40 questions with brief answer clues to guide your preparation for
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Module 1: Fundamentals of the Climate System
1.1. Components and Processes
1. Question: Describe the key interactions between the atmosphere and the ocean within the
climate system, providing a specific example of a positive and a negative feedback loop
that involves both.
o Answer Clues: Focus on heat, gas (CO₂, O₂), and water vapor exchange. Positive
feedback: Ice-Albedo Feedback (warming -> melt -> lower albedo -> more
absorption -> warming). Negative feedback: Planck Feedback (warming ->
increased outgoing longwave radiation -> cooling). Mention the role of the ocean
as a heat sink.
2. Question: Explain the concept of Earth's energy balance. How do imbalances in this
system lead to global warming or cooling?
o Answer Clues: Define incoming shortwave solar radiation vs. outgoing longwave
terrestrial radiation. Explain the greenhouse effect's role in absorbing/re-radiating
longwave radiation. An imbalance where incoming > outgoing leads to heat
accumulation (global warming). Imbalance where outgoing > incoming leads to
cooling.
3. Question: Define radiative forcing. Compare and contrast the radiative forcing of a
major volcanic eruption versus a sustained increase in atmospheric CO₂.
o Answer Clues: Define RF as a measure of perturbation to the energy balance
(W/m²). Volcanic RF: Negative, short-lived (months-years), caused by sulfate
aerosols reflecting sunlight. CO₂ RF: Positive, long-lived (centuries), caused by
absorption of outgoing longwave radiation.
1.2. Climate Variability
4. Question: What proxy data are commonly used to reconstruct postglacial climate, and what
are the limitations of these methods?
* Answer Clues: Examples: Ice cores (gas bubbles, isotopes), sediment cores (fossil
assemblages, geochemistry), tree rings (width, density), coral cores (isotopes). Limitations:
Resolution (temporal), dating uncertainty, proxy calibration, non-climatic "noise" in the signal.
5. Question: Distinguish between weather forecasting and decadal climate projection. What
are the fundamental scientific challenges associated with each?
o Answer Clues: Weather: Initial conditions problem, chaotic atmosphere, predicts
specific weather days ahead. Decadal climate: Boundary conditions problem
(GHG concentrations), predicts average statistics over years, relies on scenarios.
Challenge: Internal variability vs. forced signal.
1.3. Drivers of Change
6. Question: Compare the mechanisms, timescales, and climatic impacts of Milankovitch orbital
variations versus anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
* Answer Clues: Milankovitch: Changes in eccentricity, obliquity, precession. Timescales:
10,000-100,000 years. Impact: pacing of glacial-interglacial cycles. Anthropogenic: GHG
emissions from burning fossil fuels. Timescale: ~150 years to present. Impact: rapid warming
exceeding natural cycle bounds.
7. Question: Critically evaluate the statement: "Recent climate change is solely due to
natural cycles." Use evidence to support your argument.
o Answer Clues: Rebuttal: Fingerprint evidence (tropospheric warming vs.
stratospheric cooling) matches GHG theory, not solar. Models cannot reproduce
recent warming without anthropogenic forcing. The rate and magnitude of change
far exceed natural variability (e.g., solar cycles, volcanism).
1.4. Key Contemporary Issues
8. Question: Identify one major point of scientific consensus in the IPCC AR6 report and one
area of active debate or uncertainty. Explain the significance of each.
* Answer Clues: Consensus: "It is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the
atmosphere, ocean and land." Significance: establishes cause. Uncertainty: Precise value of
Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity (ECS) and regional precipitation projections. Significance:
affects cost/benefit analysis of mitigation and adaptation planning.
Module 2: Climate Dynamics and Regional Manifestations
2.1. Climate Classifications
9. Question: Contrast the characteristics of a maritime climate with a continental climate. How
does the presence of a large ocean body moderate temperature and precipitation regimes?
* Answer Clues: Maritime: Smaller temperature range, higher humidity, higher precipitation,
delayed seasons (water has high heat capacity). Continental: Larger temperature range, lower
humidity, lower precipitation. Ocean acts as a thermal buffer, releasing heat and moisture.
2.2. Monsoon Systems
10. Question: Explain the thermodynamic theory behind the formation of the Asian Summer
Monsoon. What role does the Tibetan Plateau play?
* Answer Clues: Differential heating: intense heating of land (Tibetan Plateau) in summer
creates low pressure, drawing in moist air from the high-pressure zone over the ocean. The
Plateau acts as an elevated heat source, intensifying the thermal low and steering airflow.
11. Question: Discuss the primary sources of inter-annual variability and predictability
challenges within the Indian Summer Monsoon system.
o Answer Clues: Key drivers: ENSO (El Niño often suppresses monsoon), IOD
(positive IOD enhances it). Challenges: Non-linear interactions between these
drivers, influence of other factors like Eurasian snow cover, and internal
atmospheric variability.
2.3. Ocean-Atmosphere Oscillations
12. Question: Describe the coupled ocean-atmosphere processes that characterize the
development of an El Niño event. What are its major teleconnections affecting global weather
patterns?
* Answer Clues: Weakening of trade winds -> warm water sloshes east -> deepens thermocline
in E. Pacific, shoals it in west -> convection shifts to central Pacific. Teleconnections: Drought in
Australia/Indonesia, wetter conditions in Peru/Ecuador, altered jet streams affecting N. America.
13. Question: Explain the mechanism of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). How does a
positive IOD phase typically influence monsoon rainfall over the Indian subcontinent?
o Answer Clues: Zonal sea surface temperature gradient across Indian Ocean.
Positive IOD: Cooler-than-normal W. Indian Ocean, warmer-than-normal E.
Indian Ocean. This pattern enhances the monsoon circulation, leading to above-
average rainfall over India.
2.4. Regional Climate
14. Question: Analyze the primary factors (e.g., geography, monsoon, Bay of Bengal) that shape
the distinct seasonal climate patterns of Bangladesh.
* Answer Clues: Pre-monsoon (hot, unstable, thunderstorms), monsoon (very wet, SW winds,
~80% of rain), post-monsoon (cyclone risk in BoB, retreating rains), winter (cool, dry, NE
winds). Funnel shape of coast and shallow BoB amplify cyclone impacts.
15. Question: How is climate change projected to alter the intensity and variability of
seasonal rainfall in Bangladesh during the 21st century?
o Answer Clues: Increased intensity of monsoon rainfall (warmer atmosphere
holds more moisture). Increased variability: more extreme wet and dry spells.
Potential for more intense cyclones and altered timing of seasons.
Module 3: Geophysical Hazards: Processes and Management
3.1. Tectonic Hazards
16. Question: Explain how the plate tectonic setting of the Bengal Delta makes Bangladesh
vulnerable to large earthquakes. Which specific faults are of greatest concern?
* Answer Clues: Located at the junction of the Indian, Eurasian, and Burma plates. Subduction
to the east (Sunda Trench) and massive continental collision to the north. Concerns: The locked
Main Frontal Thrust in the Himalayas and the blind faults beneath the Delta itself (e.g.,
Madhupur Fault).
17. Question: Differentiate between earthquake magnitude and intensity. Why is intensity
often a more useful metric for hazard planners and emergency responders?
o Answer Clues: Magnitude: Single number quantifying the energy released at the
source (e.g., Richter, Moment Magnitude). Intensity: Qualitative measure of
shaking strength and damage at a specific location (e.g., Modified Mercalli
Scale). Intensity maps show the actual distribution of ground shaking and
damage, which is crucial for response.
3.2. Climatic Hazards
18. Question: For a river basin in Bangladesh (e.g., Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna), describe the
meteorological and hydrological causes of flooding. How do these factors compound during
extreme events?
* Answer Clues: Meteorological: Intense monsoon rainfall, cyclone-induced rain. Hydrological:
Snowmelt from Himalayas, synchrony of peak flows from all three major rivers, high tides in the
Bay of Bengal blocking drainage. Compounding: All factors occurring simultaneously creates
catastrophic flooding.
19. Question: Compare and contrast structural and non-structural measures for flood control
and management, providing an example of each used in Bangladesh.
o Answer Clues: Structural: Physical infrastructure (e.g., embankments/levees,
flood walls, reservoirs). Non-structural: Policies and practices (e.g., flood
forecasting & warning systems, land-use zoning, flood-proofing buildings,
community-based preparedness).
20. Question: What is storm surge? Describe the physical processes during a tropical
cyclone that lead to its generation and amplification in the shallow bathymetry of the
North Indian Ocean.
o Answer Clues: Storm surge is a dome of water pushed ashore by a storm.
Processes: Wind stress pushing water, Low pressure allowing sea level to rise
(~1 cm per mb drop), Wave setup. Shallow bathymetry (like the Bay of Bengal)
restricts water flow, funneling and amplifying the surge (like pushing water into a
shallow pan).
21. Question: Explain the concept of drought typology (meteorological, agricultural,
hydrological). Why is it crucial for effective drought assessment and management?
o Answer Clues: Meteorological: Precipitation deficit. Agricultural: Soil moisture
deficit affecting crops. Hydrological: Streamflow and groundwater deficit. Crucial
because: Each type has different causes, impacts, timelines, and requires different
management responses (e.g., cloud seeding vs. irrigation scheduling vs. water
rationing).
3.3. Applied Hazard Management
22. Question: How can a Geographic Information System (GIS) be used to create a multi-hazard
vulnerability map for a coastal region like Satkhira, Bangladesh? Outline the key data layers
required.
* Answer Clues: Process: Overlay hazard layers with vulnerability layers. Hazard
Layers: Flood depth/inundation, cyclone track intensity, storm surge extent, salinity intrusion
extent. Vulnerability Layers: Population density, land use (e.g., agriculture, settlement),
infrastructure (roads, hospitals), socioeconomic data (poverty index). The output map identifies
areas where high hazard and high vulnerability overlap.
Module 4: Climate Change: Science, Impacts, and Policy
4.1. Core Processes
23. Question: Trace the path of a carbon atom from a fossil fuel emission source through the
atmosphere to a potential sink in the deep ocean, explaining the processes involved (e.g.,
dissolution, biological pump).
* Answer Clues: Path: Combustion (CO₂) -> Atmosphere -> Ocean Surface (dissolution as
CO₂(aq)) -> Photosynthesis by phytoplankton -> consumption by zooplankton -> sinking of
organic particles (marine snow) -> decomposition at depth sequesters carbon. Alternatively,
direct dissolution and transport via thermohaline circulation.
4.2. Cryospheric Impacts
24. Question: Explain the concept of "Arctic Amplification." What are the primary feedback
mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon?
* Answer Clues: The Arctic is warming 2-4 times faster than the global average.
Feedbacks: Ice-Albedo Feedback (primary), Lapse Rate Feedback (warmer air holds more
moisture, which is a GHG), and changes in cloud cover.
25. Question: Discuss the global implications of the accelerated melting of the Greenland
and West Antarctic ice sheets, beyond just sea level rise.
o Answer Clues: Freshwater input: Could disrupt AMOC, altering global heat
distribution. Isostatic rebound: Rising landmasses after ice melt can subtly alter
regional geology. Albedo change: Contributes to further global warming.
4.3. Sea Level Rise
26. Question: Differentiate between eustatic and isostatic sea level change. Provide a global and
a local (Bangladesh) example of each.
* Answer Clues: Eustatic: Global change in ocean volume (e.g., thermal expansion from global
warming, meltwater from glaciers). Isostatic: Local vertical movement of the land (e.g., glacial
isostatic adjustment (GIA) in Scandinavia/Canada; subsidence in Bangladesh from sediment
compaction and groundwater extraction).
27. Question: Why is the rate of relative sea level rise in Bangladesh significantly higher
than the global mean eustatic rate?
o Answer Clues: Relative Sea Level Rise = Eustatic Rise + Local Land
Subsidence. Bangladesh experiences very high rates of subsidence due to natural
compaction of the massive deltaic sediments and anthropogenic groundwater
extraction, amplifying the global eustatic signal.
4.4. Climate Modeling
28. Question: What are General Circulation Models (GCMs)? Describe one major strength and
one major limitation of using GCMs to project regional climate change, particularly for
precipitation.
* Answer Clues: GCMs are complex computer codes that solve physical equations governing
climate. Strength: Physically-based, represent large-scale dynamics well. Limitation: Coarse
resolution, poor representation of convection and topography, leading to uncertainty in regional
precipitation projections.
4.5. Global Response
29. Question: Critically analyze the role of the IPCC in shaping global climate policy. What is
the significance of its Assessment Reports?
* Answer Clues: Role: To provide policymakers with regular, comprehensive, and objective
assessments of the science. Significance of ARs: They synthesize thousands of studies, establish
consensus, identify key risks, and provide the scientific foundation for agreements like the Paris
Agreement. Criticism: Politically influenced summary for policymakers, slow process.
30. Question: From Bangladesh's perspective, evaluate the challenges and opportunities in
implementing National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) in response to climate change.
o Answer Clues: Challenges: Financing, technical capacity, integrating with
development goals, scale of the problem. Opportunities: Mainstreaming climate
resilience into development, accessing international climate finance (e.g., GCF),
community-based adaptation, leading as a vulnerable nation in international
forums.
Module 5: Oceanographic Response to a Changing Climate
5.1. Physical and Chemical Changes
31. Question: Explain how increased stratification of the upper ocean, caused by warming,
affects the vertical mixing of nutrients and the depth of the Mixed Layer.
* Answer Clues: Warming creates a stronger temperature (density) gradient between warm
surface and cool deep water. This stronger stratification acts as a barrier, inhibiting wind-driven
vertical mixing. This reduces the supply of nutrients from the deep to the sunlit surface layer
(euphotic zone), leading to a shallower Mixed Layer Depth (MLD).
32. Question: Describe the chemical processes that lead to ocean acidification. Why is the
Arctic Ocean considered particularly vulnerable to this change?
o Answer Clues: Process: CO₂ dissolves in seawater -> forms carbonic acid
(H₂CO₃) -> dissociates to bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and a hydrogen ion (H⁺) ->
increased H⁺ concentration lowers pH (acidification). Arctic vulnerability: Cold
water absorbs more CO₂, and fresher water (from melt) has lower buffering
capacity.
33. Question: What causes the expansion of Oxygen Minimum Zones (OMZs)? What are the
potential consequences for aerobic marine life and biogeochemical cycling?
o Answer Clues: Causes: Increased stratification (reduces ventilation), warmer
water holds less dissolved oxygen, increased microbial respiration consuming O₂.
Consequences: Habitat compression for aerobic species (e.g., tuna), increased
mortality, shifts in microbial communities towards denitrification, altering
nutrient cycles.
5.2. Dynamic Response
34. Question: How is anthropogenic climate change projected to alter the strength and pattern of
the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)? What would be the potential climatic
repercussions of a significant slowdown?
* Answer Clues: Projection: Models project a weakening of the AMOC due to surface warming
and freshwater input from melting ice. Repercussions: Regional cooling around N. Atlantic/NW
Europe, shifts in tropical rainfall belts (e.g., Sahel drought), accelerated regional sea level rise
along US east coast.
5.3. Biogeochemical and Ecological Response
35. Question: Define "phenology" in a marine context. Provide an example of how climate
change is causing a phenological shift and its potential ecological consequence (e.g.,
match/mismatch).
* Answer Clues: Phenology is the timing of recurring biological events (e.g., phytoplankton
blooms, fish spawning). Example: Warming causes zooplankton to bloom earlier. If fish larvae
hatch at the same time (cued by day length, not temp), they miss their peak food source
(match/mismatch), leading to poor survival.
36. Question: What is an ecological "tipping point"? Provide a hypothetical example of a
climate-induced regime shift in a marine ecosystem (e.g., coral reef to algal dominance).
o Answer Clues: A tipping point is a threshold beyond which a small perturbation
can cause a large, often irreversible, change to a new system state. Example:
Repeated coral bleaching (from heat stress) and mortality, combined with
overfishing of herbivorous fish, tips the system from a coral-dominated state to a
macroalgae-dominated state.
37. Question: How does ocean acidification specifically threaten marine organisms with
calcium carbonate shells or skeletons (e.g., corals, pteropods, coccolithophores)?
o Answer Clues: Acidification increases the concentration of H⁺ ions, which bond
with carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻) to form bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻). This reduces the
availability of carbonate ions, making it harder for organisms to build and
maintain their calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) structures (aragonite/calcite). It can
even cause dissolution.
5.4. Implications for Fisheries
38. Question: Climate change affects fisheries through a "tripod" of factors: changes in
productivity, distribution, and phenology. Choose one and explain the mechanistic link to
physical oceanographic changes.
* Answer Clues: Distribution: Fish are poikilothermic (cold-blooded). Warming water causes
them to shift poleward or to deeper, cooler waters to stay within their thermal niche. This
changes stock distributions and creates transboundary management issues.
39. Question: Critically discuss the compounding challenges climate change poses for the
management of the Hilsa fishery in the Bay of Bengal.
o Answer Clues: Challenges: Altered river discharge (drought/flood) affecting
migration and spawning grounds; sea level rise and salinity intrusion altering
nursery habitats (estuaries); ocean warming shifting distribution; potential
changes in plankton productivity. These interact with existing pressures like
overfishing.
40. Question: Propose a framework for building climate resilience in a small-scale coastal
fishery community in Bangladesh, considering both ecological and socio-economic
factors.
o Answer Clues: Ecological: Habitat restoration (mangroves for nurseries & storm
protection), MPAs and seasonal closures. Socio-economic: Livelihood
diversification (aquaculture, ecotourism), improved forecast & early warning
systems, access to microcredit and insurance, community-based co-management,
capacity building and education.
