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Designing with Photovoltaics
Designing with
Photovoltaics

Edited by
Angèle Reinders
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
52 Vanderbilt Avenue,
New York, NY 10017

and by

CRC Press
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© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................ix
Editor.........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction..................................................................................... 1
Angèle Reinders, Wouter Eggink, and Marjan van Aubel

Design Case 1 Current Table................................................................................ 13

Marjan van Aubel, Peter Krige, and Angèle Reinders

Chapter 2 A Short History of Photovoltaic-Powered Products..................... 27

Angèle Reinders and Wouter Eggink

Design Case 2 Luminescent Solar Concentrator PV Designs.............................. 36

Angèle Reinders, Ned Ekins-Daukes, Timothy Schmidt,
Hanbo Yang, Monika Michalska, Rosina Pelosi,
Marcello Nitti, Lara Gillan, Dane McCamey,
Elham M. Gholizadeh, Parisa Hosseinabadi,
Blair Welsh, Scott Kable, and Wouter Eggink

Chapter 3 Photovoltaic Technologies in the Context of Design.................... 61

Angèle Reinders and Georgia Apostolou

Design Case 3 Virtue of Blue............................................................................... 72

Jeroen Verhoeven and Angèle Reinders

Chapter 4 Product-Integrated PV.................................................................. 79

Georgia Apostolou and Angèle Reinders

Design Case 4 Design of a PV-Powered Racing Car.......................................... 110

Merel Oldenburg, Michael ten Den, and Angèle Reinders

v
vi Contents

Chapter 5 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics.............................................. 127

Eelke Bontekoe, Wilfried van Sark, and Joost van Leeuwen

Design Case 5 The Solaris Building................................................................... 156

Alessandra Scognamiglio

Chapter 6 Users’ Interactions with PV-Powered Products.......................... 165

Georgia Apostolou

Design Case 6 PV-Powered Charging Station for E-Bikes................................. 196

Cihan Gerçek
Index.......................................................................................................................209
Preface
A smooth energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is one of
the principal challenges that mankind faces at the moment. It will delay and, hope-
fully, stop climate change caused by the emission of large quantities of CO2 and other
greenhouse gases. Namely, these emissions largely originate from our fossil energy
demand, which as such should be drastically reduced. In 2015, it has therefore been
agreed upon by the Paris Agreement (UN 2015) that the global temperature rise
should stay below 2°C, actually preferably below 1.5°C, compared to preindustrial
levels. As a consequence, the required changes from a fossil-fuel society to one
based on renewable energy will involve a huge effort by a varied group of stakehold-
ers: the public, policy makers, scientists, industry, engineers, and designers. Many
international and national agreements state that solar photovoltaic (PV) energy tech-
nologies will be one of the main contributors to achieving a prospective 100% renew-
able energy supply. And it is generally believed that both societal acceptance and
technology development will be key to realizing this goal. Also, it is known that the
interdisciplinary field of design can bring these two aspects together, by the creation
of products or systems, which people like to use (Reinders et al. 2012). As such, we
envision that this book entitled Designing with Photovoltaics will inspire its readers
to more frequently and better apply a wonderful, sustainable solar-energy technol-
ogy, such as photovoltaic (PV) cells, in a wide range of existing and future things
and objects, better said, products. Namely, the aim of this book is to inform the
reader such that (s)he will be able to easily understand how new products, buildings,
and vehicles containing PV technologies can be designed. Hopefully in the end, the
reader would like to design new PV-powered products by her/himself. Therefore,
this book covers a broad range of topics related to the design of products, buildings,
and vehicles with integrated PV technologies.
Two clear examples of how PV-powered products are used in our society today
are (1) PV façade in buildings and (2) solar charging of electric vehicles. In both
cases, the emissions of greenhouse gasses due to energy consumption of respectively
buildings and transportation can be minimized by the application of solar cells,
which yield very low, close-to-zero emissions of CO2 during electricity production
over their full lifetime. In these two cases, and many others as well, PV technolo-
gies can be categorized as “cleantech.” Therefore, to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions and hence endeavor to retard climate change, inevitably we have to learn how
photovoltaic technologies can be better applied in products, buildings, and vehicles.
This book is a bit different from previous publications in the field of PV research
and design engineering, namely:

• Semiconductor physics of PV cells and their underlying materials won’t be

a major topic of this book. For these items, we refer to Photovoltaic Solar
Energy—From Fundamentals to Applications (Reinders et al. 2017).
• This book won’t be monodisciplinary; instead, it will cover a broad range
of interrelated topics that are relevant for the design of PV-powered things.

vii
viii Preface

• This book is not meant to be a DIY handicraft book. The authors are all
professionals and would like to share their experiences with real design
processes, design research, and the creation of real products, vehicles,
buildings, and other objects with its readers.
• This book won’t focus on building-integrated PV only.
• This book won’t focus on indoor PV only.

As a consequence, the authors believe that Designing with Photovoltaics has a unique
approach and content, covering many different product categories with a focus on
product design, which so far hasn’t been written or published elsewhere.
For this book project, a team of excellent experts in the field of PV design and PV
applications has been brought together, paying attention to specific design aspects by
multiple design cases and a myriad of colorful, visual information, while at the same
time also providing knowledge at an academic level.
Therefore, the content will be interdisciplinary, aiming at reaching a broad audi-
ence of skilled engineers, designers, and researchers. Most of all, we hope to inspire
anybody interested in solar power and to be a rich comprehensive source of informa-
tion about potential applications of PV technologies.
Please enjoy reading and please feel welcome to start designing our solar future
and as such become part of the sustainable energy transition!
With best regards on behalf of all the authors,

Angèle Reinders
Eindhoven University of Technology
and University of Twente
The Netherlands

REFERENCES
Reinders, A.H.M.E., J.C. Diehl, and J.C. Brezet. (2012). The Power of Design, Wiley:
West-Sussex. p. 331, hard-cover book, John Wiley & Sons: London.
Reinders, A.H.M.E., P.J. Verlinden, W.G.J.H.M. Van Sark, and A. Freundlich. (2017).
Photovoltaic Solar Energy: From Fundamentals to Applications, hard-cover book, John
Wiley & Sons: London.
United Nations. (2015). Paris Agreement. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_
agreement.pdf
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge all contributions so far by students, colleagues, and companies
to the still-emerging field of designing of photovoltaics. In particular, Georgia
Apostolou, Alessandra Scognamiglio, Wilfried van Sark, Marjan van Aubel, Cihan
Gerçek, Wouter Eggink, and Ned Ekins-Daukes are warm-heartedly thanked for
their enthusiastic, continued and persistent involvement during the realization phase
of this book by writing chapters and design cases, as well as supporting the review
of the main texts. Thank you so much; without your contributions, time, and energy,
this book would never have seen the daylight.
Solar Team Twente, represented by Merel Oldenburg and Michael ten Den, thank
you for sharing your insights in the development of solar racing cars in a special
design case, which reveals the “secrets” of good solar car design. You were able to
make time for your contribution, while simultaneously developing and producing a
new car, which evidences your passion for applications of photovoltaics.
Also, Peter Krige Eelke Bontekoe, Joost van Leeuwen, Hanbo Yang, Monika
Michalska, Rosina Pelosi, Marcello Nitti, Lara Gillan, Dane McCamey, Elham M.
Gholizadeh, Parisa Hosseinabadi, Blair Welsh, and Scott Kable are thanked for their
very important contributions to respectively. Design Case 1 about the Current Table,
Chapter 5, and Design Case 2 on Luminescent Solar Concentrator PV designs, which
was inspired by the visionary outlooks on exciton science by Tim Schmidt; Tim,
thank you very much.
All companies and organizations who provided permission to use their visual
materials in this book are gratefully thanked, in particular NeaStudio, Sono Motors,
C.F. Møller Architects, and NASA. Last but not least, I would like to thank Jeroen
Verhoeven, of DeMakersVan, who, with his incredible creativity, is able to trans-
form a merely technical material such as silicon into seemingly living matter by his
design of Virtue of Blue, which is presented in Design Case 3. Thank you for your
inspiration.

ix
Editor
Angèle Reinders is a full professor in design of sustainable energy systems at
Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands and an associate professor
at the University of Twente, the Netherlands, where she runs a research group on
sustainable energy and design. Her research focuses on design, product development,
and system integration in the framework of sustainability and renewable energy
technologies. In particular, approaches are explored that support a better integration
of new energy technologies in products, buildings, and local infrastructure with the
purpose of increasing sustainable energy use and energy-efficient behavior by end
users in the context of living, working, and mobility. She has practical experience
with applications of photovoltaic (PV) solar technologies, fuel cells, energy storage
technologies, LEDs, etc. In her ongoing projects, she focuses on smart grids and PV
applications, such as PV systems, PV modules, PV-powered boats, building-inte-
grated PV, and product-integrated PV. She has published more than 100 papers, edited
two books, and is a cofounding editor of the IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics. She was
the technical program chair of IEEE-PVSC-40 in 2014 and the chair of the IEEE-
PVSC-44 in 2017. She has a vast international experience and stayed at Fraunhofer
ISE (Germany), World Bank (US), ENEA (Italy), Jakarta and Papua (Indonesia),
and the Centre for Urban Energy (Canada) for her research. She holds a master’s
degree in physics and completed a PhD in chemistry from Utrecht University, the
Netherlands. At present, she teaches in the Study of Industrial Design Engineering
and the Master of Sustainable Energy Technology. With students, she explores the
possibilities of designing with photovoltaics in various design and research projects.

xi
Contributors
Georgia Apostolou Peter Krige
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Imperial College London
Thessaloniki, Greece Royal College of Art
and London, England
University of Twente
Enschede, the Netherlands Dane McCamey
University of New South Wales
Eelke Bontekoe Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Utrecht University
Utrecht, the Netherlands Monika Michalska
Monash University
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Wouter Eggink
University of Twente Marcello Nitti
Enschede, the Netherlands Eindhoven University of Technology
Eindhoven, the Netherlands
Ned Ekins-Daukes
University of New South Wales Merel Oldenburg
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia University of Twente
Enschede, the Netherlands
Cihan Gerçek
University of Twente Rosina Pelosi
Enschede, the Netherlands University of New South Wales
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Elham M. Gholizadeh
University of New South Wales Timothy Schmidt
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia University of New South Wales
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Lara Gillan
Alessandra Scognamiglio
University of New South Wales
ENEA
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Naples, Italy
Parisa Hosseinabadi Michael ten Den
University of New South Wales University of Twente
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Enschede, the Netherlands

Scott Kable Marjan van Aubel

University of New South Wales Marjan van Aubel Studio
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Amsterdam, the Netherlands

xiii
xiv Contributors

Joost van Leeuwen Blair Welsh

Utrecht University University of New South Wales
Utrecht, the Netherlands Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Wilfried van Sark Hanbo Yang

Utrecht University University of Melbourne
Utrecht, the Netherlands Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Jeroen Verhoeven
Dutch Design House DeMakersVan
Amsterdam, the Netherlands
 1 Introduction
Angèle Reinders, Wouter Eggink,
and Marjan van Aubel

CONTENTS
1.1 A Solar Revolution............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Aspects of Interest for Designing with Photovoltaics.......................................5
1.3 Defining Industrial Design Engineering........................................................... 8
1.4 Structure of This Book.................................................................................... 11
References................................................................................................................. 11

1.1 A SOLAR REVOLUTION

The idea of integrating solar technology into objects, such as products, buildings,
or vehicles (Figure 1.1) is not new. Already in the 1950s people thought about inte-
grating solar photovoltaic (PV) cells into smaller products that were not connected
to the household’s mains to let them autonomously generate electricity for these
products. Unfortunately, this never happened because electricity from the grid was
cheap, and the price of germanium, a basic element in solar cells at that time, was
too high. Therefore, the focus of embedding PV technology into small household
objects shifted to integrating them into space applications such as satellites. Here,
having solar panels onboard made much more sense because it meant that some
functions of the satellite could function independently using the power of the sun.
In this context, photovoltaic technologies result in the generation of power from
photons, the smallest energy packages contained by solar irradiance. In space,
higher risks and costs were involved compared to the everyday household objects
allowing the use of expensive advanced PV materials, such as gallium arsenide, in
solar cells applied in satellites. PV developments in space have been dazzling, for
instance, the International Space Station contains more than an acre of solar arrays
powering the station, making it the second brightest object in the night sky after
the moon, according to NASA (Figure 1.1). Since the development and production
of solar technology, now nearly 70 years ago, the focus has been on price reduction
and increasing the efficiency of the solar PV technologies. Scale has been an impor-
tant factor. Something that is new, and only available in a small volume, is expen-
sive, whilst by producing on a mass scale, prices will lower. In the last 40 years,
each time the cumulative production of the silicon PV modules doubled, the price
went down by 24% (FhG-ISE 2019), see Figure 1.2.

1
2 Designing with Photovoltaics

(a)

(b) (c)

FIGURE 1.1 From left top clockwise shown: (a) the PV-powered International Space Station
(Courtesy of NASA), (b) PV-powered building, named Copenhagen International School
(Copyright by C.H. Møller Architects), and (c) the Sion, a PV-powered EV (Copyright by
Sono Motors).

FIGURE 1.2 Learning curve of PV modules of all PV technologies showing PV module

price versus cumulative production (FhG-ISE 2019). Data from 1980 to 2010 estimation from
different sources: Strategies Unlimited, Navigant Consulting, EUPD, pvXchange; from 2011:
IHS. Graph: PSE GmbH 2019.
Introduction 3

Now that solar PV modules are being produced on a very large scale, their price
has decreased immensely. To give an idea, at present (in 2019), a nominal power of
600 GW of PV systems is installed worldwide, and 100 GW of PV modules are annu-
ally produced to be installed. This situation has resulted in a (2019) price for main-
stream PV modules of just 25 ct/watt-peak (PV Magazine 2019). At present, in some
sunbelt countries, PV systems can therefore generate electricity at just 3 ct/kWh.
This is lower than the cost of electricity produced by a coal plant. It is expected that
this trend will continue.
Currently, the efficiency of mainstream PV modules, which for 95% of the
market share are made of silicon solar cells, is in the range of 16.5%–18%.
This means that such PV modules, under an irradiance of 1000 W/m2, generate
a power of 165–180 W/m2. Because the detailed functioning of PV cells and PV
modules goes beyond the scope of this book, we refer to the Chapter 3 for a short
overview of PV materials, PV cells, and PV modules as well as several standard
indicators that are common for addressing the performance of PV applications.
The indicators are efficiency and nominal power, watt-peak, and performance
ratio. More information about the fundamentals of PV technologies can be found
in the recently published book Photovoltaic Solar Energy—From Fundamentals
to Applications (Reinders et al. 2017).
Price reductions and a strong focus on enhancing the efficiency of PV mod-
ules was required for successful, broad adaptation of PV systems. Some peo-
ple say that we even have been too pessimistic about the adaptation of solar
technology. Namely, if this trend will continue in the coming years, electricity
generated by solar PV systems in 2030 will be at least five times as high as in
2018 (IEA 2019).
To reach the goals of the Paris Agreement signed in 2015 (UN 2015), 100%
renewable supply will be necessary by 2050. Therefore, a smooth energy transition
from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is one of the principal challenges that
mankind faces at the moment. It will delay and hopefully stop climate change caused
by the emission of large quantities of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Namely, these
emissions largely originate from our fossil energy demand, which as such should be
drastically reduced. In 2015, it was therefore agreed upon by the Paris Agreement
that the global temperature rise should stay below 2°C, actually preferably below
1.5°C, compared to preindustrial levels. This change from a fossil fuel society to one
based on renewable energy will require a huge effort by a varied group of stakehold-
ers: the public, policy makers, scientists, industry, engineers, and designers. Many
international and national agreements state that solar PV energy technologies will be
one of the main contributors to achieve a prospective 100% renewable energy supply.
And it is generally believed that both societal acceptance and technology develop-
ment will be key to realize this goal. It is known that the interdisciplinary field of
design can bring these two aspects together by the creation of products or systems,
which people like to use.
4 Designing with Photovoltaics

As such, it is not only low prices and high efficiencies that will lead to a suc-
cessful adaption in solar technology. Because solar PV modules can be visually
observed in the public space, their image and visual appearance are becoming
more important and might need changes (Figure 1.1). They no longer have to be
black or blue, or directed at a certain, fixed angle toward the sun. They no longer
have to contain a small part of the roof. Solar PV technologies can become a natu-
ral part of our environment, our buildings, and our cars. New PV technologies
make it possible to create more diversity in placing and integrating solar cells, in
terms of orientation and positioning, color, transparency, and even flexibility and
form giving. These developments are needed to stimulate the large-scale adapta-
tion of the technology, even more so in cities, where the energy demand density
is higher than elsewhere, and space is rare. Since the price of solar electricity has
lowered, there exists now an opportunity to consider the aesthetics features of
PV modules and PV systems for innovative ways of integration in buildings and
landscapes whether they are city or rural landscapes. Luckily, this is already hap-
pening in several PV projects.
The fact that citizens seem to be opposed against big solar parks is under-
standable. Namely, in their perception, beautiful nature landscapes are being
filled with PV systems. It is important to be aware of a possible rejection of solar
energy because in the recent past, people also weren’t supportive to windmills in
their surroundings leading to the NIMBY effect, which means Not In My Back
Yard. The Netherlands, or Low Countries, is a very flat country where sight goes
far. Thanks to well-planned projects, windmills and wind parks have become an
icon of the Dutch landscape. Perhaps, if we design them well, something simi-
lar will happen with solar PV systems (Figure 1.3). Design will be undeniably
necessary to create a new solar revolution beyond the already initiated energy
transition.

FIGURE 1.3 A well-integrated PV system looking like a French garden in the Efteling in
the Netherlands. (Courtesy of Angèle Reinders.)
Introduction 5

1.2 ASPECTS OF INTEREST FOR DESIGNING

WITH PHOTOVOLTAICS
Despite the situation sketched in the previous section, at present, the application of
PV solar cells and PV systems beyond primary energy production is still limited
(Figure 1.4). Earlier work revealed that the design potential of PV solar cells and PV
systems is often not fully used (Eggink and Reinders 2016); therefore, in this book,
the opportunities and challenges of designing with PV materials and systems are
explored in the context of five aspects that are relevant for successful product design.
The five aspects that are relevant for successful product design (Reinders et al.
2012) are: (1) technologies and manufacturing, (2) financial aspects, (3) societal con-
text, (4) human factors, and (5) design and styling, which all together form the so-
called innovation flower (Figure 1.5). These five aspects, the context for this book,
are subsequently discussed.
Technologies and manufacturing deals with PV materials that are used and the
manufacturing techniques that are used to create PV cells and PV modules. Also, the
electronic equipment that is applied to convert, distribute, monitor, and store solar
energy plays an important role.
The financial aspects deal with investments in solar systems and related PV prod-
ucts and the economic value of the energy produced.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.4 Two examples of designs that contain PV technologies that have been well
integrated: (a) “The Current Window” by Marjan van Aubel made of PV solar cells acting as
stained-glass elements, and (b) a solar-powered chandelier by Nina Edwards Anker.
 6

FIGURE 1.5 Innovation flower of industrial product design showing objects that contain integrated solar cells, such as a parka which can power mobile
phones, a solar powered electric passenger car, a building with integrated PV facades and conventional PV arrays with tracking systems.
Designing with Photovoltaics
Introduction 7

The societal context plays an important role in the realization and acceptance of PV
systems within society. Policy, regulations, laws, and standards are typically catego-
rized as societal aspects. However, the public opinion on sustainability and the willing-
ness to use PV technologies play important roles here. For instance, from a prior study,
it was concluded that respondents were quite positive about PV products that have an
environmentally friendly or a social character (Apostolou and Reinders 2016).
The fourth aspect of human factors deals with the use aspects of PV systems.
This is especially important in the case of PV systems in smart-grid solutions and
product-integrated PV. In the case of smart grids, for instance, the fact that energy
should be used when it is available, or in moments when the generation costs are low,
could compromise the usability of appliances when user interfaces of home energy
management systems are not well designed (Obinna et al. 2016).
The last aspect, design and styling, deals with the appearance of PV technologies,
whether these are stand-alone or integrated in products. An interesting and contem-
porary appearance can have a major influence on the desirability of PV-integrated
products but can also play a role in making PV systems more acceptable by its
users or in its environment of use, for instance, in the case of building-integrated
PV (BIPV) systems. Well-designed objects tend to encounter less resistance and also
have an increased functionality because of a positive and forgiving attitude of the
user. As Donald Norman stated, “Attractive things really do work better” (Norman
2004). Moreover, the communication function of design (Crilly et al. 2004) can help
to improve on the other four aspects, in particular, the human factors, and hence,
stimulate the acceptance of innovative technologies (Mugge and Schoormans 2012;
Eggink and Snippert 2017). This can be put in the vision of Sagmeister and Walsch
(2019) who run a creative agency in New York. According to them, beauty itself
is a function. It has transformative powers, and it influences the way we feel and
behave. They believe that beauty can improve people’s lives. Beauty means reaching
beyond what just works or what is simply pretty, making things more joyful and better
functioning.
Usually in the PV industry only two out of these five aspects, namely technologies
and manufacturing and financial aspects, are emphasized in product development
of PV modules. Sometimes a third aspect, the societal context, is taken along in the
design process; however, the two remaining aspects human factors and design and
styling, which are also required to create a successful product in the market, are usu-
ally neglected. This is a serious omission from the product development chain, which
potentially can negatively affect consumers’ long-term interest in PV products and,
as such, might limit the full exploitation of all PV markets. Therefore, it makes sense
to evaluate how we can design with PVs instead of just technologically applying it
(Eggink and Reinders 2016). And in this scope, Industrial Design Engineering can
play an important role.
Currently, the role and the impact of Industrial Design Engineering in the
Western world is still increasing. Even though not always recognized, Industrial
Design can be a key factor in making a company and its products competitive
because it improves and strengthens the company’s positions in their markets and
succeeds in translating technologies into products that have a different, innovative
image. Companies that invest in design tend to be more innovative, more profitable,
8 Designing with Photovoltaics

and grow faster than those who do not (EU 2009; DZDesign 1996; Gemser &
Leenders 2001). Likewise, this is confirmed by other studies on the Dutch design
sector by TNO (2005) and Gemser et al. (2006). These studies clearly state the
significant contribution of Industrial Design Engineering to the competitiveness of
industry. If this is true for a diverse range of different industries, then this should
also apply to the PV sector.
As mentioned before, the aesthetic appeal of PV modules and PV systems will
become more important; now they will have greater visibility through their integra-
tion in buildings, cityscapes, and rural landscapes. Therefore, attention should be
paid to beauty in the context of product design. Also, Steve Jobs subscribed to the
idea that aesthetics is as important as functionality (Isaacson 2011). He dedicated
his whole career to everyday electronics products that aren’t just efficient or use-
ful, but also well-designed. The best-known example resulting from Jobs’ visionary
ideas is the iPhone, which with a simple, elegant shape has been copied by many
other cell phone brands.

1.3 DEFINING INDUSTRIAL DESIGN ENGINEERING

Before continuing, it would be useful to shortly evaluate the definitions that exist for
Industrial Design Engineering. For instance, the World Design Organization (WDO
2019), formerly known as the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design
(ICSID) (ICSID 2005), defines Industrial Design as “a strategic problem-solving
process that drives innovation, builds business success, and leads to a better quality
of life through innovative products, systems, services, and experiences.” According
to an extended description, Industrial Design is “a strategic problem-solving process
that drives innovation, builds business success, and leads to a better quality of life
through innovative products, systems, services, and experiences. Industrial Design
bridges the gap between what is and what’s possible. It is a trans-disciplinary profes-
sion that harnesses creativity to resolve problems and co-create solutions with the
intent of making a product, system, service, experience or a business, better. At its
heart, Industrial Design provides a more optimistic way of looking at the future
by reframing problems as opportunities. It links innovation, technology, research,
business, and customers to provide new value and competitive advantage across eco-
nomic, social, and environmental spheres” (WDO 2019).
These definitions are very descriptive and rather instrumental, showing more or
less what designers do: working in offices while being creative for the benefit of
companies, clients, consumers, and users.
A more meaningful definition of what Industrial Design really can bring is needed
to understand its role in the engineering process. Looking at the first definition,
the “humanization of technologies” can also be referred to as “making technology
available for people.” Other important aspects in this definition are the creativity
and the cultural and economic exchange. On a broader level, design can be seen
as the human capacity for changing the world around us in a preferable direction:
“design, stripped to its essence, can be defined as the human capacity to shape
and make our environment in ways without precedent in nature, to serve our needs
and give meaning to our lives” (Heskett 2002). In this context, industrial designs
Introduction 9

can serve two types of functionality: the utility function serving our needs, and
the significance function providing meaning. The latter is related to the previously
mentioned cultural exchange. The economic factor and the importance of innova-
tion in making products and companies competitive mentioned in the previous para-
graph is apparent in the definition of design as a creator of value by Dorst (2011).
In this definition, design practice is represented with the simple equation “WHAT
(thing) + HOW (working principle) leads to VALUE (aspired).” In the equation, the
“value” can represent all sorts of things from a more convenient way of delivering
packages to a more sustainable way of lighting the streets. The “value” can relate
to both economic value for consumers and companies, as well as cultural value for
users and society, which is also apparent in the definition by the WDO.
When related to innovation, this dual characteristic of the value of Industrial
Design is best illustrated by the theory of Design-Driven Innovation by Verganti
(2009). Here, innovation can be derived from both technology development—
inventing a more efficient way to harvest the energy from the sun—as well as the
design of things (Figure 1.6). Verganti speaks of design-driven innovation as “radi-
cally changing what things mean,” which refers to the previously mentioned cultural
value of things. One can think of the design of solar panels, which at first were only
seen as technical installations, to be set up on rooftops and in desserts. However
recently, solar panels have become available in different colors and prints, chang-
ing the meaning of the panels from “installation” into “decoration.” In this sense,
Verganti distinguishes his theory from existing opposing innovation paradigms of
either technology push or market pull or a combination thereof, by the introduction
of the concepts of meaning and cultural value.

FIGURE 1.6 Design-driven innovations. (Adapted from Verganti, R., 2009, by Eggink and
Reinders.)
10 Designing with Photovoltaics

The dual characteristic of innovation is in its turn also apparent in the charac-
terization of design by Heskett; technological innovation refers to the improve-
ment of the utility function, whereas design-driven innovation refers to the
improvement of the significance function. So our definition of design for this
book can be ­written as:

Design is the creation of value, which can be derived from both the innovative application
of working principles (utility) as well as the innovative design of meanings (significance).

Technology also needs to be accepted, and even naturalized. Van Mensvoort

(2019) created the Pyramid of Technology. It describes the various levels of func-
tions in peoples’ lives (Figure 1.7). “Technology can become so accepted that we
experience it as a vital or even a natural part of our lives” said Van Mensvoort in
2014. His pyramid is inspired by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow 1943),
which describes human requirements, such as nutrition, shelter, security, and love
in subsequent stages. Similar to Maslow’s model, technologies can move up and
down through various levels of the pyramid, while lower stages need to be fulfilled
before the next stage can be attained. It can serve as a tool for scientists, inventors,
engineers, designers, and entrepreneurs to position themselves in the playing field
of technological development and eventually create better technologies, products,
or systems.
A new technology may seem artificial at first (e.g., quantum computing). But when
the technology rises from the base of the pyramid toward the top, it can become so
accepted that we experience it as a vital or even natural part of our lives. We could
say that at the moment PV technologies are applied and accepted; however, they
definitively have not been naturalized or become invisible yet.
According to Dorst (2011) again, the complexity within contemporary conceptual
design is that in most cases only the desired value of the end result is known at the

FIGURE 1.7 Pyramid of Technology by Koert Van Mensvoort.

Introduction 11

beginning of the process. This means that design engineers, in order to reach consid-
erable value, must develop the “what” (a design, product, or service) and the “how”
(a working principle) simultaneously. To cater this creative problem-solving process,
one can see that it is important to know as many working principles as possible.
“What,” in its turn, leads to the purpose of this book: informing our readers about
the many possibilities of PV technologies as a “how” for design.

1.4 STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK

Given the framework of the innovation flower and context of Industrial Design
Engineering, the setup of this book is as following. In Chapter 2, a short history of
PV products will be given. In Chapter 3, PV technologies and their design features
related to—among others—coloring and form giving, are presented to provide a
general context for the subsequent chapters about product-integrated PV (Chapter 4),
BIPV (Chapter 5), and users of PV products (Chapter 6). In between these chapters,
various interesting design cases are shown, which will give insights in actual design
processes as well as in challenges encountered and solutions found by the design
of a solar-powered table; the colorful products that can be designed by luminescent
solar-concentrator PV technologies; the design of a solar-powered chandelier called
Virtue of Blue; solar racing cars; the Solaris building, which is a BIPV project; and
a solar-powered charging station for e-bikes.

REFERENCES
Apostolou, G. and A.H.M.E. Reinders (2016). How do users interact with PV-powered prod-
ucts? Investigating 100 lead users and 6 PV products. Journal of Design Research,
14(1), 66–93.
Crilly, N., J. Moultrie, and P.J. Clarkson (2004). Seeing things: Consumer response to the
visual domain in product design. Design Studies, 25(6), 547–577.
Dorst, K. (2011). The core of “design thinking” and its application. Design Studies, 32(6),
521–532.
DZDesign (1996). Diseno industrial: Beneficio para las empresas. Bilbao: DZDesign.
Eggink, W. and A.H.M.E. Reinders (2016). Product integrated PV: The future is design and
styling, Proceedings of 32nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and
Exhibition. Munich, Germany: EU PVSEC.
Eggink, W. and J. Snippert (2017). Future aesthetics of technology; context specific theo-
ries from design and philosophy of technology. The Design Journal, Design for Next:
Proceedings of the 12th European Academy of Design Conference, Rome, Italy,
pp. 196–208.
EU (2009). Design as driver of user-centred innovation. C. o. t. E. Communities. Brussels:
Commission of the European Communities.
FhG-ISE (2019). Fraunhofer Institute of Solar Energy Systems, Photovoltaics Report, www.
ise.fraunhofer.de, visited June 2019.
Gemser, G. and M.A.A.M. Leenders (2001). How integrating industrial design in the product
development process impacts on company performance. Journal of Product Innovation
Management, 18(1), 1–61.
12 Designing with Photovoltaics

Gemser, G., D. Jacobs, and R. Ten Cate (2006). Design and competitive advantage in tech-
nology-driven sectors: The role of usability and aesthetics in Dutch IT companies,
Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 18(5), 561–580.
Heskett, J. (2002). Toothpicks & Logos, Design in Everyday Life. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
ICSID (2005). Definition of Industrial Design. http://www.icsid.org/about/Definition_of_
Design/. Accessed May 2005.
IEA (2019). International Energy Agency, Tracking Clean Energy Progress: Solar PV, www.
iea.org/tcep/power/renewables/solarpv/, visited June 2019.
Isaacson, W. (2011). Steve Jobs: The Exclusive Biography, Little. London, UK: Brown Book
Group.
Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human motivation, Psychological Review, 50, 370.
Mugge, R. and J.P.L. Schoormans (2012). Product design and apparent usability. The influ-
ence of novelty in product appearance. Applied Ergonomics, 43, 1081–1088.
Norman, D.A. (2004). Emotional Design: Why We Love (or Hate) Everyday Things.
New York: Basic Books.
Obinna, U., P. Joore, L. Wauben, and A.H.M.E. Reinders (2016). Insights from stakehold-
ers of five residential smart grid pilot projects in the Netherlands. Smart Grid and
Renewable Energy, 7, 1–15.
PV Magazine (2019). Module Price Index, May 2019, www.pv-magazine.com/module-price-
index/, visited June 2019.
Reinders, A.H.M.E., J.C. Diehl, and J.C. Brezet (2012). The Power of Design. Chichester,
UK: Wiley, p. 331.
Reinders, A.H.M.E., P.J. Verlinden, W.G.J.H.M. Van Sark, and A. Freundlich (2017).
Photovoltaic Solar Energy from Fundamentals to Applications. London, UK: John
Wiley & Sons.
Sagmeister, S. and J. Walsh (2019). Sagmeister & Walsh: Beauty. New York: Phaidon Press.
ISBN: 9780714877273. https://sagmeisterwalsh.com/about/, visited in June 2019.
TNO (2005). Design in the Creative Economy – A Summary. Amsterdam, the Netherlands:
Premsela Foundation.
United Nations (UN) (2015). Paris Agreement. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_
paris_agreement.pdf.
Van Mensvoort, K. (2019). Next Nature-Waarom technologie onze natuurlijke toekomst is.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Maven Publishing.
Verganti, R. (2009). Design-Driven Innovation, Changing the Rules of Competition by
Radically Innovating What Things Mean. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
WDO (2019). World Design Organization (WDO), Definition of Industrial Design. https://
wdo.org/about/definition/. Accessed June 2019.
Introduction 13

Design Case 1
Current Table

Marjan van Aubel, Peter Krige, and Angèle Reinders

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Current Table is a connected, self-powered table with integrated dye-­sensitized
solar cells (DSSCs). The cells are a third-generation solar technology and are
so sensitive to light that they work even in diffuse light, both natural and
artificial. Their sensitivity and responsiveness to light opens up the potential
for solar products and applications beyond the traditional PV direct sunlight
model.
This solar innovation inspired the creation of Current Table and with a strong
design approach led to some unique qualities of the integrated DSSC modules.
The table is seen as a “living object.” It is autonomous and communicates
intelligently to the user where it functions best. There are embedded light sen-
sors that measure the light intensity and spectrum components in the room,
which are visualized through a mobile application.
Away from any mains wired infrastructure, devices such as tablets and phones
can be charged through integrated batteries and USB ports in the table legs.
The table is an example of an object with a double function, both a functional
power source and a subtle, aesthetic object where solar technology is integrated
naturally.
1.2 VISION: LIVING OBJECTS
How can solar technology be more integrated into our daily environment?
The decrease in price and increase in efficiency of solar technology has not been
enough to ensure adoption by consumers, homeowners, and cityscapes. Rules
and regulations can prevent access to these technologies. For someone who
doesn’t own their own house, or lives in an old city such as Amsterdam, it
is often not permitted to have solar technology on their roof because it will
influence the protected architecture. How can these regulations be adapted
or influenced? Schemes such as renting solar panels on a different location
would make it possible to own or use solar panels. Again, the relationship the
consumer has with solar technology is even farther away. If the consumer is
confronted with this on a daily basis, it will also affect his or her awareness
and behavior.
The relation between energy production and the objects that use it needs to
be reconsidered. True behavioral change is needed for the adoption of a cleaner
technology. To do this, design plays a significant role; a sensitivity to the aesthet-
ics around us is required.
Design enables objects to inhabit our spaces and become embedded into our
daily lives and experiences. What if everyday objects turn into power sources
14 Designing with Photovoltaics

FIGURE DC-1.1 Current Window, 2015 London.

and power themselves? A window that doesn’t only work as window but can also
work as a power source that generates electricity.
“Current Window” designed by Dutch designer Marjan van Aubel
(Figure DC-1.1) is a modern version of stained glass that generates its own
electricity. Colored dye cells in the window itself use the properties of color to
generate useful energy. It also forms part of a “smart” system, working with
other connected home systems to provide additional energy. Through inte-
grated USB ports, devices can be charged directly from the window sill or be
connected to charge a centralized home battery.
Alongside the window is another living object: “Current Table” (Figure DC-1.2).
It uses built-in solar cells to generate its own electricity. Both objects use transpar-
ent “organic” and “dye-sensitized” solar cells to make electricity. These are both
solar technologies that mimic photosynthesis to create an electric current. The aim
is to give power to the consumer. Use the possibilities of our environment, the sun,
and transform that into usable energy through design.

FIGURE DC-1.2 Current Table, 2017 London.

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
seem idle; but when a portion of the leaf has been folded backward,
out of sight, the folded part may very likely escape notice, and, to
insert it, many pages of matter may afterward require to be overrun:
we have known such cases.
Abbreviate those words only, which you wish the printer to
abbreviate.
Never erase with a lead pencil; for an erasure with lead leaves it
questionable whether or not the marked {p29} word is to go in. Use
ink, drawing the pen horizontally through the words or lines to be
omitted; and be careful that the marking leave off on exactly the
right word. If you afterward regret the cancellation, you may write
“stet” in the margin, and place dots under the canceled words; but
as “stet” may not be noticed, in the presence of obvious erasures,
the better way will be to re-write the passage, and paste it in the
place you wish it to occupy.
Take time to write plainly and legibly. In writing for the press, the
old adage holds good,—“The more haste, the worse speed”; and for
every hour you save by writing hurriedly, you will be called upon to
pay for several hours’ labor in making corrections. Write joinhand:
mistakes often arise from a long word being broken up, as it were,
into two or three words.
I and J are often mistaken for each other. Either imitate the
printed letters, or uniformly carry the loop of the J below the line.
It is often impossible to distinguish Jan. from June, in
manuscript, unless the context furnishes a clew.
Whatever may be the divisions of your work (as books, chapters,
sections, cantos, and the like), let your entire manuscript be paged
in the order of the natural series of numbers from 1 upward. If you
commence each division with 1,—as is sometimes done,—and two or
three divisions are given out as “takes” to compositors, it is obvious
that portions of one division may exchange places with those of
another; and, further, if leaves happen to become transposed, they
can readily be restored to their right {p30} places if no duplicate
numbers have been used in indicating the pages.
Make sure that the books, chapters, etc., are numbered
consecutively. The best proof-reader must confess to some
unguarded moments; and it would be very awkward, after having
had two hundred and forty chapters stereotyped, to find that two
chapter V.’s have been cast, that every subsequent chapter is
numbered one less than it should have been, and that compositor
and proof-reader have exactly followed copy.
Examine your manuscript carefully with reference to the points.
Avoid the dash when any other point will answer your purpose. A
manuscript that is over-punctuated occasions more perplexity than
one that is scarcely pointed at all.
Before sending it to press, get your manuscript into a shape you
can abide by. Alterations made on the proof-sheet must be paid for;
and, further, matter that has undergone alterations seldom makes a
handsome page: some lines will appear crowded, others too widely
spaced.
In writing a footnote¹ let it immediately follow
¹ In many works the footnotes, by a slight change of arrangement, might
advantageously become a portion of the text.
the line of text which contains the asterisk, or other reference-mark;
just as you see in the above example, and do not write it at the
bottom of the manuscript page. The person who makes up the
matter will transfer such note to its proper place.
 If you feel obliged to strike out a word from the {p31} proof,
endeavor to insert another, in the same sentence, and in the same
line if possible, to fill the space. So, if you insert a word or words,
see whether you can strike out, nearly at the same place, as much
as you insert.
When writing for the press, never use a lead pencil. Let your
copy be made with black ink on good white paper. We have been
pained to see the checkered pages of a report to an extensive
religious association, which report had been in the first place wholly
written with a lead pencil: then words canceled, words interlined,
various changes made,—and all these alterations done with pen and
ink. Of course, sleeve and hand rubbing over the plumbago gave the
whole a dingy and blurred appearance. The effect of the ink
sprinkled among the faded pencilings was so much like that of
mending an old garment with new cloth, that the manuscript had an
unchristian, nay, even heathenish aspect. However, from this copy
the report was printed,—let us charitably hope that it did much good
in the world.
If proof-sheets present peculiarities of spelling and language,
such for instance as appear in ancient works, and which are affected
or indulged in by some moderns, every word whose correctness he
doubts and is unable to verify, should be referred by the proof-
reader to author or editor. The latter, familiar with the terms used,
may consider some queries frivolous or puerile; but an author should
appreciate conscientiousness in the reader, and be glad to have {p32}
all doubts settled before his work reaches the eyes of reviewers.
That Dr. Johnson was guilty of harshness toward a proof-reader
is not to be wondered at; but it is a matter of wonder that his
conduct appears to have been approved by other editors. In J. T.
Buckingham’s edition of Shakspeare (1814) is, at page 915, a
remarkable note, apologizing for a few “trifling errors,” and adopting
as an excuse a quotation from an advertisement “from the first
edition of Reed, 1793”:
He, whose business it is to offer this unusual apology, very well remembers to
have been sitting with Dr. Johnson, when an agent from a neighboring press
brought in a proof sheet of a republication, requesting to know whether a
particular word in it was not corrupted. “So far from it, sir,” (replied the Doctor
with some harshness,) “that the word you suspect, and would displace, is
conspicuously beautiful where it stands, and is the only one that could do the
duty expected from it by Mr. Pope.”

Dr. Johnson’s assumption that the agent would displace the word,
seems to have been wholly gratuitous. The employees of the
neighboring press did precisely what they should have done,—what
every conscientious proof-reader often feels obliged to do. If
suspected words were passed without questioning, there would be
many errors of the press which would justify some show of
“harshness” toward the neglectful “agent.”
 CHAPTER II.
PROOF-READING.

So long as authors the most accomplished are liable to err, so long

as compositors the most careful make occasional mistakes, so long
as dictionaries authorize various spellings, just so long must there be
individuals trained and training to detect errors, to rectify mistakes,
and to decide upon and settle all points which lex­ic­ og­raphers leave
in doubt. Such individuals are known as Proof-readers.
Movable types, after having been used in printing newspaper or
book, etc., are distributed to their several compartments (boxes) for
future use. In distributing, the compositor, holding several lines in his
left hand, takes from the top line, between the thumb and forefinger
of his right hand, as many words or letters as he can conveniently
manipulate, and moving his hand over the case drops each letter
into its proper box. Suppose, for instance, he takes up the word
“feasible”; he carries his hand to the “f” box, and drops off the first
letter; of course he knows, without looking at the word again, that
he is next to drop off the “e”—and so, very quickly, his hand glides
from box to box, each receiving its proper letter. This process is
repeated until the {p34} types which composed the form are all,
apparently, returned to the compartments whence they were taken.
Suppose, however, that when ready to distribute “feasible,” his
attention is drawn momentarily to a neighbor who desires his
opinion as to a blotted word in his take, and that, on returning to his
work of distributing, he imagines, or seems to remember, that the
word in hand is “fencible,”—the “a” goes into the “n” box, and the
“s” finds itself at “c.” By and by, in setting type from this same case,
the compositor picks up the letters for “emancipate.” If he happens
to take up the two wrong letters consecutively from the right boxes,
his proof-sheet—unless he reads and corrects the matter in his stick
—will present the word “emaasipate”—which the proof-reader will
mark, for the compositor to correct.
Or it may happen in distributing, that the “f” and “e” cohere, and
are both dropped into the “f” box. If the compositor’s mind is not
intent on the matter in hand, the error may not be noticed at once;
in which case the “a” gets into the “e” box, and some or all the other
letters of the word go wrong. The error must be discovered when
the last letter is reached; but to search for each misplaced type until
it is found, would probably take more time than would be required to
correct the errors which must otherwise appear in the proof.
But it is not in distributing only, that blunders occur. There are
many other sources of error, and will be so long as present methods
continue in vogue. {p35} The only wonder is, that so few errors
escape detection before the printer’s work is handed over to the
reading public. We have by us an octavo Shakspeare, each page of
type from which it was printed, having contained, as can be
demonstrated, over six thousand pieces of metal, the misplacing of
any one of which would have caused a blunder.
But the detection and marking of wrong letters forms a
comparatively small part of a proof-reader’s duty. He must be able to
tell at sight whether a lead is too thick or too thin, and to
discriminate between a three-em space and a four-em space. Many
other important matters fall within his province,—and these we shall
endeavor to point out before closing the present chapter.
Other things being equal, printers make the best proof-readers.
We have known two or three remarkably skillful readers, whose work
could not be surpassed, who never imposed a form, nor set a line of
type. These, however, were rare exceptions.
A practical printer who never heard of the digamma, and who
has never read anything but newspapers, will generally make a
better proof-reader than an educated man who is not practically
acquainted with the typographic art; for the printer has, year in and
year out, had a daily drill which makes him skillful in orthography,
and he has been compelled to give close attention to the
grammatical points. Further, his dealing with individual types enables
him to see, without searching, errors which men far more learned
than he, do not readily {p36} perceive; and his pen pounces on a
wrong letter as instinctively and unerringly as the bird darts on its
insect prey.
Sterne has uttered a sneer at the husk and shell of learning; but
the best bread is made from the whole meal, and includes the
“shorts” and the “middlings” as well as the fine flour. If every lawyer,
physician, and clergyman were to spend six months at the “case”
before entering upon his profession, he would find, even in that
short term of labor, a useful fitting and preparation for such literary
tasks as may afterward devolve upon him.
Nearly all manuscript copy is indebted to the compositor and
proof-reader for the proper punctuation; and many errors in spelling,
made by men who probably know better, but write hastily, are
silently corrected in the printing-office. Contradictions, errors of fact,
anachronisms, imperfect sentences, solecisms, barbarisms, are
modestly pointed out to the author by the proof-reader’s “quære,” or
by a carefully worded suggestion; and, most usually, the proof is
returned without comment,—and none is needed,—corrected
according to the proof-reader’s intimations. Dickens, and a few other
writers of eminence, have acknowledged their indebtedness in such
cases; but we know one proof-reader—whose experience embraces
an infinite variety of subjects from bill-heads to Bibles—who can
remember but three cases in which his assistance, whether valuable
or otherwise, was alluded to in a kindly manner. On the other hand,
the correction in the proof is sometimes {p37} accompanied by some
testy remark: as, “Does this suit you?” or, “Will it do now?” The
proof-reader is, however, or should be, perfectly callous to all
captious criticisms and foolish comments; he need care nothing for
“harshness” or other nonsense, provided his work is well and
thoroughly done. Let no nervous or touchy man meddle with proof-
reading.
For the especial benefit of our non-professional readers, we will
here point out the usual routine in regard to proofs. The editor or
publisher of a book or periodical sends to the printer such portions
of reading-matter or manuscript as he can, from time to time,
conveniently supply. This copy is passed to a head-workman, who
divides it into a number of parts, called “takes,” each part being a
suitable quantity for a compositor to take at one time; and the name
of each compositor is penciled at the top of his take. The type when
set up is called “matter.”
 When there is enough matter to fill a “galley” (a metallic or
wooden casing about two feet in length), an impression, or “proof,”
is taken on a strip of paper wide enough to receive in the margin the
correction of such errors as may be found. This proof, with the
corresponding copy, is carried to the proof-reader’s desk for
examination and correction.
The reader will have at hand a copy of such directions as may
have been furnished by author, editor, or publisher, to which he
appends, from time to time, memoranda of all eccentricities of
orthography and cap­i­tal­iz­ a­tion,—in short, all peculiarities of style, as
they arise. This he consults frequently while {p38} reading the proof-
sheet, and, for obvious reasons, with especial attention after any
unusual delay in the progress of the work. Directions and notes as to
captions, sizes of type, form of tables, etc., are of utility, especially
when several readers are employed on the same publication; but
directions can scarcely be framed so as to ensure⁠[3] uniformity,
except in few particulars. We subjoin two or three samples of
directions and memoranda: our remarks in brackets.
3 Vide page 170, on the orthography of this word.

MEMORANDA FOR PROOF-READERS.

The form is regular octavo.
Text is long primer, single leaded.
Tables and lists, having rules and boxheads, nonpareil solid.
Headings of tables and lists, brevier italic, lower case.
There are no numbered chapters. The heading of each section, which takes
the place of chapter heading, is pica light-face celtic caps, spaced.
Geological ages and epochs are capitalized; for example, “Devonian,” “Trias,”
“sub-Carboniferous” v. [page 176.]
 Quoted extracts in regular text type (long primer), between quotation marks.
Capitalize “the West,” “the South,” etc., but not “western New York,” “central
Pennsylvania,” etc.
Do not use “&c.” for “etc.”
“Prof.,” “Gen.,” etc., preceding initials or Christian name; “Professor,”
“General,” etc., when last name alone is used; for example, “Prof. J. Smith,”
“General Grant,” etc.
Full point after roman numerals.
“Saint Louis,” etc.; spell out “Saint.”
Names of periodicals, in italics.
Names of books, roman, in quotation marks.
“Panther creek”; but “Panther Creek district.” That is, capitalize titles. {p39}

The following sample relates to an octavo on Fishes:

Make “cod fishery” two words.
“Offshore,” “Inshore” [no hyphen].
“Sheepshead” [name of fish. Webster inserts an apostrophe and a hyphen,
—“Sheep’s-head”].
“Herring fisheries” [no hyphen].
“Herring-nets” [insert hyphen].

From a quarto on Fishes:

“Cod-fisherman” [hyphen].
“Cod fishery” [two words].

Engineer work:
Make footnotes of the “Remarks” column.
For “D. D.” in copy, spell “dry-dock.”
Use figures in all cases, for weights, distances, etc.

The following was for a Digest—Decisions:

Spell “travelling,” “employee,” and divide “ser-vice.” [“Travelling” and “ser-vice”
are Worcester style. Webster divides “serv-ice.”—In regard to “employee,” neither
Webster nor Worcester gives it place; but, instead, the French “employé.” Webster
has this note following the French word: “The English form of this word, viz.,
employee, though perfectly conformable to analogy, and therefore perfectly
legitimate, is not sanctioned by the usage of good writers.” Since Webster’s note
was written, some good writers, as in the book of Decisions above mentioned,
have used the English word, as many printing-office employees can testify,—and
“employé” may as well be sent home, according to the immigration laws, as
unable to sustain itself in this country.⁠[4]]
4 Since the above remark was written, we have found “employee” admitted as a
correct English word, in Worcester’s “Supplement.”

Weather Reports:
The “upper Missouri valley” [small v].
The “Mississippi river” [small r].

Geological Survey:
The “Missouri Valley” [cap. V].
The “Missouri River” [cap. R].

The proof-reader knows, that (as we have already remarked)

every printing-office has a style of its own; that, if left to itself, its
style would be practically uniform and always respectable,—and he
soon learns that some writers for the press have very firm opinions
about matters of little or no consequence, and are very tenacious, if
not pugnacious, in preferring tweedledee to tweedledum; not
because it is written with more e’s, but because it is more correct—in
their opinion. However great may be a reader’s capacity for
memorizing trifling details, it is next to impossible to keep minute
verbal differences on different mental shelves. After the big book is
bound, one will be likely to find a mingling of styles; the big River of
one page becomes a little river on the next; “Pittsburg” here, reads
“Pittsburgh” there; and the dignified “National Park” of the first
chapter will dwindle to a mere “national park” in chapter the twelfth.
If not hurried by a press of work, as may sometimes be the case,
the reader will first glance at the proof as a whole. A variation in the
thickness of the leads, or a wrong indention, will, in this tout-
ensemble survey, very quickly catch his eye. Then, still supposing he
has time, he will read the galley through silently, correcting errors in
spelling; marking turned or inverted letters; improving the {p41}
spacing, the punctuation; noting whether the heads and subheads
are in the required type; whether the cap­i­tal­iz­ a­tion is uniform;
whether—if the “slip” beneath his eye happen to be near the end of
a large volume—the word “ourang-outang” which he now meets
with, was not printed somewhere in the earlier part of the work as
“orang-outang,” or, in fact, whether, after some questioning, it finally
went to press as “orang-utan,”—which word he must now, to
preserve uniformity, hunt for and find among his old proofs, if,
peradventure, author or publisher, or other person, have not
borrowed them “for a few minutes,”—alas! never to be returned.
Having settled this, and all similar cases and other doubtful
matters, he hands the copy to an assistant, called a “copy-holder,”
whose duty it is to read the copy aloud, while he himself keeps his
eye on the print (but in newspaper offices, for the sake of greater
celerity, the proof-reader often reads aloud, while the copy-holder
follows him silently, intent on the copy: interrupting, however,
whenever any discrepancy is observed). If the reader desire the
copy-holder to pause while he makes a correction, he repeats the
word where he wishes the reading to stop; when ready to proceed
he again pronounces the same word, and the copy-holder reads on
from that place.
The manner of marking, in the text, all errors noticed, is shown,
infra, in the “Specimen of First Proof.” The corrections to be made
are indicated, in the margin, by appropriate words or characters
from “Marks used in correcting Proofs”—also {p42} inserted below.
Writers for the press who themselves examine proof-sheets of their
works, should familiarize themselves with proof-reading technics. An
author who received for the first time some proof-sheets returned
them “clean”—apparently having detected no errors. He was
afterward disgusted on finding it necessary to print a leaf of “errata,”
and complained that his corrections had been entirely disregarded.
On re-examining the proofs he had returned, it was found that he
had corrected—with knife as well as pen. Where a comma was
wanting, he had used the pen, carefully and skillfully imitating the
printed character; and to convert semicolons into commas he had
brought the knife into play,—nicely scratching out the superfluous
part of the point.
Sometimes a line, or it may be several lines, of type are by some
mishap out of perpendicular—slanting; so that only one side of each
letter-face shows a full impression on the proof. It is usual in such
case to draw several slanting marks across the faulty line or lines,
and make similar marks in the margin. It is quite common, also, for
readers to insert in the margin the words “off its feet,”—that being
the printing-office designation for sloping matter. One reader
abandoned writing these words, for two reasons: the first, that a
compositor, when correcting, inserted them in the text, making an
astonishing sentence; the second, that the marked passage,—a
piece of close, logical reasoning,—after being carefully scanned by
the author, was brought to the reader, with a very earnest request
that he would {p43} point out what justice there was in that bluff
remark. It is enough to draw what beginners in writing call “straight
marks” across the matter, and also in the margin. We append
other—
MARKS USED IN CORRECTING PROOFS.
Insert an em-quadrat.
Dele, take out; expunge.
Insert space.
Less space.
Close up entirely.
Dele some type, and insert a space in lieu
of what is removed.
Dele some type, and close up.
Broken or battered type.
Plane down a letter. Push down a space or
quadrat.
. . . . Placed under erased words, restores them.
Written in the margin, restores a canceled
word or passage, or such portions of
erased text as have dots under them.
Begin paragraph.
Remove to left.
Remove to right.
Carry higher up on page.
Carry down.
Four lines subscript, denote italic capitals.
Three lines subscript, denote capitals.
Two lines subscript, denote small capitals.
 One line subscript, denotes italics.
Wrong font.
Transpose.
Period.
Colon.
Apostrophe.
=/ Hyphen.
–/ En-dash.
|—| Em-dash.
If there is an omission (an “out”) make a caret at
the place of the out, and if the out is short, write the
omitted word or words in margin; if long, write in
margin “out—see copy,” and pin to the proof the
sheet of copy containing the omitted portion.
Lower-case.
Small capitals.
or or calls attention to some doubtful word or
sentence.

Several other marks are used, which need no explanation.

In order to show our readers the practical application of the
above marks, we will suppose the following paragraph from Guizot
to be put in type abounding in errors, and will then exhibit the
corrections as made by the proof-reader:
 SPECIMEN OF FIRST PROOF.

The above is very bad, even for a first proof,—but we have seen
worse, and have, perhaps, ourself been responsible for some not
much better. While the copy-holder is reading aloud the copy from
which {p45} the above was set up, the reader is busy marking errors,
and making such characters in the margin as will inform the
compositors what is to be done to make their work correct. At the
conclusion of the reading, the proof will present an appearance
somewhat like this corrected—
 SPECIMEN OF FIRST PROOF.

If the proof in hand be a reprint, and the new edition is to

conform to the old, the copy-holder, while reading, pronounces aloud
the points, capitals, etc., {p46} as they occur in the copy—saving labor
and time by using well-understood ab­bre­vi­a­tions. Take, for instance,
the second stanza of Tennyson’s “Voyage”:
“Warm broke the breeze against the brow,
Dry sang the tackle, sang the sail:
The Lady’s-head upon the prow
Caught the shrill salt, and sheer’d the gale.
The broad seas swell’d to meet the keel,
And swept behind: so quick the run,
We felt the good ship shake and reel,
We seem’d to sail into the Sun!”

This stanza the copy-holder reads thus:

Quote “Warm broke the breeze against the brow, (com.)
Dry sang the tackle, (com.) sang the sail: (colon.)
The Lady’s-(cap. pos. s, hyphen.)head upon the prow
Caught the shrill salt, (com.) and sheer’(pos.)d the gale. (full point.)
The broad seas swell’(pos.)d to meet the keel, (com.)
And swept behind: (colon.) so quick the run, (com.)
We felt the good ship shake and reel, (com.)
We seem’(pos.)d to sail into the Sun!” (cap. exclam. close of quote.)

If the work extend beyond a single galley, the slips of proof are
marked in regular sequence, A, B, C, etc., or 1, 2, 3, etc. Each slip is
marked at top “First Proof”: the names of the compositors, which
have been inscribed on their “takes,” are duly transferred to the
printed proof, which, with the errors plainly noted thereon, is then
given for correction to the same persons who set up the matter.
Their duty having been attended to, a “second proof” is taken: {p47}
this the reader compares carefully with the first, to ascertain
whether the requisite changes of type have been properly made;
whether “doublets” have been taken out, and “outs” put in. If any
mark has escaped the notice of the compositors, it is transferred to
the second proof. Close attention should be given to this process of
“revising”; it is not enough to see that a wrong letter has been taken
out, and a right one put in; in the line where a change has been
made, all the words should be compared, and also the line above
and the line below a correction,—since in correcting an error among
movable types, some of the types may move when they ought not,
and get misplaced.
As what escapes the notice of one observer may be perceived by
another, this second proof is again “read by copy” by another proof-
reader and assistant, and a second time corrected and revised. The
“third proof” is now sent to the author, editor, or publisher, with so
much copy as may cover it, the copy-holder being careful, however,
to retain the “mark-off”; i. e., the sheet on which is marked off the
place where the next “first proof” is to begin. But when the work is
of such sort as not to require extraordinary care, the second proof is
sent out, a single reading by copy being deemed sufficient. If the
work is read twice by copy, only one reader should attend to the
punctuation.
If, now, the copy have been hastily or carelessly prepared, or if
the author have gained new light since he prepared it, the outside
party having charge {p48} of the work (whom, for convenience, we
will designate as the “author”) will return his proofs, full of erasures,
additions, alterations, interlineations, and transpositions. With these
the original compositors have no concern; the changes required are
made by “the office,” and the time is charged to the person who
contracted for the printing of the work.
A second, third, or even more consecutive revises of the same
slip are sometimes sent to the author, to the intent that he may see
for himself that his corrections have been duly made, and to allow
him further opportunity to introduce such alterations as to him may
seem desirable. Usually, however, the work, after the correction of
the author’s first proof, is made up into pages; and when there are
enough of these for a “signature” or form of octavo, duodecimo, or
whatever the number of pages on the sheet may be, the proof-
reader revises these pages by the author’s latest returned proof, cuts
off the slip at the line where the last page ends, and sends the
folded leaves, labeled “Second,” “Third,” or “Fourth” proof, as the
case may be, together with the corresponding slips of the next
previous proof, to the author, as before. The portion of slip proof
remaining—termed the “make-up”—should be inscribed with the
proper page, and the letter or figure which is to be the signature of
the next sheet, and given, for his guidance, to the person who
makes up the work; to be returned again to the proof-reader, with
the other slip proofs of the next sheet of made-up pages, when that
is ready for revision. {p49}
The author may be desirous of seeing a fifth, sixth, or, as the
algebraists say, any number, n, of proofs. When he expresses himself
as satisfied with his share of the correcting, the last author’s proof is
corrected, a “revise” taken, and the proof-reader gives this last
revise a final reading for the press. As any errors which escape
detection now, will show themselves in the book, this last reading
should be careful, deliberate, and painstaking. See to it, my young
beginner, that the “signature” is the letter or number next in
sequence to that on your previous press-proof. See to it, that the
first page of the sheet in hand connects in reading with the last page
of the previous one, and that the figures denoting the page form the
next cardinal number to that which you last sent to press. Having
done this, examine the “folios” (the “pagination,” as some say)
throughout; read the running titles; if there be a new chapter
commenced, look back in your previous proofs to make sure that
said new chapter is “XIX. ,” and not “XVIII. ”; see that the head-lines of
the chapter are of the right size, and in the right font of type; for, if
the “minion” case happened to be covered up, the compositor may
have forgotten himself, and set them up in “brevier”; if there is rule-
work, see that the rules come together properly, and are right side
up; if there is Federal money, see that the “$” is put at the beginning
of the number following a rule,⁠[5] and of the number in the top line
of every page; if points are {p50} used as “leaders,” see that there are
no commas or hyphens among them. If the style require a comma
before leaders, see that none have been left out; if the style reject a
comma, see that none have been left in; in short, see to everything,
—and then, on the corner of the sheet, write the word “Press” as
boldly as you can, but with the moral certainty that some skulking
blunder of author, compositor, or corrector has eluded all your
watchfulness.
5 In the Government Printing Office the style omits the “$” in this case,—the
sign at top of table or page being considered sufficient.

The errors made by ourselves are those which occasion us the

most pain. Therefore be chary of changing anything in the author’s
last proof. If a sentence seem obscure, see whether the insertion of
a comma will make it clear. If you find “patonce,” do not change it to
“potence,” unless, from your knowledge of heraldry, you are aware
of a good reason for such an alteration. If you find pro. ami, look in
the dictionary before striking out the point after pro.; peradventure it
is a contraction. If, finally, after puzzling over some intricate
sentence, you can make nothing of it, let it console you that the
following paragraph appears in Hävernick: “Accordingly it is only
from this passage that a conclusion can be drawn as to the historical
condition of the people, which is confirmed also by notices
elsewhere”; and let it content you to say, in the words of Colenso, “I
am at a loss to understand the meaning of the above paragraph.” So
let the obscure passage remain.
Still, however, should you find some gross error of dates, some
obvious solecism, or some wrong footing {p51} in a column of figures,
and find yourself unable to change the reading with absolute
certainty of being right, this proof, which you had hoped would be a
final one, must be returned to the author with the proper quære.
When it comes back to your sanctum, you may perhaps be pleased
at finding on the margin a few words complimentary of your
carefulness; or perhaps a question couched in this encomiastic style:
“Why did not your stupid proof-reader find this out before?”
Whether reading first or final proofs of Records of Court, you
should not change the spelling of words, nor supply omissions, nor
strike out a repeated word or words; for the printed record is
assumed to be an exact transcript of what is written, and there
should be no alterations,—neither uniformity nor correctness is to be
sought at the expense of departing from copy. Inserting the
necessary points where these have been neglected, is not
considered a change of the record,—as, for instance, an in­ter­ro­ga­‐
tion point after a direct question to a witness; for, as “the
punctuation is no part of the law,” a fortiori it is no part of the
record. If the caption be “Deposition of John Prat,” and the signature
be “John Pratt,” and if in another place you find the same individual
designated as “John Pradt,” there is no help for it. You have no
authority to alter the record, and must print it as it stands. So, too,
in regard to dates. If you read “1st Feb. 1889” on one page, “Feb. 1,
1889” on another, so let them stand—the change of style is a trifle;
and, if it be a fault, it is the fault of the record, and not yours. {p52}
And here let us say a word about this matter of uniformity: very
important in some works, in others it is of no consequence whatever,
however much some readers may stickle for it. If, for example, a
mass of letters, from all parts of the country, recommending a
patent inkstand, or stating the prospects of the potato crop, are sent
in to be printed, the dates and addresses will vary in style, according
to the taste and knowledge of the several writers; and there is not
the slightest need of changing them to make them alike, as if all
these widely scattered writers had graduated from the same school.
Let such writings be printed as diversely as they come to hand. If
one writes plough, and another plow, what matters it, so far as your
proof-reading is concerned? If one writes “15th June,” and another
“June 15” or “June 15th,” so let it stand on the printed page. It is
idle to waste time in making things alike, that could not by any
possibility have been written alike. But you can make each letter
consistent with itself, which is all that uniformity requires. You need
not stretch one man out, and cut off the feet of another, to justify all
authors in your composing-stick. So much for exceptional cases.
As a general rule, study to preserve uniformity in every work. If
“A. M.” and “P. M.” are in capitals on one page, it will look very like
carelessness to have them appear “A.M. ” and “P.M. ” in small capitals,
on the next. With the exceptions above pointed out, your only safety
is to have but one style, and to adhere to it with the stiffness of a
martinet, {p53} in all contingencies, unless overruled by those who
have a right to dictate in the premises.
 READING GREEK.
Greek words sometimes appear in copy, and are somewhat
vexatious to printers who never had the good fortune to study Greek
at school—or elsewhere. In a proof-sheet, we once met a word
whose etymology was given thus in the copy: “From Ἕλιος the sun,
and φιλος a lover” (the epsilon was the author’s mistake). The
compositor, not aware of a Greek alphabet, set up the passage in
those English letters which most nearly resemble the Hellenic
characters, and it appeared in this guise: “From Ediog the sun, and
pidog a lover.” We advise proof-readers, and compositors and copy-
holders as well, to acquire—if they do not already possess—so much
knowledge of Greek letters and characters as will enable them to
acquit themselves without discredit, though “Ediog” and “pidog”
condog (v. Wb.) to annoy them. A few hours’ attention to the
alphabet and characters given below, and to the annexed practical
directions, will suffice to fix in the memory as much knowledge of
Greek as will serve for the mechanical following of the copy,—
mechanical following,—for, if you are setting up or reading a reprint
of the 450th page of Webster’s Dictionary, and meet with the word
ἐννενήκοντα you must put in the eleven letters as they stand: and if
copying Worcester’s 486th page, you find ἐννεήκοντα, put in {p54} the
ten letters. If you have any doubts, submit your query.
The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters.
Alpha Αα a
Beta Ββ b
Gamma Γ γ g
 Delta Δδ d
Epsilon Εε ĕ
Zeta Ζζ z
Eta Ηη ē
Theta Θϑθ th
Iota Ιι i
Kappa Κκ k
Lambda Λλ l
Mu Μμ m
Nu Νν n
Xi Ξξ x
Omicron Οο ŏ
Pi Ππ p
Rho Ρϱρ r
Sigma Σ σ, final ς s
Tau Ττ t
Upsilon Υυ u
Phi Φφ ph
Chi Χχ ch
Psi Ψψ ps
Omega Ωω ō

In reading Greek, mention each letter by its English equivalent.

Ε is read, “cap. short e”; ε, “short e”; Η is read, “cap. long e”; η,
“long e.”
Ο is read, “cap. short o”; ο, “short o”; Ω is read, “cap. long o”; ω,
“long o.” {p55}
There are three accents,—the acute ( ΄ ), the grave ( ), and the
circumflex ( ).
 ύ is read, “acute u”; ὶ is read, “grave i”; ᾶ is read, “circumflex a.”
Over every vowel or diphthong beginning a word is placed one of
two characters, called breathings, which, for the purpose of reading,
we may designate as the smooth ( ᾿ ) and the rough ( ῾ ).
ἀ is read, “smooth a”; ἱ is read, “rough i.”

When two marks appear over a letter, both should be mentioned

by the copy-holder.
ὔ is read, “smooth, acute u”; ὅ is read, “rough, acute, short o”;
ὃ, “rough, grave, short o”; ὦ, “circumflex, smooth, long o.”

The compositor and proof-reader should be careful that accented

letters are used according to the copy, as in many cases the
difference of accentuation serves also to mark the difference of
signification. Thus, νέος signifies new; νεὸς, a field: ἴον, a violet; ἰὸν,
going.
ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ, are diphthongs; their second vowel (ι), being silent, is
placed underneath, or subscribed. These should be read thus: ᾳ, “a,
subscript”; ῃ, “long e, subscript”; ῳ, “long o, subscript.”

In Greek, only four points or stops are used: the comma (,); the
note of in­ter­ro­ga­tion (;); the colon, or point at top (·); and the full
stop (.). These should be mentioned as they occur. {p56}

EXAMPLE FOR READING.

EPIGRAM ON THEMISTOCLES.
 Αντὶ τάφου λιτοῖο θὲς Ἑλλάδα, θὲς δ’ ὲπι ταύταν
Δούρατα, βαρβαρικᾶς σύμβολα ναυφθορίας,
Καὶ τύμβῳ κρηπῖδα περίγραφε Περσικὸν Ἄρη
Καὶ Ξέρξην· τούτοις θάπτε Θεμιστοκλέα.
Στάλα δ’ ἁ Σαλαμὶς ἐπικείσεται, ἔργα λέγουσα
Τἀμά· τί με σμὶκροῖς τὸν μέγαν ἐντίτθετε;

The method of reading will, we think, be sufficiently exemplified

if we give but one line. We select the third, which should be read by
the copy-holder, as follows:
Cap. K, a, grave i; t, acute u, m, b, long o subscript; k, r, long e,
p, circumflex i, d, a; p, short e, r, acute i, g, r, a, ph, short e; cap. P,
short e, r, s, i, k, grave short o, n; cap. smooth acute A, r, long e.
Words from dead and foreign languages, introduced into English
text, are printed in italics, until, being frequently met, they cease to
be strangers; then printers and proof-readers anglicify them as much
as possible, by printing them in roman; but some of these retain
certain accents which indicate their alien origin. The Spanish cañon
is completely anglicized into “canyon” (o as in no); our miners write
“arrastra” in roman, although the term has not yet found its way into
our most popular dictionaries; our dreadful accident-makers have set
afloat so many “canards,” that that word has become better English
than French; “papier-mache” usually appears in roman without the
accent on the final e; employé {p57} has become a good “employee”
in our workshops; and at an early day, every “protégé” and
“protégée,” already roman, will throw off the foreign accents, and
remain none the less acute “protegees”; “éclat,” “régime,” and
“résumé” still cling to their acute e’s. Many words and phrases are
hesitating whether to remain foreigners, or to become naturalized.
They have “taken out their first papers,” as it were, having at times
appeared in English garb.
It would be vastly convenient for every compositor and proof-
reader (every author, of course, reads proof) to have at hand two
lists of such Latin and foreign words as most frequently occur in
books, magazines, and newspapers,—the one containing the words
to be set up in italics, the other, words to “go in roman,” as the
phrase is. We append two such lists, as samples rather than as
fixities to be followed, although they represent very nearly, if not
exactly, the present status of the class of words we are considering.
The roman list is destined to be continually lengthening, while the
italic, save as it receives new accretions from foreign sources, must
be correspondingly diminishing.

WORDS TO GO IN ITALICS.
ante ad captandum ad libitum ad quod damnum aliunde
alma mater amende honorable amicus curiæ artiste avant
coureur beau monde coram non judice corpus delicti coup
d’état coup de grâce coup de main de bonis non de facto de
jure del credere de novo dilettante dilettanti dramatis
personæ {p58} duces tecum en route entrée et al. ex officio
ex parte ex post facto ex rel. falsi crimen feme covert feme
sole femme couverte femme sole fleur de lis functus officio
garçon ignes fatui ignis fatuus in extenso infra in statu quo
inter alia in toto in transitu juste milieu malum in se malum
prohibitum matériel nem. con. n’importe non constat non
obstante nous verrons passim peculium personnel postea
postliminium post mortem prima facie procès-verbal pro
forma projet pro tempore rationale res adjudicata sans-
culotte sine die soi disant sotto voce sub judice supra
tabula rasa terra incognita tout ensemble ultima ratio ultima
Thule vide vice versa viva voce vraisemblance

WORDS TO GO IN ROMAN.
addenda addendum ad interim ad valorem alias alibi
alumnus alumnæ alumni animus assumpsit bagatelle
belles-lettres bijou billet-doux bivouac bizarre bona fide
canaille canard capias chargé d’ affaires coterie crevasse
data datum débris dedimus détour devoir diluvion
diluvium éclat emeute ennui entrepot exequatur exuviæ
fasces faubourg feuilleton fiacre fieri facias habeas corpus
hacienda hauteur in banc in situ literati literatim Magna
Charta mandamus menu mittimus nisi prius nolle prosequi
oyer and terminer papier-mache per capita per diem posse
comitatus pro rata protégé quasi régime résumé rôle
savant seriatim sobriquet status supersedeas via venire
venire facias verbatim
 CHAPTER III.
STYLE.

Before beginning to read proof, a man usually prepares himself by

learning how to make the technical marks used in correcting; he
then reads a chapter on the use of capitals; takes up a grammar,
and reviews the rules of punctuation; and by reading, and
conversing with readers, gets such helps as give him a good degree
of confidence. But at the very threshold of his duties he is met by a
little “dwarfish demon” called “Style,” who addresses him somewhat
after this fashion: “As you see me now, so I have appeared ever
since the first type was set in this office. Everything here must be
done as I say. You may mark as you please, but don’t violate the
commands of Style. I may seem to disappear for a time, when there
is a great rush of work, and you may perhaps bring yourself to
believe that Style is dead. But do not deceive yourself,—Style never
dies. When everything is going merrily, and you are rejoicing at
carrying out some pet plan of your own, you will find me back again,
tearing the forms to pieces, and again asserting my irrevocable
authority. Stick to my orders, and all will be well. Don’t tell me of
grammarians or lex­ic­ og­raphers; say nothing of better ways, or
improvements or {p60} progress. I am Style, and my laws are like
those of the Medes and Persians.” And Style states his true
character.
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