Emper
or so desired.

At Diwan-i-Amm

After spending an hour in the

balconies, the Emperor
turned his steps towards the Diwa
n-i-Amm where he held a
darbar, In the centre of the wall
that separated the hall from
the palace was the celebrated Jhar
okha where the Emperor took
his seat on a cushioned throne.
On his right and left stood
the prin ces and some of his grandsons. The royal standard
bearers holding the golden banners were drawn up on the
Emperor’s left with their backs to the wall. Trusted eunuchs

‫‏‬S‫ر‬
S‫تمد‬
 23

stood behind him flapping flies and fanning the royal person
with large fans of peacock feathers. Just below the balcony,
in a square bounded by rails of gold stood the Wazir. The
rest of the hall bounded by silver rails was occupied by the
nobles of the realm, the Rajas and ambassadors, high military
officers in their resplendent attire, all standing in order of
precedence with their eyes towards the floor and their hands
crossed. Below the hall stood the Mansabdars, Jagirdars and
other persons of rank under a canopy of gold cloth supported
by bars of silver and bounded on all sides with silver railings.
The gates were closely guarded by the trustworthy male
bearers and sergeants-at-arms in their splendid uniforms. After
the Emperor had sat on the throne, the business of the court
began.

The Paymaster-General reported to the Emperor the

petitions of military officers. He ushered into the royal presence
those who deserved promotion, and solicited the Emperor’s
orders for giving promotions to some, new posts to others.
Then the chief minister brought to his notice the cases of the
poor and destitute, and introduced the learned and the pious.
Thereafter, other departmental heads placed the papers before
the Emperor. Influential officers in the Court submitted
representations from the provincial governors. Clerks of the
Department of Crown lands obtained orders on their various
proposals through their chiefs. Letters from princes and chief
officers were read or heard. Next, officers of the Imperial
stables displayed horses and elephants in order to show whether
they were properly fed or not. Bernier has left an excellent
account of the ceremonials for which the Divan-i-Amm was
used: “During the hour and a half, or two hours, that this
ceremony (the darbar) continues, a certain number of the royal
horses pass before the throne, that the King may see whether
they are well used and in a proper condition. The elephants
come next, their filthy hides having been well washed and

inant
ә
 24
painted as black as ink, with two large red streaks from the top
of the head down to the trunk, where they meet. The elephants
are covered with embroidered cloth ; a couple of silver bells are
suspended to the two ends of a massive silver chain placed over
their back, and white cow-tails from Great Tibet, of large
value,
hang from the ears like immense whiskers. Two small
elephants, superbly caparisoned, walk close to these
colossal
creatures, like slaves appointed to their service. As if proud of
his gorgeous attire and of the magnificence that
surrounds him,
every elephant moves with a solemn and dignified
step ; and
when in front of the throne, the driver,
who is seated on his
shoulder, pricks him with a pointed
iron, animates and
speaks to him, until the animal bends
on one knee, lifts his
trunk on high and roars aloud, which
the people consider
as the elephant’s mode of performing
the taslim or usual
reverence,

“Other animals are next introduc

ed—tame antelopes kept
for the purpose of fighting with
each other ; Nilgaux, or grey
oxen, that appear to me to bea
species of elk ; rhinoceroses ;
large Bengale bufalloes with prod
igious horns which enable them
to contend against lions and tiger
s ; tame leopards, or panthers,
employed in hunting antelopes
; some of the fine sporting dogs
from Usbec, of every kind,
and each dog with a small
covering ; lastly, every species red
of the birds of prey used in
field sports for catching partridges the
, cranes, hares, and even,
said, for hunting antelopes, it is
on which they pounce with
beating their heads and blin viole nce,
ding them with their wings
claws.” and

“Besides this procession

of animals, the cavalry of
two Omrahs (Umaras) one or
frequently pass in rev
the king ; the horsemen iew before
being better dressed tha
horses furnished n usual, the
with iron armour, and decorated with an
endless variety of fantastic
trappings.”
 25
“The King takes pleasure also in having the blades of cut-
lasses tried on dead sheep, brought before him without the
entrails and neatly bound up. Young Omrahs, Mansebdars,
and Gourze-berdars or mace-bearers, exercise their skill and
put forth all their strength to cut through the four feet, which
are fastened together, and the body of the sheep at one blow.”

On important occasions the palace buildings were

ornamented with gorgeous carpets and hangings of velvet and
silk. The famous peacock throne was brought to the
Diwan-i-Amm and placed in the balcony. It was provided
with a special canopy, fringed with pearls, and supported by
golden pillars, wreathed with bands of studded gems. The
seats for the chief officers of the State in the hall were covered
with deep red Kashmir shawls. As the Emperor entered the
hall and mounted the throne, the Imperial band sent out
joyous notes, the musicians began their songs, the nautch girls
began their dance. The royal attendants sprinkled scented water
on the assembled throng. Trays of betel (pan) were distributed
to all. The air was charged with fragrance of ашағ, musk and
ambergris. After the darbar, the Emperor returned to the
harem and held another court there, at which the begums,
princesses, wives of nobles and other ladies surrounded him.
They offered their dutiful congratulations and scattered large
quantities of gold and silver, pearls and jewels in honour of
the Emperor, while he made rich presents to them in return.

At Diwan-i-Khas

A little before 10.00 a.m., the Emperor repaired to the

Diwan-i-Khas or the Hall of Private Audience. Неге he sat
on the throne and met a few selected persons and transacted
business of a confidential nature. He wrote with his own hand
answers to the most important letters. Replies to letters received
from the provincial governors were drafted by the ministers in
 26

accordance with instructions given by the Emperor. The drafts

were revised and corrected by him, written out fair and sent
to the Harem to be sealed by the Great Seal, of which the
Empress held the charge. The highest revenue officers then
reported on very important matters connected with the crown
lands and obtained orders on each case. The Head Almoner
(Royal Charity Department) brought to notice special cases
of needy persons ; most of them received cash grants, some
lands and others daily stipends. A short time was spent in
inspecting the works of skilful artisans such as jewel-setters,
enamellers, etc. Plans of royal buildings were also examined
before him.

At Shah Burj

At about half past eleven, the Emperor left the Diyan-i-Khas

and entered the lofty Shah Burj or Royal Tower. The
business of most confidential nature was conducted here
and only princes and a few trusted officers were invited to
it. The servants had to stand outside, till they were sent for.

In the Harem at Noon

About noon, the Emperor entered the harem. Here he

performed the Zuhar prayer, ate his meals, and took
a nap for
an hour. Не also attended to the affairs of ladies
of the harem,
dealt with the petitions of widows and orphans, poor
maidens,
theologians and scholars. He gave lands to some, pensions
or donations to others, and garments, jewels
and money as
dowry to maidens too poor to marry.

After-Noon Audience

Atabout 3 p.m., the Emperor performed his asar prayer.

Sometimes he visited the Diwan-i-Amm or the Hall of Publi
c
 27

Audience again where a little state business was gone through

in a short time.

Soirie in the Diwan-i-Khas

In the evening, the Diwan-i-Khas was beautifully lighted.

Scented candles in gold and silver candle-sticks studded with
precious stones added to the lustre of the beautiful hall. The
Emperor would spend about two hours here, listening to music-
vocal and instrumental.

Secret Council Again

The assembly broke up for the night prayers at about 8.00

p.m. and if any business was still left to be done, the King
returned to the Shah Burj. He summoned the grand Wazir
and completed it. This closed the business of the day and
thus ended the crowded programme of the Emperor.

Music and Reading in the Harem

At about 8.30 p.m., the Emperor retired to the female

apartments and enjoyed music in the company of the ladies for
about an hour. Then he entered his bed-room where
story-tellers, and readers with good voices sat behind a purdah
and read aloud works on travel, lives of saints and prophets,
and histories of former kings. Finally after 10.00 p.m., he
fell asleep and enjoyed a night’s repose of six hours.

Court of Justice

The Emperor had set apart a day for personally attending to

judicial cases. On that day no darbar was held in the Diwan-i-
Amm, but the Emperor came direct from the Jharokha to the
Private Audience Hall at about 8.00 a.m. No one except the
 28

officers of the judicial department and persons entrusted with

the duties of giving the Fatwah (decision) anda few wlemas
(canon-lawyers) noted for learning, piety and honesty were
admitted. The business was transacted according toa definite
and set programme. The officers presented the plaintiffs one by
one and reported their grievances. The Emperor then ascer-
tained the facts by inquiry and taking advice of the шетаз
pronounced the judgment. Many would come from far off
provinces to get justice from the highest power in the land.
Their complaints could not be investigated except locally.
In such cases the Emperor wrote orders to the governors of
these places, urging them to find out the truth and either do
justice there or send the parties back to the capital, with their
reports.

Splendour of the Court

Bernier gives the following account of the splendour of the

court of Aurangzeb:

‘The King appeared, seated upon his throne, at the end of

the great Hall, in the most magnificent attire. His vest was
of
white and delicately flowered satin, with a silk and
gold
embroidery of the finest texture. The turban, of gold cloth,
had
an aigrette whose base was composed of diamonds of
extra-
ordinary size and value, besides an oriental topaz
exhibiting a
lustre like the sun. A necklace of immense pearls, suspended
from his neck, reached the stomach. At the foot of the
throne were assembled all the Omrahs, in splendid apparel,
upon a platform surrounded by a silver tailing,
and covered by
a spacious canopy of brocade, with deep fringes
of gold. The
pillars of the hall were hung with brocades
of a gold ground,
and flowered satin canopies were raised over
the whole expanse
of the extensive apartment fastened with red silken cords, from
which were suspended large tassels of silk and
gold. The floor
 29
was covered entirely with carpets of the richest silk, of immense
length and breadth. А tent was pitched outside, larger than
the hall, to which it joined by the top. It spuad over half
the court and was completely enclosed by a great balustrade,
covered with plates of silver. Its supporters were pillars overlaid
with silver, three of which were as thick and as high as the
masts of а barque, the other smaller. The outside of this
magnificent tent was red, and the inside lined with elegant
Maslipatm chintzes, figured expressly for that very purpose
with flowers so natural and colours so vivid, that the tent seemed
to be encompassed into fine parterres. As to the arcade galleries
round the court, every Omrah had received orders to decorate
one of them at his own expense, and there appeared a
spirit of emulation who should best acquit himself to the
Monarch’s satisfaction. Consequently, all the arcades and
galleries were covered from top to bottom with brocade, and
the pavement with rich carpets.’

On gala days the building of the Diwan-i-Khas was tastefully

decorated. Costly vases of gold filled with fragrant flowers
exhaling perfumes were arranged in order. Innumerable golden
lamps fed with perfumed oil diffused a delicious odour and a
dazzling shimmer through embellished Hall and invested it with
a heavenly charm. On the occasion of Nav Roz, the anniversary
celebration, the two 145, the Shab-i-Barat, and the Solar and
Lunar weighings of the Emperor, the amirs appeared in splendid
apparel. The Emperor bedecked with a mass of diamonds,
pearls, and other precious stones, sat on his magnificent throne,
accepted presents and bestowed rewards. The minstrels and
choristers, with ready turned instruments were in attendance to
sing in concert. Dancing girls dressed in costly attire and
wearing precious jewels stood up in two rows in a respectful
attitude. As they danced with the music, their richly embroi-
dered scarfs wafted fragrance converting the Hall into an earthly
paradise.
 30

Imperial Porcession

Whenever the Emperor returned to the Capital after a long

campaign, he entered it with all show and gaiety. He would
camp in a suburb of Delhi, from where the procession started.
First marched the band, making a deafening clangour of kettle
drums, tambourines, big brass drums, brazen pipes and trumpets.
Then came huge elephants, richly caparisoned in gold and
silver. Each carried on its back an Imperial standard. Then
were led a troupe of choice horses, of the Persian and Arab
breed, decorated lavishly with gold and jewellery. Behind them
were female elephants and dromedaries. Then marched infantry,
consisting of musketeers and rocketmen, carrying flashing blades.
Surrounded by a vast crowd of nobles and ministers came the
loftiest elephant of the royal stables, with a golden throne
strapped to its back, on which sat the Emperor. On his right,
left and rear, rode troops in due order, each division keeping
its proper position. From the backs of the elephants handfuls
of gold and silver coins were flung among the crowd right
and
left. In this order the Imperial procession wended its way
through
the bazars of old Delhi and entered the Fort by the Lahori
Gate.
Then all dismounted. The Emperor sat down for a while
in the
Hall of Public and Private Audience in succession.
The two halls
were lavishly decorated. The musicians played on musical
instruments and dancing girls wearing shining
jewels and
glittering ornaments formed a quadrille and danced with the
music. The royal attendants sprinkled scented water on the
assembled throng diffusing sweet and refreshing fragrance.
Finally, the Emperor returned to the harem.

Visit of Foreign Enyoys

Foreign envoys were treated with

great courtesy. Special
consideration was, however, show
n to those from Persia.
Elaborate arrangements were made for their reception,
 31

The envoys were required to observe Indian court etiquette.

On an ambassador’s arrival, an important noble was sent at
the head of one thousand horsemen to meet him outside the
city and {о escort him tothe Fort. Soldiers were posted on
the two sides of the street, а league in length, through which
the ambassador was to pass. The principal streets were
tastefully decorated with rich stuff, both in the shops and at
the windows of the houses, and the ambassador was escorted
by a number ofofficers with a band of musicians, drummers,
pipers and trumpeters. On his entering the Fort or royal
palace, he was saluted by the artillery. The whole court was
adorned with marvellous things. As soon as the ambassador
appeared within sight of the Emperor, he had to make the
salam. The ambassador would then present a letter which
was made over to the prince. The prince presented it to the
Emperor who made a sign for its delivery to the eunuch, the
head of the Emperor’s household. The ambassador thereafter
put on a rich set of robes presented to him. The Master of
the ceremonies then informed him that he could produce
the presents he had brought. The Emperor would see these
with curiosity. The ambassador thereafter would come out
in the company of several nobles, who conveyed him toa
palace, which had been prepared before hand. After some
time the ambassador was sent away with gifts which consisted
of horses with trappings of a poniard mounted with precious
stones, emeralds, jewellery, valuable set of robes and a small
escritoire of gold covered with precious stones and asealed
letter for his Master.

Imperial Secretariat

The Mughal rulers had an elaborate administrative system.

The Emperor was the supreme authority as Commander-in-
Chief and the source of justice and legislation. The main
departments of the State were :
 32

1. The Exchequer and Revenue (under the High Divan) ;

2. The Imperial Household (under the Khan-i-Saman or
High Steward) ;
3. The Military Pay and Accounts Office (under the
Imperial Bakshi) ;
4. Cannon Law, both Civil and Criminal (under the Chief
Qazi) ;
5. Religious Endowments and Charity (under the Chief
Sadar) ;
6. Censorship of Public Morals (under the Muhtasib) ;
7. The Artillery (under Mir Atish or Darogha-i-
Topkhanah) ; and
8. Intelligence and Posts (under the Darogha and Dak
Chawki).

There was a large Secretariat to convey the orders ofthe

Emperor and to keep record of all letters received and issued.
All official letters had to follow a set form. The Emperor
wrote with his own hands replies to certain important letters.

Animal Fights

One of the pastimes of the Emperor was to witness from

the Jharokha elephant fights which were held in the presence
of all the people on the sandy banks of the Jamuna. The
principal ladies of the court and the Omrahs viewed the
spectacle from different apartments in the fortress. On some
days as many as five pairs were made to fight in succession.
This was the special prerogative of the Emperor, and
not even
princes and princesses of the blood could order
suca fight
h
for themselves.

A wall of earth was raised three or four feet

wide and five
or six feet high. The two huge beasts met
one another face
to face on opposite sides of the wall. Each
had one or two
 33

riders to guide the elephants, either by soothing words, or by

chiding them as cowards, and urged them on with their heels,
until the beasts attacked cach other with great force. They
would inflict dreadful wounds and blows with their teeth, their
heads and their trunks. There were frequent pauses during
the fight. It was sometimes suspended and then renewed with
fresh vigour. The stronger elephant passed over the wall to
attack the opponent and pursing him fastened upon him with
so much obstinacy that the animals could be separated only
by means of fire works which were exploded between them.
Frequently the riders were trodden under foot and killed on
the spot. So dangerous were these combats that on the day of
such fights, the riders would take formal leave of their wives
and children as if condemned to death. Often some of the
spectactors were knocked down and trampled upon by the
elephants, or by the crowd who, in order to avoid the infuriated
animals took to flight.

At times, bears, goats, rams, wrapped in tiger’s skins, were

made to attack an elephant. Cocks were specially trained and
their fights were arranged before the king.

Hunting

Another favourite pastime of the Mughal Emperors was

the hunting excursions. A special site where wild animals of
various kinds could be found in abundance was selected for
the great hunt. The animals were driven from a vast area by
a large number of beaters. Lions were also allured to a
particular place in the forest by keeping tied there an ass as
bait. The king would then appear in the jungle on an elephant,
protected in places with thin plates of iron, and attended by
the Grand Master of the Hunt. Some high officials mounted
on an elephant and a great number of mace-bearers on horses
back and game-keepers on foot, armed with half pikes,
34

accompanied the king. Sighting the lion, the king would

immediately fire at him with a large musket. The wounded
animal then made a spring at the elephant, but the king
continued to discharge his musket, until the lion was killed.
The termination of the hunt was attended with great ceremony.
The carcase was brought before the king, seated in a general
assembly of high officials. It was measured with details of
teeth and claws and then it was recorded that such a king on
such a day slew a lion of such a description.

Other Amusements

Playing Chugan was one of the recreations of the Mughal

kings and ladies of the royal household took part in the game.
Riding and fishing served as their pastime. Music and dancing,
magic shows and acrobatics, theatrical performances were their
amusements. Story telling was a favourite with them. Smoking
hukka and chewing betels was favoured. Cards and chess were
popular as indoor games.

Fancy Fair

A fair was held during the festivals in the palace and it was
conducted by the handsomest, most highly educated, and
cultured of the wives of the Omrahs and principal Mansabdars.
The articles exhibited were beautiful brocades, rich embroideries
of the new fashion, turbans, elegantly worked on cloth of gold,
fine muslins, worn by women of the nobility and other articles
of high price. These bewitching females acted the part of the
traders, while the purchasers were the king, the begums or
princesses and other distinguished ladies of the palace. If any
Omrah's wife happened to have a handsome daughter, she never
failed to accompany her mother so that she might be seen by
the king and become known. The charm of the fair lay in the
manner in which the king made his bargains, frequently disputing
 35

the value to a penny. He pretended that the good lady was

possibly not in earnest, the article was too dear, that it was not
equal to that he could find elsewhere and that he could offer no
more as a price. The women, on the other hand, endeavoured
to sell the article at the price asked. At times the conversation
was carried on in Persian verses.

The Imperial Kitchen

The king appointed a sincere man as Mir Bakawal or

Master of the Kitchen and also gave him several honest and
faithful persons as assistants. Cooks were brought from all
countries to prepare a great variety of dishes of all kinds of
grams, greens, meat, also oily, sweet and spicy dishes. Every
day such dishes were prepared as the nobles could scarcely
command at their feasts. The victuals were served in dishes of
gold and silver, stone and earthen ware; some of the dishes
being in the charge of each of the sub-Bakawals. When the
food was taken out, the cook and the Bakawal tasted it, after
which it was tasted by the Mir Bakawal and then put into the
dishes. The gold and silver dishes were tied up in red
clothes and those of copper and china in white ones. The Mir
Bakawal attached his seal, and wrote the names of the
contents. The dishes were carried by the Bakawals, the
cooks and other servants, and a few bearers preceded and
followed to prevent people from approaching them. The
servants of the palace again tasted the food, spread the table-
cloth on the ground and arranged the dishes. Often the queen
or the eldest daughter sat opposite the king in attendance.
Some dishes were also kept half ready, should any of these be
called for. As a great favour the king sent these, or whatever
was left over, to the queens, the princesses and the captains of
the guard. This honour was always dearly paid for, since the
servants who’ conveyed the food never failed to get themselves
well rewarded.
КЕ
 36
一
一-
一-
Miscellaneous Departments and Karkhanajat

The standard of the articles and services required by the

Emperor and the Royal Family were so large that no private
agency could meet the demand with a reasonable degree of
satisfaction. To cater for their fastidious tastes, everything
consumed by them was produced by the various Departments
or Karkhanajat which were more than a hundred in number.

The Treasury stored valuables of all kinds, coins of gold and

silver, precious stones, and articles of rare workmanship.

Several departments were concerned with the royal table,

such as Kitchen, Nanba-khana (Bakery), Hawaij-khana (for pot-
herbs, seasonings, sweets, etc.), Mewa-khana (Fruitery), Abdar-
khana (for water), Rikab-khana (Pantry), and Aftabchi-khana
(for ewers etc.). Other departments were Sharbat-khana (for
sharbat and other beverages), and Tambul-khana (for betel
leaves). Lighting up was іп charge of Chiragh-khana (lamps)
and Mashal-khana (torches) ; while Khwushbu-khana (perf umery)
supplied scents, itrs essences and oils. The karkhanas concerned
with the weaving of textile fabrics and the needle work —were
Farrash-khana (for tents and carpets), Kurkyarag-khana and
Tushak-khana (for dresses and stuffs of all kinds used for %-
weating-apparel etc.), and the shawl departments. In other
workshops skilful artists and artisans worked in metal, stone,
ivory and other substances ; and perfection in the fineness of art
was attained in the work of goldsmiths and painters. Each
department was conducted and supervised by master workers of
established reputation. Bernier mentioned about the
karkhanajat as follows, “Large halls are seen in many places,
called Kar-kanays or workshops for the artisans. In one hall
embroiderers are busily employed, superintended by a master.
In another, you see the goldsmiths ; in а third painters ; ina
fourth, varnishers in lacquer-work ; in a fifth, joiners, turners,
Go
Bas
 37

tailors апа shoe-makers ; in a sixth, manufacturers of silk

brocade, and those fine muslins of which are made turbans,
girdles with golden flowers, and drawers worn by females, so
delicately fine as frequently to wear out in one night. This
article of dress, which lasts only a few hours, may cost ten or
twelve crowns, and even more, when beautifully embroidered
with needle-work. The artisans repair every morning to their
respective Kar-kanays, where they remain employed the whole
day ; and in the evening return to their homes.”

A large number of animals were kept and fed in the fort-

palace : elephants, horses, camels, mules and cattle, were for
use, and were lodged in stables. Leopards, deer, dogs, hawks
and falcons, were trained for hunting. Various types of birds
were kept for amusement. Another important department was
the Library which was one of the finest manuscripts library in
the world.

А,
К
 IV

THE РАГАСЕ

The royal household of the Mughal Emperor had the same

air of grandeur and majesty as the court. There were separate
apartments for the king, the queen, the princes and the
princesses. All these palaces were full of gardens with running
water which flowed in channels into reservoirs of stone, jasper
and marble. In these palaces were seats and private rooms,
some of which were in the midst of the running water.
Fish of golden colour were put in water for delight. In the
royal palaces the king took rest wherever it pleased him.
Inspite of his being well guarded, he continuously changed the
place at various times for fear of any treachery.

These palaces had large, spacious halls made of the finest Fp-
marble, engraved with gold and were sumptuously and elegantly
decorated. The floor was covered with rich embroidered Persian
carpets so thick and soft that feet would sink in them and the
heaviest steps could not be heard. The bases of the columns of
the hall were decorated with hollow silver pedestals in which
different sweet perfumeries were burnt. Gorgeous tapestries,
mirrors and furniture, rich in crimson velvet embellished the
hall. A chandelier with many arms emitting beautiful light hung
from the ceiling in the centre of the hall. The golden lamps fed
with perfumed oil diffused а delicious odour. Several pictures,
as the finest works of art, adorned the walls. Betel-boxes,
 39

Пағаапв, flower pots, narcissus-pots, inlaid with gold and

studded with precious stones, and silver spittoons were arranged
in order. Ona small low table were placed water melons and
golden grapes from Kabul, guava, mango and pistachio nuts,
also candid dates and apricots from Basra and Iran. A flask
of gold held precious wine. Іп one corner of the hall lay a
divan on which the queen or the princess could lie to take rest.
Pillows of various shapes and designs, covered with velvet of a
superior quality, were placed all around on the carpet in the
centre of the hall. А queen or a princess would sit on the
carpet, leaning upon a pillow and enjoying music. One or two
beautiful maids decently dressed, fanned her with a gold
embroidered fan. Dancing girls with their gauzy dresses, dipped
in scented oil, and almond flowers stuck in their tresses, wearing
all the jewels, were in attendance. A story teller at nightlulled
them to sleep. At night red and blue bowls with burning wicks
were placed along side the walls of the palace.

The queen and the princesses had usually ten or twelve

women servants attached to each of them. Besides, there were
the matrons or darogas, who looked after all arrangements in
the palaces. The inside of the palaces was guarded by sober
and active women, the most trust-worthy of them were placed
about the apartment of the Emperor. Outside these palaces
eunuchs were posted and at a proper distance a guard of
б
0-

faithful Rajputs kept vigil, beyond whom were the porters of

the gate. All the sides of the palaces were guarded by troops.
or
The Emperor kept his own watch too. Whenever begums,
wives of the nobles desired to be presented, they first notified
the guards their wish and waited in their palanquin for a reply.
Their request was then passed on to the officials of the palace,
high
and those eligible were permitted to enter. Some women of
rank obtained permission to remain there for a whole month.

The queens and princesses received pay or pension according

40

to their birth or rank. In addition, they often received from

the king special presents in cash. А Tahwildar (Cash-keeper)
and a writer were attached to each of the palaces. Ifa woman
wanted anything within the limit of her salary, she applied to
the Tahwildar. The Tahwildar sent a memorandum to the
writer, who checked it, and the General Treasurer made the
payment in cash.
 у

ТНЕ PRINCE

At the birth ofa prince, there were great rejoicings in the

palace lasting for several days. Instruments were played
upon and music resounded. The dancing and singing
girls sang to complement the queen and the princesses, and
received handsome rewards from them. The nobles appeared
to offer their congratulations to the king, bringing presents,
either in jewels, money, elephants, or horses. The king gave a
name to the infant and fixed his allowance, which was always
more than that given to the highest general in the army. When
a son was born to any of the princes, it was the grand-father
who fixed the child’s name. He also granted an allowance
which was much less than that given to his own children. The
child’s father also assigned some income to support an establish-
-Fx ment for the child. This continued until he was of marriageable
age, and then he was given a grander retinue.

Education

When the little princes had reached the age of five, they were
taught to read and write the paternal tongue which was Tartar.
After this, they were placed under the charge of learned men
and eunuchs, who brought them up with great strictness and
taught them liberal and military arts. The teachers took the
greatest care to prevent the princes from acquiring bad habits.
42

They would conduct before them legal arguments, after which

judgements were pronounced. They showed them combats
and fights. When the king went out to hunt or to visita
mosque, he took these young princes with him. They were
brought up in this manner inside the palace until the age of
sixteen years.

Wedding

The princes were usually married about the age of sixteen.

Their marriages were arranged by the king himself. As soon as
the engagement was settled, a betrothal ceremony took place
and a date for the wedding was fixed. The Emperor then gave
orders to obtain precious articles from various places, and
officers of the Imperial household department were instructed to
make jewellery and silver and gold utensils. At the auspicious
time, the hinabandi ceremony was performed by the ladies.
Betel leaves, cardamoms and dry fruits were distributed
among the attendants of the court. Next day, the other
princes and nobles repaired to the house of bridegroom
to congratulate him and offer him wedding presents.
Then a magnificent procession was formed. The bridegroom
mounted an elephant, the courtiers following him in glittering
array, some on horses, others on foot. The bridegroom was
1%
then conducted to the Hall of Public Audience where the king
gave him his presents and also bound on his fore-head, the
sehra of pearls, emeralds and rubies. The marriage procession
then paraded the streets of the capital with music, lights and
discharge of fire-works. When it reached the bride’s house,
the guests were made welcome and entertained by her father.
Music, dancing and other entertainments continued till about
midnight which was the auspicious hour for the ceremony of
wedlock. At the appointed hours, the Qazi read the marriage
service in the presence of the Emperor. The bridegroom then
promised a wedding gift of a few lakhs of rupees. Gold and
 Plate 111
<=

Wedding procession of a prince

Plate IV

A prince and a princess enjoying music

 43
silver pieces were showered оп the married couple and the
attendants in their hurry to get them jostled with each other.

After the Marriage

After a prince was married, the king gave him a separate

palace with a great income and a large establishment. Tutors
were, however, retained all their lives in the palace with a
decent pension. The king also kept careful spies who informed
him of all that passed every day. When the princes were
grown up, they were entrusted with campaigns against
recalcitrant rajas or were appointed as governors of provinces.
 ар

VI

ТНЕ PRINCESS

Birth

The Mughal princesses lived in a magnificent style. The

birth of a daughter was not unwelcomed and оп such occasions
ladies in the palace rejoiced, incurring great expenses to mark
their joy. The princesses lived in the harem with their mothers
till they were fifteen or sixteen years old when they had their
separate palaces. A number of women servants looked after
them.

Education

The Mughal emperors were men of literary tastes and took

keen interest in the education of their children. Highly
educated tutoresses were engaged to teach them. Aged male
tutors, celebrated for their literary achievement, were also
employed to impart higher learning to them and an elder
princess or the queen supervised the tuition. Іп the palace,
there was a vast library, containing works оп diverse
subjects.

As grown up

The princesses were married at the age of fifteen, Some

 Plate V

Schooling of princesses
Plate VI

A princess retires at night

 45
of them, however, remained unmarried throughout life and
spent their time either in literary pursuits or in amusements
for which every arrangement was made. Each had a set of
female musicians to gladen their hearts. They played cards or
chess and enjoyed riding or other out-door games like chugan.
They spent their time in listening to tales and stories of love,
or recline lying upon beds of flowers, or walking about in
gardens, or listening to the murmur of the running water. At
night, their amusement was generally to have large torches
lighted or to enjoy fire-works.

Ornaments and Jewellery

All the princesses had six to eight sets of jewels. The

goldsmiths were continuously busy with the making of
ornaments in the Fort. The best and the most costly of their
productions were for the king’s person, the queens and the
Princesses. The princesses usually wore necklaces of jewels
like scarves, on both shoulders, added to three strings of
pearls on each side. They had three to five rows of pearls
hanging from their neck, coming down far below the waist.
Upon the middle of the head was a cluster of pearls
which hung down as far as the centre of the forehead, with
a valuable ornament of costly stones formed into the shape
of the sun, or moon, or some star, or at times imitating
different flowers. On the right side, they had
a little round
ornament, in which a small ruby was inserted between two
pearls. In their ears were valuable stones, round the neck
large pearls or strings of precious stones, and over these a
valuable ornament having in its centre a big diamond, or ruby,
or emerald, or sapphire, and round it big pearls.

They wore on their arms, above the elbow, rich armlets two
inches wide, enriched on the surface with stones, and with
small bunches of pearls, hanging from them. At their
46

wrists were very rich bracelets or bands of pearls, which could

go round nine or twelve times. In this way they often had
the place for feeling the pulse covered up. In their fingers
were rich rings, and on the right thumb there was alwaysa
ring where, in place of a stone, there was mounted a little
round mirror, having pearls around it. This mirror they used
to look at themselves, an act of which they were very fond,
at any and every moment. In addition they were girded with
a sort of waist-belt of gold four fingers wide, covered all over
with great stones. At the ends of the strings which tie up their
drawers, there were bunches of pearls made of fifteen strings
five fingers in length. Round the bottom of their legs were
valuable metal rings or strings of costly pearls. The princesses
made it one of their diversions to examine and to show to each
other their jewellery.

Dresses

The dresses of the ladies were superb and costly, perfumed

with essence of roses. These were made of so thin a raiment
that their skins shone through. Ordinarily they wore two, or
even three, garments each weighing not more than one ounce,
and worth forty to fifty rupees each, excluding the cost of
gold lace. They wore bodice of brocade lined with pearls and
kept together with a beautifully wrought clasp in diamonds
and emeralds. Every day they changed their dresses several
times. They slept in these clothes and never put them on again,
but gave them away to their servants. They adorned their
persons with a huge mass of jewels and coloured their hands
and feet with Mehandy, a leafy powder.

Their hair was very well dressed, plaited, and perfumed with
scented oil. They covered their heads with a sheet of cloth of
gold, and these were of different types and colours. Above
their other clothes, they put on fine shawls, so thin that these
 47
could be passed through a small finger ring. During the winter
they wore the same clothes, covering themselves on the top of
the other things, however, with a woolen shawl of fine
Kashmiri make. Some of the princesses wore turban with the
king’s permission. On the turban was a valuable aigrette,
surrounded by pearls and precious stones. They lived with
no cares or anxieties, occupying themselves with nothing
beyond displaying great show and magnificence, in imposing
and majestuous bearing, or making themselves attractive, and
getting talked about in the world.

一
一
一和
一
一
 УП

INTRIGUES IN THE PALACE

The princes and princesses led a life of luxury, with all sorts
of imaginable comforts. The peace and tranquility in the
palace was often disturbed by intrigues of the princes who
were ever keen to have an ascendancy in the court and the
princesses who desired to control the affairs of the harem,
Shahjahan’s sons—Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad, were
often intriguing against each other. Of the daughters, Jahanara
sided with Dara and Roshanara favoured Aurangzeb. Dara,
who stayed at the court, was ever anxious to bring about
the discomfiture of Aurangzeb. Roshanara was in correspon-
dence with Aurangzeb and kept him informed of the aflairs of
the court. When Aurangzeb occupied the throne of India,
Roshanara was allowed an extensive establishment. She drew
enormous allowances and enjoyed all the privileges of a queen
of the first rank.

In the year 1664, Aurangzeb suddenly fell ill. He sank

into a state of unconsciousness. Roshanara was in sole charge
of his chamber which was guarded by Tartar wonien, armed
with swords and bows. The strictest secrecy was Observed as
to the state of the Emperor’s health, and not even the ladies
of
the palace knew whether the emperor was alive or dead.
Believing that there was no hope of her brother surviving,
Roshanara Begum took away the royal seal and wrote to
 49

various Rajas, Viceroys and Governors in favour of Azim Shah

(Aurangzeb’s third son), then nine years of age and actually
living in the harem. The Jadies of the palace feeling suspicious
of what was going on, the Begum heavily bribed the female
guards at the doors of the royal chamber and they allowed her
admittance to it. The Begum told Roshanara, what she was
doing was not right, as this would cause confusion and disquiet
in the empire while the king was still alive and there was hope
of his recovery. Having said this, she proceeded to the King’s
bedside, but Roshanara boldly seized her by the hair and
ejected her from the room. The queen, not to afflict her
suffering husband, bore it quietly and patiently. Soon after,
however, Aurangzeb recovered and gave public audience in the
Diwan-i-Amm where all were admitted. He also obtained from
the eunuch an account of all that Roshanara had done during
his illness. Roshanara lost much of the love that Aurangzeb
had borne for her. To console the Begum, he conferred on
her new titles and honours and eulogized her patience under
adverse circumstances. Roshanara feeling herself mortified,
intimated her desire to leave the Fort and live in a separate
palace, but her request was refused on the ground that she
had to supervise the tuition of the king’s younger daughters.
Not long afterwards Roshanara died. It was said that she
was removed by poison.

Aurangzeb’s sons Sultan, Muazzam, Azam, Kam Baksh and

Akbar had their mutual jealousies. Of the daughters
Zebun-nisa held an important position in the harem. She
was secretly in correspondence with her brother Akbar who
had rebelled, and on that account she had the full weight
of her father’s wrath. Her property and pension of four lakhs
of
a year were attached and she was imprisoned for the rest
her life (1681-1702). At the news of her death, the Emperor,
ordered
himself on the brink of the grave, shed tears and
good of her soul.
money to be distributed in charity for the
 一了--一
一一
-一

VIII

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

A— PERSIAN

Akbarnama (Persian Text, Bibliotheca Indica) by Abu-l-Fazl.

Translated into English by H. Beveridge in three volumes, 1904.
Ain-i-Akbari, translated into English, Vol. I by H. Blochmann.
Revised by Sir Jadunath Sarkar, 1948.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, translated into English by A Rogers, edited
by H. Beveridge, Vol. I (1909), Vol. II (1914).
Padshahnama (Persian Text 1931, Bibliotheca Indica), by Abdul
Hamid Lahauri. Translated into English by Elliot and Dowson,
Vol, Ш.
Amal-i-Salih (Persian Text, Bibliotheca Indica,) by Muhammad
Salih in two volumes. Extracts in Elliot and Dowson, VII.
Ahkam-i-Alamgiri by Hamid-ud-Din Khan Bahadur. Translated
into English by Sir 7. М. Sarkar under title ‘Anecdotes of
Aurangzeb ; 2nd ed. 1924
Ruqgaat-i-Alamgiri, translated into English by J. H. Billimoria,
Luzac, London, 1908.

B—FOREIGN TRAVELLERS

1. Roe, Sir Thomas (1615-19 A. D.), The Embassy of, to the court
of the Great Mughal (1615-19), edited by William Foster,
London, 1899.
Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, Travels in India, tr. by V. Ball, 2 Vols,
London, 1925.
 51

Manucci, Niccolao Venetian (1653-1708),—Storia Do Mogor or

Mughal India (1653-1708), translated into English by William
Irwine, 4 Vols (1907-08).
Bernier Е., Travels іп the Mughal Empire (1656-68), translated
and annotated by Archibald Constable (1891).
‘De Laet’ The Empire of the Great Mughal, translated into
English by J. 5, Hoyland, Bombay 1928.

C—MopeERN WORKS

Andrea Butenschon—The life of a Mughal Princess Jahanara

Begum, ed. by Lawrance Binoyon, London, 1931.
Carr Stephen—The Archaeology and Monumental Remains of
Delhi, 1876,
Delhi Fort, a Guide to the Buildings and Gardens (A.S.I.),
Calcutta, 1909,
Elliot and Dowson, History of India as told by its own
Historians, Vol. VII & VIII, London 1869-77,
Fanshawe, N.C.—Delhi, Past and Present, London, 1902,
Faruqi—Aurangzeb and His Times, Bombay, 1935.
Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London,
1910.
Haig, Sir W. and Sir R. Burn—The Cambridge History of India,
Vol. IV, Cambridge, 1937.
Hartog Philip—Indian Education, Past and Present.
Havell, E.B.—A Hand Book of Indian Art, London, 1920,
Hearn, H. C.—Seven Cities of Delhi, London, 1906.
Hendley, Т. H.—Indian Jewellery, London,—1909,
Jaffar, S. M.—The Mughal Empire from Babar to Aurangzeb,
Peshawar, 1936.
Jaffar, S. M.—Some Cultural Aspects of Muslim Rule in India,
Peshawar, 1936. :
Lanepoole, Stanley—Aurangzeb, Oxford, 1926.
Qanugo, K. R., Dr.—Dara Shukoh, Calcutta, 1936.
Saksena, В. P.—History of Shahjahan of Delhi, Allahabad, 1958.
 Sarkar, J. N., Sir
一History of Aurangzeb, 4 volumes, Calcutta,
1912-25.
Sarkar, J. N., Sir—Studies in Mughal India, Calcutta, 1919.
Sarkar, J. N., Sir—India of Aurangzeb, 1901.
Shah, K. T.—Splendour that was India, Bombay, 1930.
Sharp, Sir Henry,—Delhi, Its Story and Buildings, Bombay,
1921.
23. Smith, V. A., A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, Oxford,
2nd ed. 1930. °
24. Spear, Percival, Twilight of the Mughuls, Cambridge, 1951.

Published by Dr. N. L. Mathur, National Museum. New Delhi

Printed at Printcraft, Puri Building, Deshbandhu Gant Road
New Delhi