Dr.

PS Yaduvanshi Classes (2025 Edition)

Unit - 6 : India’s Foreign Policy
1. Perspectives on India’s Foreign Policy
1.1. India’s Identity as Postcolonial:
India's foreign policy has been fundamentally influenced by its identity as
one of the first major postcolonial nations to gain independence, advocating
for self-determination, anti-colonialism, and racial equality
2. This identity shaped its early alignment with developing nations
and its skeptical approach to power blocs3.

● Background: India gained independence in 1947 after nearly two

centuries of British colonial rule. This experience deeply ingrained
principles of self-determination and anti-colonialism in its national
psyche, leading it to champion similar struggles globally.

● Timeline/Key Events:
○ 1947 onwards: Active support for decolonization movements in Asia
and Africa, exemplified by its backing of Indonesia's independence
and participation in the Bandung Conference in 1955.
○ 1961: India co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to
maintain strategic autonomy and resist Cold War pressures.

● Current Relevance (till mid-2025): While direct anti-colonial

struggles have concluded, the postcolonial perspective continues to
influence India's advocacy for a more equitable global order and reform
of international institutions like the UN Security Council. India also
champions stronger South-South cooperation and frequently positions
itself as a voice for the Global South.

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● UGC NET Focus: Questions often relate to the Panchsheel
principles (mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, non-
aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual
benefit, peaceful coexistence) and their origin, India's role in the
Bandung Conference, and the philosophical underpinnings of Nehruvian
foreign policy (Example moral diplomacy, universal peace).

Important Facts (Postcolonial Identity):

● India's independence in 1947 was a key moment in decolonization.
● Bandung Conference in 1955 was a significant step in Afro-Asian
solidarity.
● NAM's founding in 1961 aimed for strategic autonomy during the Cold
War.
● Panchsheel principles include non-interference and peaceful coexistence.
● India advocates for UN Security Council reform for a more equitable
global order.
● India actively supports South-South cooperation.
● Nehruvian foreign policy emphasized moral diplomacy.
● India's postcolonial identity fostered skepticism towards power blocs.
● It positioned India as a voice for the Global South.
● Early foreign policy prioritized anti-colonialism and racial equality.

1.2. India’s Identity as Development-Oriented:

A central pillar of India's foreign policy has been to secure its developmental
objectives, including economic growth, poverty alleviation, and
technological advancement19. This approach has often prioritized economic
diplomacy, access to resources, and technology transfer20.

● Background: Upon independence, India faced immense challenges of

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poverty, underdevelopment, and a large population. Its foreign policy
was, therefore, inherently linked to nation-building and economic
upliftment, necessitating external assistance and favorable international
economic conditions.

● Timeline/Key Events:
○ 1950s-1980s: Emphasis on state-led development, import
substitution, and seeking aid from both Cold War blocs while
maintaining non-alignment.
○ 1991 Economic Reforms: A significant shift towards liberalization,
privatization, and globalization occurred, initiating the "Look East
Policy" to integrate with dynamic East Asian economies. This marked
a significant change in economic engagement.
○ 2000s onwards: Increased focus on attracting Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI), expanding trade agreements, and ensuring energy
security through initiatives like civil nuclear deals and energy
partnerships with West Asia.

● Current Relevance (till mid-2025): "Development cooperation,"

such as providing lines of credit and capacity building in African nations,
remains a key foreign policy tool. Initiatives like "Make in India" and
"Atmanirbhar Bharat" (self-reliant India) now influence foreign policy by
seeking foreign partnerships for domestic manufacturing and
technological self-sufficiency. Climate action and sustainable
development goals are increasingly integrated into its diplomacy.

● UGC NET Focus: Questions may cover the impact of economic

reforms on foreign policy, specific economic diplomacy initiatives
(Example FTAs, investment agreements), and India's stance on global
economic governance.

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Important Facts (Development-Oriented Identity):
● "Look East Policy" initiated in 1991 for economic integration.
● Economic reforms led to liberalization and globalization.
● Focus on attracting FDI and expanding trade agreements.
● Emphasis on energy security through civil nuclear deals and West Asia
partnerships.
● "Development cooperation" is a key foreign policy tool.
● "Make in India" seeks foreign partnerships for domestic manufacturing.
● "Atmanirbhar Bharat" aims for technological self-sufficiency.
● Climate action and sustainable development goals are integrated into
diplomacy.
● Pre-1991, focus was on state-led development and import substitution.
● Access to resources and technology transfer are prioritized.

1.3. India’s Identity as a Rising Power:

As India's economic and military capabilities have grown, its foreign policy
has reflected an ambition to play a more significant role in global affairs,
transitioning from a normative power to a more assertive, pragmatic, and
multi-aligned actor40.
● Background: India's sustained economic growth since the 1990s,
coupled with its large population and strategic location, has naturally led
to an increasing assertion of its global stature. This growing power is
now a fundamental determinant of its foreign policy choices.

● Timeline/Key Events:
○ 1998 Nuclear Tests: Demonstrated India's independent strategic
capabilities and marked its emergence as a declared nuclear weapon
state.
○ Post-2000: Increased simultaneous engagement with major powers
(USA, Russia, China) and participation in new plurilateral groupings

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such as BRICS, Quad, and IBSA.

● Current Relevance (till mid-2025): India actively seeks permanent

membership in the UN Security Council (UNSC) and advocates for
multilateralism. It contributes significantly to UN peacekeeping
operations and champions initiatives like the International Solar Alliance
(ISA) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI). India's
focus on the Indo-Pacific strategy highlights its growing geostrategic
ambitions. Its G20 Presidency in 2023 further cemented its role as a
global convener.

● UGC NET Focus: Questions on India's strategic autonomy, its

participation in emerging power blocs, its aspirations for UNSC
permanent membership, and major initiatives like the ISA.

Important Facts (Rising Power Identity):

● 1998 Nuclear Tests showcased independent strategic capabilities.
● India is a declared nuclear weapon state since 1998.
● Increased engagement with major powers post-2000.
● Participation in BRICS, Quad, and IBSA.
● Actively seeks permanent membership in the UNSC.
● Advocates for multilateralism.
● Significant contributor to UN peacekeeping operations.
● Champion of the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
● Champion of the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
● G20 Presidency in 2023 cemented its global convener role.

1.4. India’s Identity as an Emerging Political Economy:

This perspective combines India's developmental needs with its rising power

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status, recognizing its growing economic weight and increasing influence in
shaping global economic and political norms59. India leverages its large
market, democratic credentials, and demographic dividend60.

● Background: India's consistent high economic growth rates since the

early 2000s have elevated its economic standing on the global stage. This
economic prowess now gives India greater leverage and a louder voice in
discussions on global economic governance and norm-setting.

● Timeline/Key Events:
○ Post-2000: Active participation in G20, advocating for reforms in
international financial institutions (IMF, World Bank), and promoting
digital public infrastructure globally (Example UPI).

● Current Relevance (till mid-2025): India is projected to be the 3rd

largest economy by 2027. Its foreign policy increasingly intertwines
trade, technology, and strategic partnerships. Economic diplomacy is
now more proactive, focusing on supply chain resilience, critical
minerals, and digital cooperation. The emphasis on "Viksit Bharat"
(Developed India) by 2047 directly influences foreign policy choices to
secure necessary resources and partnerships.

● UGC NET Focus: Understanding India's position in global

economic governance, its engagement with G20, and the interplay
between its economic growth and foreign policy objectives.

Important Facts (Emerging Political Economy Identity):

● India leverages its large market and democratic credentials.
● Active participation in G20 post-2000.
● Advocates for reforms in IMF and World Bank.

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● Promotes digital public infrastructure globally (Example UPI).
● Projected to be the 3rd largest economy by 2027.
● Foreign policy intertwines trade, technology, and strategic partnerships.
● Focus on supply chain resilience and critical minerals.
● "Viksit Bharat" by 2047 influences foreign policy choices.
● Economic diplomacy is becoming more proactive.
● India's growing economic weight influences global norms.

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2. Continuity and Change in India’s Foreign Policy
India's foreign policy has demonstrated a remarkable blend of continuity in
its core principles and adaptability in response to evolving global dynamics.

2.1. Principles and Determinants:

● Background: India's foreign policy principles were largely laid down by
its first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, emphasizing peace, non-
alignment, and international cooperation. Over time, while these
foundational values persisted, pragmatic adaptations became necessary
due to shifts in the global power structure and India's own growing
capabilities and aspirations.

● Continuity:
○ Strategic Autonomy: The core principle, stemming from Non-
Alignment, of making independent foreign policy decisions based on
national interest, rather than aligning with any bloc.
○ Multilateralism: Strong belief in international law and institutions as
frameworks for global governance and peaceful resolution of
disputes.
○ Peaceful Coexistence & Non-violence: Rooted in its civilizational
values, emphasizing dialogue and diplomacy.
○ Solidarity with the Global South: Continued advocacy for the
interests of developing countries.
○ Neighbourhood First: Prioritizing relations with immediate
neighbours.

● Change (Adaptation and Evolution):

○ From Non-Alignment to Multi-Alignment/Issue-Based Alliances:
While non-alignment remains a philosophical underpinning, India

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now engages with multiple powers and groupings (Quad, BRICS,
SCO) based on specific interests, often termed "multi-alignment" or
"strategic hedging".
○ Increased Pragmatism and Assertiveness: A shift from idealistic
rhetoric to a more results-oriented and assertive approach in
protecting national interests.
○ Economic Diplomacy as a Priority: Post-1991, economic goals
became central, leading to a more aggressive pursuit of trade
agreements, investment, and technology.
○ Hard Power Integration: Greater emphasis on military
modernization, defense cooperation, and projecting power (Example
maritime security in the Indo-Pacific) alongside soft power.
○ Connectivity Initiatives: Focus on regional and trans-regional
connectivity projects (Example INSTC, BIMSTEC).

● Determinants (Current till mid-2025):

○ Geopolitics: Rise of China, Indo-Pacific dynamics, Russia-Ukraine
war, and West Asian instability heavily influence India's choices.
○ Geo-economics: Global supply chain disruptions, energy transition,
critical minerals, and digital economy shape India's external
economic engagements.
○ Domestic Imperatives: Economic growth, internal security,
democratic values, and the aspirations of a young population.
○ Technological Advancements: AI, cybersecurity, space technology as
new areas of cooperation and competition.
● UGC NET Focus: Questions on the evolution of India's foreign
policy doctrines, the distinction between non-alignment and multi-
alignment, and the contemporary factors shaping its foreign policy.

Important Facts (Continuity and Change):

● Strategic Autonomy is a core principle from Non-Alignment.

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● India maintains a strong belief in multilateralism.
● Peaceful Coexistence is rooted in civilizational values.
● Solidarity with the Global South remains key.
● "Neighbourhood First" policy prioritizes immediate neighbours.
● India has shifted from Non-Alignment to Multi-Alignment.
● Post-1991, economic diplomacy became a priority.
● Emphasis on hard power integration and defense cooperation.
● Geopolitics, like China's rise, influences foreign policy.
● Geo-economics, like supply chain disruptions, shapes external
engagements.

2.2. Non-Alignment Movement (NAM): Historical

Background and Relevance:

● Background: NAM emerged during the Cold War when newly

independent nations sought to avoid aligning with either the US-led
Western bloc or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc. This was a conscious effort
to preserve their newly gained sovereignty and focus on national
development rather than getting embroiled in superpower rivalries.

● Timeline/Key Events:
○ Post-WWII Context: Emerged during the Cold War when newly
independent nations sought to avoid aligning with either the US-led
Western bloc or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc.
○ Founders: Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt),
Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia), Sukarno (Indonesia), and Kwame
Nkrumah (Ghana).
○ 1961: The Belgrade Conference formally established the movement
and its principles.
○ Objectives: Promote world peace, decolonization, disarmament,
anti-apartheid, and a new international economic order.

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● Relevance till mid-2025:

○ Decreased Salience as a unified bloc: With the end of the Cold
War, NAM's original purpose of avoiding superpower blocs
diminished.
○ Continued Importance as a "Moral Voice" and platform for the
Global South: NAM continues to represent a significant number of
developing nations in multilateral forums like the UN, advocating for
issues such as climate justice, sustainable development, and reform of
international institutions.
○ India's Approach: India remains a member but has adopted a more
pragmatic, multi-aligned approach. While upholding NAM's
principles of strategic autonomy, India engages with various powers
and groupings based on contemporary national interests.

● UGC NET Focus: Definition of NAM, its founding members, key

conferences, core principles, and its contemporary relevance/challenges.

Important Facts (NAM):

● NAM emerged during the Cold War.
● Founding members include Nehru, Nasser, Tito, Sukarno, Nkrumah.
● Belgrade Conference in 1961 formally established NAM.
● Objectives included decolonization and disarmament.
● NAM's original purpose diminished after the Cold War.
● It serves as a "Moral Voice" for the Global South.
● NAM advocates for UN institutional reform.
● India maintains membership but has adopted a multi-aligned approach.
● It continues to uphold strategic autonomy principles.
● NAM addresses issues like climate justice and sustainable development.

2.3. India’s Nuclear Policy:

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● Background: India's nuclear program began shortly after independence
with a focus on peaceful uses of nuclear energy, championed by
Jawaharlal Nehru. However, faced with a challenging security
environment and the nuclearization of its neighborhood, India kept its
options open, leading to its eventual status as a nuclear weapons state.
● Evolution:
○ Early Policy (Nehruvian Era): Emphasis on peaceful uses of nuclear
energy, while keeping the nuclear option open ("atoms for peace").
○ 1974: "Smiling Buddha," India's first peaceful nuclear explosion,
reaffirmed its technological capability but led to international
sanctions.
○ 1998: Pokhran-II, a series of five nuclear tests, declared India a
nuclear weapon state. This led to further sanctions but eventually
pushed the international community to engage with India as a de
facto nuclear power.
○ 2003: India's Nuclear Doctrine formalized its "No First Use" (NFU)
policy and "Credible Minimum Deterrence". NFU means India will
not be the first to use nuclear weapons against any state, while
"Credible Minimum Deterrence" implies maintaining a sufficient and
survivable nuclear arsenal to inflict unacceptable damage in
retaliation.
● Current Status (till mid-2025):
○ Responsible Nuclear Power: India projects itself as a responsible
nuclear power, adhering to its NFU doctrine and maintaining tight
civilian control over its nuclear arsenal.
○ Non-Proliferation Regimes: India is not a signatory to the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as it considers it discriminatory, but
it adheres to most of its provisions. It seeks membership in the
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and other export control regimes,
though China's opposition has been a hurdle.

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○ Civil Nuclear Cooperation: India has significantly expanded civil
nuclear cooperation with countries like the USA, France, and Russia
since the 2008 NSG waiver, demonstrating its commitment to
peaceful nuclear energy.
○ Modernization: Ongoing efforts to modernize its nuclear triad (land,
air, and sea-based delivery systems) to ensure credible minimum
deterrence.
● UGC NET Focus: Dates of nuclear tests, key features of India's
nuclear doctrine (NFU, CMD), reasons for not signing NPT, and its
pursuit of NSG membership.

Important Facts (Nuclear Policy):

● "Smiling Buddha" (1974) was India's first peaceful nuclear explosion.
● Pokhran-II (1998) declared India a nuclear weapon state.
● Nuclear Doctrine (2003) formalized NFU and Credible Minimum
Deterrence.
● "No First Use" means India won't initiate nuclear attack.
● India is not a signatory to the NPT.
● India seeks NSG membership.
● China's opposition is a hurdle for NSG membership.
● Expanded civil nuclear cooperation since 2008 NSG waiver.
● India maintains a nuclear triad.
● India projects itself as a responsible nuclear power.

3. India’s Relations with Major Powers

India’s engagement with major global powers is a cornerstone of its multi-
aligned foreign policy, reflecting its strategic autonomy and pursuit of
national interests.

3.1. India-USA Relations:

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● Background: During the Cold War, India's non-alignment and closer
ties with the Soviet Union led to strained relations with the United
States. However, with the end of the Cold War and India's economic
liberalization, relations began a gradual warming, culminating in a
significant strategic partnership in the 21st century.
● Timeline & Key Events:
○ Cold War Era (1947-1991): Often strained due to India’s non-
alignment and closer ties with the USSR. Despite being the world's
largest democracies, relations were often strained.
○ Post-Cold War (1990s): Gradual warming, especially after India's
economic liberalization. Sanctions after 1998 nuclear tests were a
setback but didn't derail long-term engagement.
○ Early 2000s: Significant boost with President Clinton's visit (2000)
and initiation of strategic dialogue.
○ 2005: "New Framework for India-U.S. Defense Relationship".
○ 2008: The India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (123 Agreement) was a
landmark deal signifying a shift in strategic partnership, lifting
nuclear sanctions and integrating India into the global nuclear
mainstream.
○ 2015: Declared "Major Defense Partner" status for India.
○ 2016 onwards: Deepening cooperation in defense, counter-terrorism,
and Indo-Pacific strategy (Quad). The Quad dialogue intensified
during the Trump Era (2017-2020).
○ 2020-2023: Continued high-level engagements, increasing defense
technology transfer, and joint exercises. Focus on critical and
emerging technologies (CET), supply chain resilience, and
cooperation in space. This included the iCET initiative.
● Till mid-2025: Expected continued strengthening of defense ties
(Example potential co-production of jet engines, drones), collaboration
on semiconductors and AI, and further alignment on Indo-Pacific

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stability. Strategic convergence on China's rise remains a key driver. The
overall trajectory is strong despite some divergences (Example on human
rights issues, Russia-Ukraine war nuances).
● UGC NET Focus: Civil Nuclear Agreement (123 Agreement), Major
Defense Partner status, Quad, critical and emerging technologies (CET).

Important Facts (India-USA Relations):

● India-US relations were strained during the Cold War due to non-
alignment.
● The 2008 Civil Nuclear Agreement (123 Agreement) was a landmark
deal.
● India was declared a "Major Defense Partner" in 2015.
● Quad cooperation is deepening in the Indo-Pacific.
● Focus on critical and emerging technologies (CET).
● Defense technology transfer and joint exercises are increasing.
● Strategic convergence on China's rise is a key driver.
● Collaboration on semiconductors and AI is a priority.
● The iCET initiative is a recent development.
● The relationship has transformed from estrangement to strategic
partnership.

3.2. India-USSR/Russia Relations:

● Background: The Soviet Union emerged as a strong strategic partner
for India during the Cold War, providing crucial defense equipment,
economic assistance, and diplomatic support, particularly when Western
nations were hesitant due to India's non-aligned stance. Even after the
collapse of the USSR, this relationship retained significant importance.
● Timeline & Key Events:
○ Cold War Era (1950s-1991): Strong strategic partnership. The USSR
was a major supplier of defense equipment, technological assistance

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(Example Bhilai Steel Plant), and a reliable political ally (Example
support during 1971 war, Soviet vetoes in UNSC on Kashmir). The
Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation (1971) was a significant
milestone.
○ Post-Soviet Collapse (1991 onwards): Initial decline, but quickly
revitalized. Russia remained India's primary defense supplier.
○ 2000: Elevated to "Strategic Partnership".
○ 2010: Upgraded to "Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership".
○ Post-2014 (Crimea Annexation): India maintained a balanced
stance, abstaining on UNSC resolutions against Russia.
○ 2022 (Russia-Ukraine War) - mid-2025: India maintained its
historically close ties, prioritizing energy security needs and
continued dependence on Russian defense equipment. India
significantly increased oil imports from Russia at discounted rates.
Continued defense purchases (Example S-400 missile systems). India
has advocated for dialogue and diplomacy but refrained from directly
condemning Russia. High-level exchanges continued.

● Till mid-2025: Despite Western pressure, India continues to maintain

robust ties with Russia, especially in defense, energy, and certain
strategic technologies. Diversification of defense imports, however, is a
growing trend for India.

● UGC NET Focus: Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation

(1971), Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership, major defense deals
(Example S-400), historical context of support, and India's stance on the
Russia-Ukraine conflict.

Important Facts (India-USSR/Russia Relations):

● 1971 Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was a milestone.

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● USSR provided significant defense and technological assistance.
● Relationship upgraded to "Strategic Partnership" in 2000.
● Further upgraded to "Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership" in
2010.
● India increased oil imports from Russia after the 2022 conflict.
● India continues defense cooperation, including S-400 missile systems.
● India maintained a balanced stance on the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
● Russia remains a primary defense supplier.
● Historical ties are a key reason for maintaining the relationship.
● Diversification of energy sources is ongoing.

3.3. India-People’s Republic of China Relations:

● Background: Following India's independence and China's communist
revolution, there was an initial period of cordiality ("Hindi-Chini bhai-
bhai"). However, border disputes escalated into a war in 1962,
profoundly shaping bilateral ties and leading to a prolonged period of
mistrust. Despite normalization attempts and growing economic
engagement, the border issue remains a persistent challenge.

● Timeline & Key Events:

○ 1950s: Initial "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai" (India-China brotherhood) and
Panchsheel principles.
○ 1962: Sino-Indian War – a major setback, leading to prolonged
mistrust and border disputes.
○ 1976: Full diplomatic relations restored.
○ 1988: Rajiv Gandhi's visit – beginning of normalization, focusing on
CBMs (Confidence Building Measures) and trade.
○ 1993: Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility along
the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
○ 2000s: Rapid growth in trade, but also increasing strategic
competition.

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○ 2017: Doklam Standoff – highlighted persistent border tensions.
○ 2020: Galwan Valley clash (Eastern Ladakh) – a severe escalation
leading to casualties and significant deterioration in relations. India's
position hardened, emphasizing that border peace is essential for
overall relations.

● Till mid-2025: Relations remain complex and strained, primarily due to

unresolved border issues (LAC), China's close ties with Pakistan, and its
growing assertiveness in the Indian Ocean. While trade continues to
grow, India is actively seeking to reduce dependence on Chinese
imports and diversify supply chains. Border talks are ongoing, but
significant breakthroughs are unlikely in the short term. India is
increasingly aligning with like-minded partners in the Indo-Pacific to
balance China's influence. A "diplomatic thaw" was reported in late
2024-early 2025, with a border agreement on October 21, 2024, and
subsequent high-level meetings between PM Modi and President Xi on
the sidelines of the BRICS summit. This included agreements on
religious pilgrimages, data sharing on trans-border rivers, direct flights,
and media exchanges.
● UGC NET Focus: 1962 Sino-Indian War, Panchsheel, Doklam
Standoff, Galwan Valley clash, LAC, and the dual nature of the
relationship (economic interdependence vs. border disputes).

Important Facts (India-China Relations):

● "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai" was an early phase of relations.
● The 1962 Sino-Indian War led to major setbacks.
● Full diplomatic relations restored in 1976.
● Rajiv Gandhi's 1988 visit started normalization.
● 1993 Agreement on Peace and Tranquility along LAC.
● Doklam Standoff occurred in 2017.
● Galwan Valley clash in 2020 severely impacted ties.

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● Border issues along the LAC remain unresolved.
● India seeks to reduce dependence on Chinese imports.
● A diplomatic thaw was reported in late 2024-early 2025.

4. India’s Engagement with Multipolar World

India actively engages with various regional and global groupings to
promote its interests in a multipolar world.

4.1. India-European Union (EU) Relations:

● Background: Relations between India and the EU have steadily grown
since India's economic liberalization. Both entities, as large democracies
and economic powers, share interests in a rules-based international
order, multilateralism, and addressing global challenges, leading to a
comprehensive strategic partnership.

● Key Developments (till mid-2025): A Strategic Partnership was

established in 2004 and elevated in 2007. Post-Brexit, India became an
increasingly important strategic partner for the EU. Negotiations for a
comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and Investment Agreement
were relaunched in 2021 , with negotiations for the India-EU Trade and
Technology Council (TTC) ongoing and expected to be a major
deliverable. A Connectivity Partnership was launched in 2021, focusing
on sustainable connectivity including transport, digital, and energy
networks. The EU is India's largest trading partner in goods, with trade
amounting to approximately $135 billion in FY 2023-24. EU investments
in India exceed $117 billion. Significant focus on India-EU Clean Energy
and Climate Partnership (CECP, established 2016) , with cooperation in
green hydrogen (India sole partner country at European Hydrogen Week
Nov 2024, EIB committed €1 billion funding) and offshore wind. The
EU is a partner in the International Solar Alliance (ISA). There is

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growing convergence on Indo-Pacific stability, maritime security, and
multilateralism. The EU joined India's Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative
(IPOI) in 2023. A significant 27-member delegation of the European
Commission, led by President Ursula von der Leyen, visited India on
Feb 27-28, 2025, for the second meeting of the India-EU Business and
Technology Council.
● UGC NET Focus: Strategic Partnership (2004), ongoing FTA
negotiations, Trade and Technology Council, Connectivity Partnership,
Clean Energy cooperation, and key trade statistics.

Important Facts (India-EU Relations):

● Strategic Partnership established in 2004.
● Negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement are ongoing.
● Trade and Technology Council (TTC) is a key initiative.
● EU is India's 10th largest trading partner.
● Connectivity Partnership was launched in 2021.
● Cooperation in green energy and climate action is a priority.
● India is a partner in the International Solar Alliance (ISA) with EU.
● EU joined India's Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) in 2023.
● A high-level EU delegation visited India in Feb 2025.
● Bilateral trade with EU reached approximately $135 billion in FY 2023-
24.

4.2. India and BRICS:

● Background: The concept of BRIC emerged from economic analysis
highlighting the growing influence of Brazil, Russia, India, and China in
the global economy. This informal grouping eventually formalized and
expanded, seeking to amplify the voice of emerging economies in global
governance and economic affairs.

● Evolution & Significance (till mid-2025): Originally BRIC (Brazil,

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Russia, India, China) in 2001 (term coined by O'Neill), South Africa
joined in 2010 to form BRICS. BRICS represents a significant share of
global population and GDP. It acts as a platform for emerging
economies to coordinate on global economic and political issues. Key
Initiatives include the New Development Bank (NDB) and Contingent
Reserve Arrangement (CRA), established in 2014 as an alternative to
Bretton Woods institutions. India has been a significant beneficiary of
NDB loans. India's Chairship in 2021 focused on "BRICS@15: Intra
BRICS Cooperation for Continuity, Consolidation and Consensus,"
achieving "firsts" like a Digital Health Summit and Counter-Terrorism
Action Plan. In 2023, the Johannesburg Summit decided to admit six
new members: Argentina (later withdrew), Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi
Arabia, and UAE, effective January 1, 2024, significantly expanding
BRICS' global footprint and influence. Brazil's Chairship in 2025 has the
theme "Strengthening Global South Cooperation for more Inclusive and
Sustainable Governance".

● Significance for India: BRICS provides a platform for dialogue with

major emerging economies, enhances its voice in global governance, and
offers alternative financial mechanisms. Despite tensions with China,
BRICS remains a key forum for India's multilateral diplomacy.

● UGC NET Focus: Founding members, year of formation, purpose

of BRICS, establishment of NDB, new members admitted in 2023/2024,
and India's role.

Important Facts (BRICS):

● BRIC term coined in 2001.
● South Africa joined BRICS in 2010.
● BRICS represents a significant share of global population and GDP.
● New Development Bank (NDB) was established in 2014.
● Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) is another key initiative.

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● New members admitted in 2024 include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi
Arabia, UAE.
● Argentina withdrew from BRICS expansion.
● India chaired BRICS in 2021.
● BRICS promotes multipolarity.
● It serves as a platform for South-South cooperation.

4.3. India-ASEAN Relations:

● Background: India's geographical proximity and historical ties with
Southeast Asian nations laid the groundwork for closer engagement.
Economic liberalization in the early 1990s prompted India to actively
seek economic integration with the dynamic ASEAN economies, which
later expanded into a strategic partnership.

● Recent Developments (till mid-2025): India became a Sectoral Partner

in 1992, Dialogue Partner in 1996, and Summit-level Partner in 2002.
The "Act East Policy" (successor to "Look East Policy") is central to this
engagement, evolving from economic to a more strategic and
comprehensive partnership, encompassing political-security, economic,
and socio-cultural pillars. The relationship was elevated to a
"Comprehensive Strategic Partnership" in 2022. The ASEAN-India Free
Trade Area (AIFTA) for goods, services, and investment became
operational in 2010. Discussions are ongoing for early completion of the
review of the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA) to
make it more business-friendly. The 27th ASEAN-India Senior Officials'
Meeting was held on March 12, 2025. The ASEAN-India Year of
Tourism (2025) was designated to boost people-to-people connections
and tourism. Key areas of cooperation include digital, maritime security,
connectivity (Example India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway),
health, and innovation. India continues to support ASEAN Centrality in
the Indo-Pacific architecture.

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● UGC NET Focus: Look East to Act East evolution, Comprehensive
Strategic Partnership, AIFTA, and the significance of ASEAN for India's
Indo-Pacific vision.

Important Facts (India-ASEAN Relations):

● India became a Sectoral Partner in 1992.
● Look East Policy initiated in 1991.
● Act East Policy upgraded in 2014.
● Comprehensive Strategic Partnership established in 2022.
● ASEAN-India Free Trade Area (AIFTA) operational since 2010.
● India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway is a key connectivity
project.
● India is a key partner in ASEAN-led regional architecture.
● ASEAN-India Year of Tourism is designated for 2025.
● Focus on maritime cooperation and connectivity.
● India supports ASEAN Centrality in Indo-Pacific.

4.4. India and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

(SCO):

● Background: The SCO was founded in 2001, focusing on regional

security and counter-terrorism in Central Asia and Eurasia. India, with its
growing security concerns in the region and increasing economic ties
with Central Asian republics, sought full membership to enhance its
engagement in this critical space.

● Developments (till mid-2025): India became a full member in 2017

(along with Pakistan). SCO focuses on regional security, counter-
terrorism, and economic cooperation in Eurasia. India uses SCO as a
platform to engage with Central Asian countries, Russia, and China,

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despite bilateral differences with the latter. It is useful for counter-
terrorism cooperation through SCO-RATS (Regional Anti-Terrorist
Structure). India hosted the SCO Summit virtually in 2023, focusing on
cooperation in startups, traditional medicine, and digital inclusion. The
SCO Secretary-General Nurlan Yermekbayev addressed the Indian
Council of World Affairs in February 2025. India continues to be an
active member, promoting its interests in connectivity and counter-
terrorism, while navigating its complex relationship with China and
Pakistan within the organization.

● UGC NET Focus: Year of India's full membership, core objectives

of SCO (security, counter-terrorism), and its counter-terrorism
mechanism (RATS).

Important Facts (SCO):

● India became a full member of SCO in 2017.
● Pakistan also joined SCO in 2017.
● SCO focuses on regional security and counter-terrorism.
● It provides a platform for engagement with Central Asian countries.
● SCO-RATS is its counter-terrorism mechanism.
● India hosted the SCO Summit in 2023.
● India emphasizes concerns on cross-border terrorism within SCO.
● SCO aims for economic cooperation in Eurasia.
● SCO Secretary-General visited India in Feb 2025.
● India navigates complex relations with China and Pakistan within SCO.

4.5. India-African Union (AU) Cooperation:

● Background: India's ties with Africa are rooted in historical anti-
colonial solidarity and shared developmental aspirations. India has long
emphasized South-South cooperation, offering capacity building and

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technical assistance to African nations without imposing conditionalities,
fostering a relationship based on mutual respect.

● Developments (till mid-2025): India's engagement with Africa is based

on the principles of South-South cooperation, non-interference, and
demand-driven partnerships. India-Africa Forum Summits (IAFS) are
major platforms, with the last one held in 2015. India has provided
substantial Lines of Credit and capacity building. India's advocacy during
its G20 Presidency was instrumental in the African Union becoming a
permanent member of the G20 in 2023, a significant diplomatic
achievement for India and the AU. India welcomed the AU to the
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) in June 2025.
Africa-India Key Maritime Engagement (AIKEYME) was launched in
April 2025 as a multilateral forum to consolidate the Indian Navy's role
as "Preferred Security Partner" and "First Responder" in the Indian
Ocean Region (IOR). India views Africa as a crucial partner for energy
security, resource access, market expansion, and a strong voice for the
Global South.
● UGC NET Focus: India-Africa Forum Summits (IAFS), AU's G20
permanent membership, and key areas of cooperation like capacity
building and maritime security.

Important Facts (India-AU Cooperation):

● India's Africa engagement based on South-South cooperation.
● India-Africa Forum Summits (IAFS) are major platforms.
● India provides substantial Lines of Credit and capacity building.
● African Union became a permanent member of G20 in 2023 due to
India's advocacy.
● India welcomed AU to CDRI in June 2025.
● AIKEYME launched in April 2025 for maritime engagement.
● India views Africa as crucial for energy security.
● Africa is seen as a voice for the Global South.

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● Emphasis on demand-driven cooperation.
● Indian Navy aims to be "First Responder" in IOR with African partners.

4.6. India-Southern African Development Community

(SADC) Relations:

● Background: India's engagement with Southern Africa dates back to

the anti-apartheid movement and strong historical links, including the
Indian diaspora. This has evolved into a focus on economic cooperation,
development assistance, and security collaboration with individual SADC
member states.

● Developments (till mid-2025): India's relations with SADC countries

(Example South Africa, Tanzania, Mozambique) are part of its larger
Africa policy. SADC's most prominent member, South Africa, is a key
partner in the IBSA Dialogue Forum (India, Brazil, South Africa), which
promotes South-South cooperation. There is growing defense and
maritime cooperation, especially with coastal SADC states, vital for
Indian Ocean security. Economic ties include investments in mining,
infrastructure, and trade, particularly in energy and minerals. India
provides Lines of Credit (LoC) to SADC member states. Strong historical
and diaspora links exist with several SADC countries.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): While specific, large-scale SADC-

India initiatives are less prominent than the overall India-AU
engagement, bilateral relations with key SADC members continue to
deepen, often aligning with India's broader Africa strategy.

● UGC NET Focus: SADC's role in India's Africa policy, IBSA's

significance, and India's economic and defense interests in the region.

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Important Facts (India-SADC Relations):
● Relations with SADC are part of India's broader Africa policy.
● South Africa is a key partner in the IBSA Dialogue Forum.
● IBSA promotes South-South cooperation.
● Growing defense and maritime cooperation in the region.
● Focus on trade and investment in mining and agriculture.
● India provides Lines of Credit to SADC member states.
● Strong historical and diaspora links exist.
● Bilateral relations with key SADC members are deepening.
● Economic ties focus on energy and minerals.
● SADC is important for Indian Ocean security.

4.7. India-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Relations:

● Background: The GCC region has always been vital for India due to its
critical role as a major energy supplier and host to a large Indian
diaspora. Historically, the relationship was primarily transactional.
However, in recent years, it has evolved into a strategic partnership
encompassing diverse areas of cooperation beyond energy and
remittances.

● Developments (till mid-2025): GCC states (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,

Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE) are critical for India's energy security (major
oil and gas suppliers) and host a large Indian diaspora (over 8.5 million),
providing substantial remittances. Strategic partnerships are deepening
beyond energy to include trade, investment, food security, and defense
cooperation. India has elevated its relations to Comprehensive Strategic
Partnerships with key GCC members like UAE (2017) and Saudi Arabia.
The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), announced
at the G20 Summit in 2023, is a landmark initiative connecting India to
Europe via the Gulf, aiming to enhance trade, energy, and digital
connectivity. Progress on IMEC was seen with the first working group
meeting held in October 2024. Bilateral trade with UAE was $84 billion

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in 2023-24, and with Saudi Arabia was $43 billion in 2023-24,
highlighting robust economic engagement. GCC countries are major
sources of FDI for India. Defense & Security Cooperation, including
joint exercises and intelligence sharing, is growing.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): Relations are rapidly evolving from

buyer-seller to strategic partnerships, with a strong emphasis on
investment, technology, and connectivity. The IMEC project is
considered a game-changer.
● UGC NET Focus: Importance of GCC for India's energy security
and diaspora, ongoing FTA talks, Comprehensive Strategic Partnerships,
and the IMEC project.

Important Facts (India-GCC Relations):

● GCC is crucial for India's energy security.
● Over 8.5 million Indian diaspora in GCC countries.
● GCC states are major oil and gas suppliers to India.
● India has Comprehensive Strategic Partnerships with UAE (2017) and
Saudi Arabia.
● India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) announced at
G20 in 2023.
● IMEC aims to connect India to Europe via the Gulf.
● Bilateral trade with UAE was $84 billion in 2023-24.
● Bilateral trade with Saudi Arabia was $43 billion in 2023-24.
● GCC countries are major sources of FDI for India.
● Relations are evolving from buyer-seller to strategic partnerships.

5. India’s Relations with Neighbourhood

India's "Neighbourhood First" policy prioritizes friendly and cooperative
relations with its immediate neighbours, crucial for regional stability and
economic integration.

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5.1. India and SAARC:
● Background: The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC) was established in 1985 with the aim of promoting economic,
social, and cultural cooperation among South Asian nations. India, as the
largest country in the region, played a pivotal role in its formation,
hoping for greater regional integration and stability.
● Challenges & Prospects (till mid-2025):
○ Formation: SAARC was established in 1985. Its members include
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,
and Sri Lanka.

○ Challenges: SAARC has been largely dormant as a meaningful

regional integration body due to bilateral tensions, primarily between
India and Pakistan. SAARC summits have been infrequent since 2014,
with the last summit planned for Islamabad in 2016 postponed
indefinitely after the Uri attack. Many initiatives, like the SAARC
Motor Vehicles Agreement, remain stalled.

○ Prospects: Despite challenges, SAARC remains the only regional

platform encompassing all South Asian nations. Efforts are sometimes
made for humanitarian cooperation or within sub-regional groupings
(Example BBIN - Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal). India continues
to advocate for deeper regional cooperation, often through
alternative platforms that exclude Pakistan (Example BIMSTEC - Bay
of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation). There are no major signs of a SAARC revival by mid-
2025.

● UGC NET Focus: Year of SAARC establishment (1985), its member

countries, main objectives, and the primary reasons for its stagnation

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(India-Pakistan tensions).

Important Facts (SAARC):

● SAARC was established in 1985.
● Member countries include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.
● Largely dormant due to India-Pakistan tensions.
● Last planned summit (2016) was indefinitely postponed.
● SAARC Motor Vehicles Agreement remains stalled.
● India focuses on sub-regional groupings like BBIN.
● BIMSTEC is an alternative regional platform.
● SAARC is the only platform for all South Asian nations.
● India views SAARC as an important regional platform.
● No major signs of SAARC revival by mid-2025.

5.2. Gujral Doctrine Impact on India's

Neighbourhood Policy:

● Background: In the mid-1990s, with a more stable domestic political

landscape and a desire to improve relations with smaller neighbours,
then Foreign Minister I.K. Gujral articulated a set of principles that
sought to reorient India's approach to its immediate periphery, moving
towards a more benevolent and non-reciprocal stance.
● Core Idea: Formulated by then External Affairs Minister I.K. Gujral in
1996. It advocated for India to offer unilateral concessions to its smaller
neighbours, especially those not demanding reciprocity, to build
goodwill and foster trust.
● Five Principles:
1. India, being the larger country, must give unilaterally to its
neighbours without expecting reciprocity.

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2. No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against
the interest of another country of the region.
3. No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
4. Respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
5. Settlement of all disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations.

● Impact (till mid-2025): Led to improved relations with Bangladesh

(Example Ganga Water Treaty 1996) and Nepal. It marked a shift
towards a more benevolent and non-reciprocal approach in South Asia.
While not formally abandoned, its full unilateral application has been
tempered by pragmatic considerations, particularly regarding security
concerns (Example cross-border terrorism). However, the spirit of good
neighbourly relations and non-reciprocity in certain areas (Example aid)
continues to influence India's approach. "Neighbourhood First" can be
seen as an evolution, maintaining the spirit of cooperation but with a
more balanced reciprocity.

● UGC NET Focus: Five principles of Gujral Doctrine, its author, and
its overall intent.

Important Facts (Gujral Doctrine):

● Formulated by I.K. Gujral in 1996.
● Advocated for unilateral concessions from India.
● Principles included non-reciprocity and non-interference.
● Led to improved relations with Bangladesh and Nepal.
● Ganga Water Treaty with Bangladesh (1996) was a key outcome.
● Marked a shift towards a benevolent approach in South Asia.
● Spirit continues to influence "Neighbourhood First" policy.
● Security concerns temper strict unilateralism.
● It emphasizes peaceful bilateral negotiations.
● Aims to build goodwill and foster trust.

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5.3. Look East / Act East Policy Evolution and
Outcomes:

● Background: With the end of the Cold War and India's economic
liberalization in 1991, India sought to diversify its economic partnerships
beyond traditional Western blocs. Southeast Asia, with its vibrant
economies, became a natural focus for this outward-looking policy,
which later expanded into a strategic and comprehensive engagement
with the wider Asia-Pacific.
● Look East Policy (LEP) - 1991: Initiated by PM P.V. Narasimha Rao,
primarily an economic outreach to Southeast Asia (ASEAN) and East
Asia to diversify trade and investment after the Cold War and economic
liberalization.
● Act East Policy (AEP) - 2014: Upgraded by PM Narendra Modi. It
expanded the geographical scope to include wider Asia-Pacific,
intensified the engagement to encompass strategic, security, and cultural
dimensions, beyond just economic.
● Key Pillars of AEP:
○ Economic Cooperation: Enhancing trade, investment, and
connectivity.
○ Political-Security Cooperation: Deeper engagement on regional
security architecture, maritime security, and counter-terrorism
(Example Quad, dialogues with individual ASEAN members).
○ Connectivity: Development of land, sea, and air links (Example
India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, Kaladan Multi-Modal
Transit Transport Project).
○ People-to-People Contacts: Cultural exchanges, tourism, education,
and diaspora engagement.

● Outcomes (till mid-2025):

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○ Enhanced Strategic Partnerships: Elevated relationships with ASEAN
(Comprehensive Strategic Partnership since 2022), Japan, South
Korea, Australia, and Vietnam.
○ Increased Trade & Investment: Significant growth in trade with
ASEAN and East Asian countries, leading to FTAs.
○ Regional Security Role: India's growing role in Indo-Pacific security
dialogues and exercises.
○ Connectivity Projects: Progress on various infrastructure projects,
though some face delays.
○ Multilateral Engagement: Stronger participation in ASEAN-led
forums (EAS, ARF) and Quad.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): The Act East Policy remains a

cornerstone of India's foreign policy, especially in the context of the
Indo-Pacific strategy. India continues to strengthen its economic and
strategic ties with the region, balancing cooperation with competitive
dynamics, particularly with China. The focus is on resilient supply
chains, digital partnerships, and maritime domain awareness.
● UGC NET Focus: Distinction between LEP and AEP, their
respective years of initiation, key objectives, and major connectivity
projects.

Important Facts (Look East / Act East Policy):

● Look East Policy (LEP) began in 1991.
● LEP was primarily economic outreach to Southeast Asia.
● Act East Policy (AEP) upgraded in 2014.
● AEP expanded scope to strategic, security, and cultural dimensions.
● India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway is a key connectivity
project.
● Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project is also significant.
● Enhanced maritime cooperation under AEP.
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● Stronger participation in ASEAN-led forums like EAS and ARF.
● Comprehensive Strategic Partnership with ASEAN since 2022.
● AEP remains a cornerstone of India's Indo-Pacific strategy.

5.4. India's Look West Policy Focus and Initiatives:

● Background: While not formally named until recently, India's
engagement with West Asia and the Middle East has always been crucial
due to energy needs and the large Indian diaspora. The "Look West"
emphasis gained more strategic depth in the 21st century, moving
beyond purely economic ties to include security cooperation and
connectivity projects.

● Core Idea: While not as formally articulated as "Look East," "Look

West" describes India's strategic focus on strengthening relations with
countries to its west, primarily the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
states and the wider West Asia/Middle East, and increasingly, Europe
and Africa.
● Objectives: Secure energy security (major oil and gas suppliers), attract
investments, ensure the welfare of the large Indian diaspora, and
enhance security cooperation (counter-terrorism, maritime security).

● Key Initiatives & Developments (till mid-2025):

○ Comprehensive Strategic Partnerships: Elevated relations with key
Gulf states like UAE (2017) and Saudi Arabia.
○ IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor): A major
initiative announced at the G20 Summit in 2023, aiming to connect
India to Europe via the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Israel.
Progress on IMEC was seen with the first working group meeting
held in October 2024, focusing on developing the route,
infrastructure, and identifying key projects.
○ I2U2 Group (India, Israel, UAE, USA): A new grouping focused on
joint investments in water, energy, transportation, space, health, and
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food security.
○ Defense Cooperation: Growing collaboration in counter-terrorism,
maritime security, and defense exercises.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): India's "Look West" strategy has

evolved significantly, moving beyond energy dependence to a
comprehensive partnership model involving trade, investment,
technology, defense, and connectivity. The IMEC project and the I2U2
group underscore the growing strategic importance of this region for
India.
● UGC NET Focus: Primary objectives of Look West (energy,
diaspora, investment), IMEC project, and I2U2 group.

Important Facts (Look West Policy):

● "Look West" focuses on West Asia, Middle East, Europe, and Africa.
● Primary objectives are energy security and diaspora welfare.
● IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor) announced in
2023.
● IMEC aims to enhance connectivity through the region.
● I2U2 Group includes India, Israel, UAE, and USA.
● I2U2 focuses on joint investments in various sectors.
● Growing collaboration in counter-terrorism and maritime security.
● GCC countries are crucial for India's oil and gas imports.
● Millions of Indian diaspora reside in GCC countries.
● Relations are moving towards comprehensive partnerships.

6. India’s Negotiation Strategies in International

Regimes
India actively participates in various international organizations, leveraging
its growing economic and strategic influence to shape global norms and
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advocate for its interests and those of the Global South.

6.1. The United Nations (UN):

● Background: India was a founding member of the United Nations in

1945, reflecting its commitment to multilateralism and collective security
in the post-World War II era. Over decades, India has consistently
advocated for a more representative and equitable global governance
structure, particularly within the UN system.
● India's Role & Negotiation Strategies (till mid-2025):
○ Founding Member: India has been a founding member of the UN
since 1945.
○ Commitment to Multilateralism: India is a staunch believer in
multilateralism and the central role of the UN in global governance.
○ UNSC Permanent Membership: India has consistently campaigned
for permanent membership in the UN Security Council (UNSC),
arguing for its historical contributions, democratic credentials, large
population, and growing economic and military power. It advocates
for comprehensive UN reforms.
○ Peacekeeping Operations: India is one of the largest troop
contributors to UN Peacekeeping Missions globally, demonstrating
its commitment to international peace and security.
○ G4 Grouping: India, along with Brazil, Germany, and Japan, forms
the G4, advocating for mutual support for permanent UNSC seats.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): India continues its active role in

various UN bodies, including the Human Rights Council, ECOSOC,
and specialized agencies. Its calls for UN reforms, particularly UNSC
expansion, are becoming more vocal, especially given its G20 Presidency
in 2023, where it championed the AU's permanent membership in the

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G20, setting a precedent for expanding global governance bodies. India
frequently emphasizes the need for a representative and inclusive global
order.

● UGC NET Focus: India's status as a founding member (1945), its

consistent demand for UNSC permanent membership, its role in
peacekeeping, and the G4 grouping.

Important Facts (UN):

● India is a founding member of the UN since 1945.
● India consistently campaigns for permanent UNSC membership.
● India is one of the largest troop contributors to UN Peacekeeping
Missions.
● India forms the G4 group with Brazil, Germany, and Japan for UNSC
seats.
● India advocates for comprehensive UN reforms.
● India championed AU's permanent membership in G20 during its 2023
presidency.
● India uses UN platform to address terrorism and climate change.
● India emphasizes a representative and inclusive global order.
● India believes in the central role of the UN in global governance.
● India engages with UN Human Rights Council and ECOSOC.

6.2. World Trade Organization (WTO):

● Background: As a large developing economy, India has been a key
participant in the global trading system, initially through GATT and later
the WTO. Its negotiating positions have consistently aimed at ensuring a
fair and equitable multilateral trading system that addresses the
developmental needs and concerns of developing countries.
● India's Stance & Negotiations (till mid-2025): India is a key
developing country voice in the WTO. It advocates for fair and equitable
trade rules, pushing for resolution of development issues in multilateral

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trade negotiations.
● Key Issues of Negotiation:
○ Agriculture: India champions the cause of food security and the right
to provide Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) and public stockholding
for food security purposes, often clashing with developed nations on
agricultural subsidies.
○ Fisheries Subsidies: India seeks equitable outcomes, ensuring
developing nations' fishing livelihoods are not unduly impacted.
○ Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT): India consistently
argues for S&DT provisions for developing countries.
○ E-commerce: India maintains a cautious approach on binding rules
for e-commerce, prioritizing domestic policy space.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): The WTO faces challenges in

reaching consensus, and India's negotiation strategy remains firm on
protecting its farmers' interests and maintaining policy space for
development. The 13th WTO Ministerial Conference (MC13) in
February 2024 saw limited breakthroughs, but India continued to push
for its positions on agriculture and S&DT.

● UGC NET Focus: India's general position on WTO (rules-based but

equitable), its stance on agricultural subsidies (MSP, public
stockholding), and S&DT.

Important Facts (WTO):

● India is a key developing country voice in WTO.
● Advocates for fair and equitable trade rules.
● Champions food security and MSPs.
● Pushes for public stockholding for food security.
● Consistently argues for Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT).

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● Maintains a cautious approach on e-commerce rules.
● The 13th WTO Ministerial Conference (MC13) was in Feb 2024.
● India seeks resolution of development issues in trade negotiations.
● India's strategy is firm on protecting farmers' interests.
● India supports a rules-based multilateral trading system.

6.3. International Monetary Fund (IMF):

● Background: As a founding member of the Bretton Woods institutions,
India has long engaged with the IMF. With its growing economic
weight, India has consistently advocated for reforms in the IMF's
governance structure to ensure a more equitable representation of
emerging economies, reflecting the changing global economic
landscape.

● India's Policy Positions (till mid-2025):

○ Demand for Quota Reforms: India, as a major emerging economy,
consistently advocates for quota and governance reforms within the
IMF to reflect the changing global economic landscape. It seeks a
greater voting share to commensurate with its economic weight.
○ Sovereign Debt Issues: India actively participates in discussions on
sovereign debt restructuring, particularly for low-income countries.
○ Financial Stability: India supports IMF's role in maintaining global
financial stability and providing financial assistance to countries in
need.
○ Policy Advice: Engages with IMF on its economic assessments and
policy advice for India, often emphasizing a nuanced approach that
considers India's specific developmental context.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): India continues to push for a more

representative IMF. While progress on quota reforms has been slow,
India leverages platforms like the G20 to advocate for a more equitable

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global financial architecture. It remains a key member, contributing to
global financial stability discussions.

● UGC NET Focus: India's call for quota reforms and greater
representation for developing countries in the IMF.

Important Facts (IMF):

● India advocates for IMF quota and governance reforms.
● India seeks a greater voting share in IMF.
● India supports IMF's role in maintaining global financial stability.
● India generally prefers to avoid IMF bailouts.
● India participates in discussions on sovereign debt restructuring.
● India leverages G20 to advocate for equitable global financial
architecture.
● Progress on quota reforms has been slow.
● India is a key member contributing to global financial stability.
● India engages with IMF on its economic assessments.
● India emphasizes its specific developmental context in policy advice.

6.4. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC):

● Background: India has been an active participant in international

climate change negotiations since their inception, emphasizing the
principles of equity and historical responsibility. As a developing country
with a large population vulnerable to climate impacts, its stance is
shaped by a need to balance developmental imperatives with climate
action.

● India's Position & Contributions (till mid-2025):

○ Key Role: India is a crucial participant in the IPCC, providing
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scientific inputs and shaping global climate change assessments.
Indian scientists contribute significantly to IPCC reports.
○ Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective
Capabilities (CBDR-RC): India is a strong advocate for the principle
of CBDR-RC, arguing that developed countries, historically
responsible for emissions, must bear a greater burden in mitigation
efforts and provide financial and technological support to developing
countries.
○ Climate Justice: India emphasizes the concept of climate justice,
linking climate action to equitable development and poverty
eradication.
○ Energy Transition: India is committed to a just energy transition,
focusing on renewable energy expansion (Example ambitious targets
for 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030) and net-zero emissions
by 2070. It promotes initiatives like the International Solar Alliance
(ISA) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
India's G20 presidency (2023) focused significantly on climate finance
and green development.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): India continues to play a

constructive but firm role in international climate negotiations (Example
COPs - Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC). It balances its
commitment to climate action with its developmental imperatives,
advocating for adequate climate finance, technology transfer, and
adaptation measures from developed nations. India consistently
highlights its domestic efforts in renewable energy and emission
intensity reduction. Discussions at COP29 (November 2024) and beyond
continued to see India advocating for these positions.
● UGC NET Focus: CBDR-RC, India's net-zero target (2070), ISA,
CDRI, and its stance on climate finance.

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Important Facts (IPCC):
● India is a crucial participant in the IPCC.
● India advocates for Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and
Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC).
● Emphasizes climate justice.
● India has a target of 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
● India aims for net-zero emissions by 2070.
● India co-founded the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
● India launched the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
● G20 presidency in 2023 focused on climate finance and green
development.
● India consistently highlights its domestic efforts in renewable energy.
● Indian scientists contribute significantly to IPCC reports.

7. Contemporary Challenges
India’s foreign policy today is increasingly shaped by complex and
interconnected contemporary challenges that transcend traditional state-
centric security concerns. These issues demand multilateral cooperation,
innovative diplomatic strategies, and often, a balance between national
interests and global responsibilities.

7.1. Maritime Security:

● Background: India's strategic location in the Indian Ocean Region
(IOR) and its vast coastline make maritime security paramount for its
trade, energy imports, and overall security. Challenges range from
traditional piracy to the growing presence of extra-regional powers.

● Challenges: India's vast coastline, strategic location in the Indian Ocean

Region (IOR), and reliance on sea lanes of communication (SLOCs)

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make maritime security paramount. Challenges include: piracy and
armed robbery (Example in Gulf of Aden), non-state actors, freedom of
navigation concerns (especially in the Indo-Pacific), rising Chinese naval
presence (String of Pearls strategy and increased naval deployments),
environmental degradation, and illegal, unreported, and unregulated
(IUU) fishing.
● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):
○ SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region): PM Modi's
vision for India's maritime engagement in the IOR, emphasizing
cooperative security, capacity building, and sustainable development.
○ Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI - 2019): India's comprehensive
framework for cooperation across seven pillars (Example maritime
security, connectivity, marine ecology), promoting a free, open, and
inclusive Indo-Pacific.
○ Quad Dialogue: India's participation in the Quadrilateral Security
Dialogue (Quad) with the USA, Japan, and Australia, with a
significant focus on maritime domain awareness, HADR, and
upholding international law in the Indo-Pacific.
○ Bilateral & Multilateral Exercises: Regular naval exercises (Example
MALABAR with Quad nations, SLINEX with Sri Lanka, SIMBEX
with Singapore, Naseem Al Bahr with Oman, Varuna with France) to
enhance interoperability and security.
○ Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR):
Established in Gurugram, India, as a regional hub for maritime
information sharing and collaboration.
○ Counter-Piracy Operations: Indian Navy's robust anti-piracy
deployments in the Gulf of Aden and off the coast of Somalia. In
early 2025, the Indian Navy continued its expanded presence in the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden due to Houthi attacks, providing assistance
to merchant vessels.

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● UGC NET Focus: SAGAR vision, IPOI, Quad's role in maritime
security, IFC-IOR, and major naval exercises.

Important Facts (Maritime Security):

● SAGAR vision focuses on cooperative security and sustainable
development in IOR.
● Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) was launched in 2019.
● Quad participation focuses on maritime domain awareness.
● Malabar exercises are conducted with Quad nations.
● Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) is in
Gurugram.
● Indian Navy conducts anti-piracy operations in Gulf of Aden.
● Chinese naval presence in IOR is a rising concern.
● Freedom of navigation is a key concern in the Indo-Pacific.
● India's reliance on sea lanes of communication is high.
● HADR operations are part of maritime security.

7.2. Energy Security:

● Background: As a rapidly developing economy, India's energy demand
is continuously rising. Its high dependence on fossil fuel imports makes
it vulnerable to global price volatility and geopolitical instability.
Addressing this vulnerability and transitioning to cleaner energy sources
are critical foreign policy objectives.

● Challenges: India is the third-largest energy consumer globally and

highly dependent on imports (over 85% for crude oil, ~50% for natural
gas). Volatility in international energy prices, geopolitical instability in
West Asia, and the imperative for energy transition pose significant
challenges.

● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):

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○ Diversification of Energy Sources: Reduced over-reliance on West
Asia by increasing imports from the USA, Russia, and Africa. India
significantly increased crude oil imports from Russia at discounted
rates following the Russia-Ukraine conflict (2022 onwards).
○ Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR): Building and expanding crude
oil storage facilities to cushion against supply disruptions.
○ Renewable Energy Push: Ambitious targets for increasing renewable
energy capacity (Example 500 GW of non-fossil fuel electricity
capacity by 2030). Promotion of solar (International Solar Alliance -
ISA), wind, and green hydrogen. India's National Green Hydrogen
Mission is a key focus.
○ Energy Diplomacy: Engaging with energy-rich nations for long-term
supply contracts and investments in oil and gas fields abroad
(Example ONGC Videsh).
○ International Collaborations: Active participation in forums like
IEA, G20, and BRICS to shape global energy policies. In 2025, India
continued to push for climate financing and technology transfer to
support its energy transition goals at international forums.

● UGC NET Focus: India's import dependence, renewable energy

targets (Example 500 GW by 2030), ISA, Strategic Petroleum Reserves,
and diversification of oil suppliers.

Important Facts (Energy Security):

● India is the third-largest energy consumer globally.
● Over 85% of crude oil is imported.
● Roughly 50% of natural gas is imported.
● Diversification of energy sources includes USA, Russia, and Africa.
● Increased crude oil imports from Russia since 2022.
● Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) are being expanded.
● Target of 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.

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● International Solar Alliance (ISA) is a key initiative.
● National Green Hydrogen Mission is a focus.
● Energy transition is a key foreign policy element.

7.3. Environmental Security:

● Background: India is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change due to its diverse geography, large population, and reliance on
agriculture. Addressing environmental degradation and climate change is
not merely an ecological imperative but a national security and
developmental priority, necessitating robust international cooperation.

● Concerns & Responses (till mid-2025): Climate change impacts

(extreme weather events, rising sea levels), air and water pollution,
deforestation, and biodiversity loss pose existential threats and
complicate developmental goals. India is particularly vulnerable due to
its large population and geographical diversity.

● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):

○ Climate Diplomacy: Strong advocacy for Common but
Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-
RC) and Climate Justice at UNFCCC COPs. Demanding adequate
climate finance and technology transfer from developed nations.
○ National Climate Action: Implementation of Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, focusing on
emission intensity reduction, increasing forest cover, and renewable
energy deployment.
○ International Solar Alliance (ISA): Co-founded by India and France,
promoting solar energy deployment globally.
○ Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Launched
by India, promoting resilient infrastructure development globally.
○ Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) Movement: India's global

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initiative promoting sustainable lifestyles and conscious consumption.
○ Transboundary Cooperation: Engagement with neighbours on
shared environmental challenges (Example air pollution, river basin
management). India is actively pursuing the implementation of its
NDCs and pushing for more ambitious global climate action, while
also highlighting the need for technology transfer and financial
support for developing nations. Discussions at COP29 (November
2024) and beyond continued to see India advocating for these
positions.
● UGC NET Focus: CBDR-RC, Climate Justice, ISA, CDRI, LiFE
Movement, and India's NDCs.

Important Facts (Environmental Security):

● India advocates for Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and
Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC).
● India emphasizes Climate Justice.
● International Solar Alliance (ISA) co-founded by India and France.
● Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) launched by India.
● Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) Movement promotes sustainable
lifestyles.
● India implements Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under
Paris Agreement.
● Focus on emission intensity reduction.
● India is vulnerable to climate change impacts.
● Air and water pollution are significant concerns.
● India pushes for climate finance and technology transfer.

7.4. Migrants and Refugees:

● Background: India has a long history of receiving migrants and
refugees due to its geographical proximity to conflict zones and shared
cultural ties with neighboring countries. While not a signatory to

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international refugee conventions, its approach has been guided by
humanitarian considerations and domestic laws.
● Challenges: India hosts a significant number of migrants and refugees,
primarily from its neighbourhood (Example Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka, Afghanistan). Challenges include: undocumented migration
(particularly from Bangladesh), posing socio-economic and security
concerns. Refugee flows, such as Rohingya refugees from Myanmar,
present humanitarian challenges. Ensuring the safety and well-being of
over 18 million Indian diaspora globally, especially in West Asia, is also a
priority. Policy gaps exist as India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN
Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol, dealing with refugees on a
case-by-case basis through domestic laws.
● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):
○ Humanitarian Approach: Providing humanitarian assistance to
refugees on its soil, despite not being a signatory to international
conventions.
○ Bilateral Engagement: Working with source countries to address
root causes of migration and facilitate repatriation where possible.
○ Diaspora Engagement: Proactive engagement with Indian diaspora
through events like Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, consular services, and
crisis response mechanisms (Example Operation Ganga to evacuate
Indians from Ukraine in 2022, Operation Ajay from Israel in 2023).
In mid-2025, ensuring the safety of Indian workers in volatile regions
and managing skilled migration to various countries remained a
priority.
○ Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA - 2019): A controversial
domestic law offering a path to citizenship for religious minorities
(excluding Muslims) who fled persecution from Pakistan, Bangladesh,
and Afghanistan. Implementation rules were notified in March 2024.
● UGC NET Focus: India's non-signatory status to the 1951 Refugee
Convention, its case-by-case approach, CAA (key provisions), and major

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diaspora evacuation operations.

Important Facts (Migrants and Refugees):

● India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention.
● India has a long history of accommodating refugees from Tibet,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar.
● Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) was passed in 2019.
● CAA offers citizenship to religious minorities from Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Afghanistan (excluding Muslims).
● Implementation rules for CAA notified in March 2024.
● Over 18 million Indian diaspora globally.
● Operation Ganga (2022) evacuated Indians from Ukraine.
● Operation Ajay (2023) evacuated Indians from Israel.
● Undocumented migration from Bangladesh is a challenge.
● India's policy is often ad hoc and humanitarian.

7.5. Water Resources:

● Background: India is a water-stressed country with numerous
transboundary rivers shared with its neighbors. Water diplomacy and
management of shared water resources are critical components of its
foreign policy, often intertwined with historical treaties and ongoing
bilateral discussions to prevent disputes and foster cooperation.
● Challenges: India faces significant water stress due to population
growth, industrialization, and climate change. Transboundary river
disputes with neighbours (Example with Pakistan over Indus Waters
Treaty, with Bangladesh over Teesta River, with Nepal, and with China
on Brahmaputra) add a complex foreign policy dimension. Climate
change exacerbates these challenges.
● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):
○ Bilateral Water Treaties: Adherence to existing treaties (Example
Indus Waters Treaty 1960 with Pakistan, Ganga Water Treaty 1996
with Bangladesh).
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○ Data Sharing: Advocating for robust data sharing mechanisms with
upstream countries (like China) on shared rivers to manage floods
and water flow. India continued to seek better transparency and data
sharing from China regarding upstream dam projects on the
Brahmaputra (known as Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet).
○ Joint River Commissions: Participation in joint commissions to
address water management and dispute resolution.
○ Integrated Water Management: Domestic focus on water
conservation, rain harvesting, and efficient irrigation.
○ Hydro-Diplomacy: Using water resources cooperation as a tool for
regional stability and development, particularly with Bhutan and
Nepal for hydropower projects.
● UGC NET Focus: Key transboundary water disputes (Indus Waters
Treaty), Ganga Water Treaty (year, parties), Brahmaputra issue with
China, and the concept of hydro-diplomacy.

Important Facts (Water Resources):

● Indus Waters Treaty (1960) with Pakistan is a key agreement.
● Ganga Water Treaty (1996) with Bangladesh is another significant treaty.
● Transboundary water disputes exist with Pakistan, Bangladesh, and
Nepal.
● Brahmaputra river issues involve China.
● India advocates for robust data sharing on shared rivers.
● Climate change exacerbates water challenges.
● India emphasizes water diplomacy.
● Cooperation with Bhutan and Nepal for hydropower projects.
● Water scarcity and pollution are significant concerns.
● India seeks to resolve disputes through bilateral dialogue.

7.6. International Terrorism:

● Background: India has been a long-standing victim of cross-border
terrorism, particularly from groups operating from its neighborhood.
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This persistent threat has made counter-terrorism a central pillar of
India's foreign policy, advocating for a strong global response and no
tolerance for state-sponsored terrorism.
● Challenges: India has been a victim of cross-border terrorism for
decades, primarily from Pakistan-backed groups. The rise of global
terrorist organizations (Example ISIS, Al-Qaeda), state-sponsored
terrorism, and the use of new technologies (cyber, drones) by terrorists
pose evolving threats.
● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):
○ Zero Tolerance Policy: India maintains a firm stance against
terrorism, unequivocally condemning it in all forms and
manifestations.
○ Global Conventions: Strong advocate for the early adoption of a
Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) at the
UN, a proposal first made by India in 1996.
○ Bilateral & Multilateral Cooperation: Enhanced intelligence
sharing, extradition treaties, and joint counter-terrorism exercises
with various countries (Example USA, France, Russia, Israel, Central
Asian states).
○ Financial Action Task Force (FATF): Active participation in FATF
to combat terror financing and money laundering.
○ UN Sanctions: India consistently pushes for listing of terrorists and
terror entities under UN sanctions regimes (Example UNSC 1267
Committee).
○ Cyber Counter-Terrorism: Addressing the use of internet and social
media by terrorist groups for radicalization and recruitment.
● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): India continues to highlight cross-
border terrorism, especially from Pakistan, at international forums. It
remains a leading voice for a global, coordinated response to terrorism,
without any differentiation between "good" and "bad" terrorists. India
also increasingly focuses on the nexus between terrorism and organized

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crime, and the use of emerging technologies.
● UGC NET Focus: India's consistent demand for CCIT (year
proposed: 1996), FATF's role, and India's consistent stand against cross-
border terrorism.

Important Facts (International Terrorism):

● India proposed the Comprehensive Convention on International
Terrorism (CCIT) at the UN in 1996.
● India consistently highlights cross-border terrorism, particularly from
Pakistan.
● India actively participates in FATF (Financial Action Task Force).
● India pushes for listing of terrorists under UN sanctions regimes.
● Zero tolerance policy against terrorism.
● Enhanced intelligence sharing with various countries.
● Joint counter-terrorism exercises are conducted.
● Focus on combating terror financing and money laundering.
● Addresses the use of internet by terrorist groups.
● India advocates for a global, coordinated response to terrorism.

7.7. Cyber Security:

● Background: India's rapid digital transformation, fueled by initiatives
like Digital India, has made it increasingly reliant on cyberspace for
economic activity and governance. This dependence, however, has also
amplified its vulnerability to cyber threats, making cybersecurity a
crucial component of national security and foreign policy cooperation.
● Challenges: Rapid digitization brings cyber threats like state-sponsored
attacks, cybercrime, and data breaches. Cyber warfare and the misuse of
cyberspace by state and non-state actors pose evolving threats. Protecting
critical information infrastructure is a major concern.
● Strategies & Key Initiatives (till mid-2025):
○ National Cyber Security Policy: India is strengthening its national
cybersecurity framework, with its most recently revised policy in

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2021.
○ International Cooperation: Bilateral agreements on cyber security
with countries like the USA, UK, Japan, Australia, and Russia for
intelligence sharing, capacity building, and joint research.
○ Multilateral Forums: Active participation in global forums like the
UN Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) and Open-Ended
Working Group (OEWG) on cybersecurity, advocating for a stable
and open cyberspace under international law.
○ Critical Information Infrastructure Protection: Setting up of
National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre
(NCIIPC).
○ Capacity Building: Investing in cyber forensics, incident response,
and training cyber security professionals.
○ Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): While promoting DPI (like UPI,
Aadhaar) for digital inclusion, India also focuses on building
resilience against cyber threats to these systems.

● Current Outlook (till mid-2025): Cyber security is a rapidly evolving

domain, and India's foreign policy increasingly emphasizes securing its
digital space. This involves pushing for international norms and rules for
responsible state behaviour in cyberspace, combating cybercrime, and
enhancing its defensive and offensive cyber capabilities.

● UGC NET Focus: National Cyber Security Policy, NCIIPC, India's

push for international norms in cyberspace, and key bilateral partners in
cyber security.

Important Facts (Cyber Security):

● India's National Cyber Security Policy was most recently revised in 2021.
● India is vulnerable to state-sponsored cyber-attacks and cybercrime.

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● National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC)
was set up.
● Bilateral agreements on cyber security with USA, UK, Japan, Australia,
Russia.
● India participates in UN GGE and OEWG on cybersecurity.
● Advocates for a stable and open cyberspace under international law.
● Focus on protecting critical information infrastructure.
● Promoting Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) like UPI and Aadhaar.
● Emphasis on building resilience against cyber threats.
● India's foreign policy increasingly emphasizes securing its digital space.

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