Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2015 Vol II

WCE 2015, July 1 - 3, 2015, London, U.K.

Experimental Determination of Cavitation

Characteristics of Hydraulic Turbines

Gizem Demirel, Ece Ayli, Kutay Celebioglu, Yigit Tascioglu, Selin Aradag

 Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) are established to

Abstract—— A new facility for the design, manufacturing perform the related experiments.
and standardized tests of model hydraulic turbines is under Most of the laboratories belong to companies that
construction at TOBB University of Economics and manufacture hydraulic turbines such as Rainpower (Norway)
Technology. The facility is one of a few of its kind, in the sense [4], Global Scale Model Test Laboratory (ALSTOM Hydro)
that, it involves the whole process of hydraulic turbine design,
in France [5], VATECH [6], VOITH-Siemens [7], and Fine
including computational fluid dynamics (CFD) aided hydraulic
and mechanical design, manufacturing and standardized
Institute [8]. There are also several university based
performance tests. This work summarizes the capabilities of the hydroturbine test centers such as Laboratory for Hydraulic
"Center for Hydro Energy Research (ETU Hydro)" at the Machinery of EPFL in Switzerland [9] and Turboinstitut in
university and focuses on the cavitation tests of the model Slovakia [10].
turbines. The cavitation characteristics of the turbines are The capacity of Fine Institute of Hydraulic Machinery is
determined with the help of several tests that meet the required given in Table 1. This laboratory consists of three test rigs
standards, the details of which are given in this paper. which can be used for the tests of Francis type turbines,
reversible pump-turbines, Kaplan and Bulb turbines. The
Index Terms— Cavitation, Experiment, Francis Turbine, hydraulic turbine characteristics such as efficiency, runaway
Test stand, Similitude
speed, cavitation characteristics and pressure fluctuations are
determined [8].
I. INTRODUCTION
TABLE I

H ydroturbines are one of the two main components of

hydroelectric power plants (HEPPs). (The other one is
the generator). HEPPs are used to convert the energy of
CAPACITY OF FINE INSTUTE OF HYDROMACHINERY TEST RIGS [8]

Francis Type Kaplan& Bulb

Turbines Type Turbines
water into electricity. Compared to other types of energy
Maximum Head (m) 90 40
generation, they are considered renewable and they still have
Maximum Flow Rate (m3/s) 1.2 1.8
potential. Pump Capacity (kW) 750 750
Maximum speed of 3000 3000
Experimental and numerical techniques are widely used in Motor/generator (r/min)
the design of hydraulic turbines. Although the numerical
methods and the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) The capacity of S. Morgan Smith Memorial Hydraulic
techniques used today are improved, experiments are still Laboratory (Voith) [7], is 131 m head, 1.13 m3/s flow rate.
necessary to determine efficiency at specified head and The laboratory for Hydraulic Machinery of EPFL [9] can
discharge values, pressure differences and especially operate up to a maximum head value of 100 m and
cavitation characteristics. Hydraulic laboratories in maximum discharge rate of 1.4 m3/s.
accordance with the standards of the International In hydroturbine test centers, there are two main test
circuits. First one is the performance circuit at which the
Manuscript received March 02, 2015; revised March 24, 2015. This tests are conducted at the design point and head, power,
research is being supported by Turkish Ministry of Development. torque, efficiency and rotational speed are measured. Second
G. Demirel is an MS student at TOBB University of Economics and circuit is for observation of cavitation phenomena at off-
Technology, Ankara, 06560, Turkey (e-mail: gizemdemirel@[Link]).
E. Ayli is a PhD student at TOBB University of Economics and
design conditions. Cavitation flow is one of the most
Technology, Ankara, 06560, Turkey (e-mail: ueayli@[Link]). important parameters that affect the performance and life
K. Celebioglu is the coordinator of TOBB University of Economics and span of the turbine components because it causes flow
Technology Hydro Energy Research Laboratory, Ankara, 06560, Turkey instabilities, vibration, and erosive damage, especially at the
(e-mail: kcelebioglu@[Link]).
Y. Tascioglu is an Assistant Professor at TOBB University of Economics
runner blades and the draft tube [4]. Therefore cavitation test
and Technology, Ankara, 06560, Turkey (e-mail: ytascioglu@[Link]). rig is an important part of all hydroturbine test centers.
S. Aradag is an Associate Professor at TOBB University of Economics and
Technology and the director of the Hydro Energy Research Laboratory,
Ankara, 06560, Turkey (e-mail: saradag@[Link]).

ISBN: 978-988-14047-0-1 WCE 2015

ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2015 Vol II
WCE 2015, July 1 - 3, 2015, London, U.K.

II. AIM OF THE STUDY nD Q

nED  , QED  2 (2)
The Hydro Energy Research Laboratory is responsible for E D E
CFD aided design, manufacturing and standardized
where; n is the rotational speed, E is the specific energy, and
performance tests of model hydraulic turbines. The
Q is the flow rate. The main types of cavitation which can
hydroturbine design process at the test center is mainly
occur in Francis type turbines are Leading Edge, Travelling
composed of five steps: preliminary design, CFD aided
Bubble, Draft Tube Swirl, Inter-blade vortex and trailing
design, model-prototype similarity analysis, model
edge cavitation [14]. In Figure 2, types and locations of
manufacturing and model tests according to International
cavitation are given.
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards.

In this paper, firstly, a brief description of cavitation

phenomena in Francis turbines is given. Then, based on the
literature survey, cavitation detection and measurement
methods are explained. The details of the mechanism used
for the cavitation tests of the turbines are presented. Finally,
model test procedures and determination of model
dimensions according to similitude principles of model and
the prototype are briefly described.

III. CAVITATION

Hydraulic cavitation is a result of the state when water

pressure drops below the critical pressure (generally vapor
pressure) at constant temperature and vapor cavities are
formed and grow based on the dynamic pressure reduction.
These cavities stop to grow in a liquid flow when pressure
rises again and they collapse and disappear. Implosion of the
bubbles near solid surfaces causes surface erosion which
damages the turbine. Cavitation types in hydraulic turbines
can be classified as; travelling bubble, sheet, super, bubble
ring, band, fixed patch, travelling patch, spot, cloud, tip Fig. 1. Francis Turbine off-design range and cavitation types that occur at
vortex, vertical and shear flow cavitation. Travelling bubble, specified range [Adapted from 14]
sheet, super, band, fixed patch, and spot types of cavitation
are known as blade surface cavitation [12].

A. Cavitation in Francis Turbines

Generally, cavitation is present at the low local pressure

zones of the runner blade inlet because of high incidence and
at the tip clearance and zones of strong streamline curvature
which is the casing between guide vanes and runner [3]. In
order to define a mathematical expression for hydraulic
turbine cavitation, cavitation number (Thoma number) is
derived by using Bernoulli equation and
similarity formulae [13].

Ptw Pwv
 Hs 
g g
 (1)
H
where Ptw is atmospheric pressure, Pwv is vapor pressure, Hs
is suction head, which is the head difference between turbine
runner and tail water, H is the head value, ρ is the water
density and g is the gravitational acceleration. Instant
cavitation number (σ) is multiplied with a safety factor that
is generally taken as 1.1 to 1.2. For high head turbines, it can
be increased to 1.5 to 1.7 [13].
Cavitation free results can be seen at the design point of Fig.2. Francis Turbine cavitation types [Adapted from 14]
the turbine. However, we cannot say the same thing for off-
design conditions. In Figure 1, possible cavitation regions i) Leading Edge Cavitation: When the turbine operation
due to the ranges of operation are shown on discharge factor head is greater than the design head, a vital cavitation occurs
versus speed factor graph. Discharge factor (QED) and speed at the suction side of the runner based on positive incidence
factor (nED) are defined as:

ISBN: 978-988-14047-0-1 WCE 2015

ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2015 Vol II
WCE 2015, July 1 - 3, 2015, London, U.K.

angle (operating range 3). Leading edge cavitation can form

at lower operating head values at pressure side of the runner
caused by negative incidence angle [14].

ii) Draft Tube Swirl Cavitation: This type of cavitation

occurs at the outlet of the runner and at the inlet of the draft
tube (operating range 2). Its effect depends on the
circumferential velocity component of the flow discharged
from the runner. This type of cavitation produces pressure
pulsation and power fluctuations [14].

iii) Inter-Blade Vortex Cavitation: In the operating range 4,

due to flow separation, secondary vortices are formed
between the blades (see Figure 2). If these vortices touch the
blade edges, then this type of cavitation can be harmful. In
the high head operating range, vortices become unstable and Fig. 3. TOBB ETU Hydro Energy Test Rig
this is harmful [14, 15].
Hydraulic similitude
iv) Travelling Bubble: In the operating range 5, (see Figure In the model tests, model turbine should reflect the full
1), travelling bubble cavitation occurs in the low head scale turbine for meaningful results. For this purpose, a
operating conditions. According to small flow angles of scaled model should have fully similar geometric, kinematic
attack, flow separation arises in the runner blade. It causes and dynamic attributes to eliminate scaling effects [16].
heavy vibration and damage. According to IEC 60193 standards [11], to achieve
hydrodynamic similarity between two hydraulic machines
v) Trailing Edge Cavitation: Operating range 1 represents these two machines should have geometrical similitude and
trailing edge cavitation. In this type of cavitation, if the all of the force ratios should be identical.
cavitation occurs only in the trailing edge of the blade, In-house codes are developed based on similarity laws to
cavities collapse in the draft tube and no serious damage obtain the model turbine parameters. Kinematic condition
occurs. If the cavitation region reaches the upstream of the for the similarity of turbine modes of operation is given as:
1/3
blade it can be dangerous. The occurrence range and the
Q2  N 2  D2 
location of this type of cavitation are shown in Figures 1 and    (3)
2 [14]. Q1  N1  D1 
where; N is rotational speed, D is runner diameter, and Q is
IV. TOBB ETU CENTER FOR HYDRO ENERGY flow rate. Subscript 1 denotes prototype properties and
RESEARCH subscript 2 denotes model properties.
The test rig at the ETU Hydro has a maximum pumping By modifying the discharge similarity, power and
power of 2 MW, test heads up to 160 m and a maximum rotational speed ratio similarities are formulated as in
flow rate of 2m3/s. It can be operated in three different test equations (4) and (5):
modes as performance mode, calibration mode and
N 2  D1   H 2 
cavitation mode. The modes of operation are detailed below.     (4)
N1  D2   H1 
3 5
A. Performance Test Mode (Open Circuit) P2  N 2   D2 
The open circuit test setup consists mainly of high head     (5)
P1  N1   D1 
and low head tanks, model turbine, and pumps (Figure 3).
The model turbine which is mounted between high head and where; H is head and P is power. The efficiency terms are
low head tank must have geometric similarity with the neglected due to the difference between efficiencies being
prototype. The quantities measured during performance tests smaller than 2%.
are discharge, head, torque, efficiency and rotational speed. The presented similarity laws are used to determine the
According to the model test results universal operating model turbine parameters of two actual hydroelectric power
characteristics are obtained by plotting hill charts. plants in Turkey (Buski and Gelinkaya). The results are
given in Table 2.

ISBN: 978-988-14047-0-1 WCE 2015

ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2015 Vol II
WCE 2015, July 1 - 3, 2015, London, U.K.

TABLE II type of cavitation. As a quantitative technique, velocity and

PROTOTYPE AND MODEL TURBINE PARAMETERS FOR BUSKI
pressure fluctuations at various locations are measured.
HEPP AND GELINKAYA HEPP
According to Escaler et al [9, 18], measured signals can be
BUSKI HEPP GELINKAYA HEPP
contaminated by noise coming from external sources and
prototype model prototype model therefore choosing an accurate sensor and sensor placement
D(mm) 580 390 784 325 are crucial.
Q(m3/2) 2 0.89 4.5 0.63
H(m) 78 75 81.8 55 i) Draft tube swirl cavitation detection technique: As a
N(rpm) 1000 1458.3 750 1483.5 qualitative technique, draft tube inlet (runner outlet) will be
1400 597 3547 336
transparent and visualization of the cavitation becomes
P(kW)
possible. Also a high frame rate camera is placed in the draft
tube wall. With this technique, draft tube swirl cavitation can
B. Calibration Test Mode
be detected and observed easily. In the draft tube swirl, a
Measurement instruments in hydro turbine test rigs need
large oscillating vortex arises which causes pressure
to be calibrated according to International Electrical
oscillations. Therefore, as a quantitative technique, pressure
Commission (IEC) standards [11]. Calibration test mode is
mainly for flow meter calibration. In this circuit, after data are collected in the draft tube wall with pressure
giving its hydraulic energy to the turbine, water goes to the transducers.
flow diverter mechanism (see Figure 3) and water is diverted
to the calibration tank. The mass of the water collected in the ii) Leading edge cavitation detection technique: In this
calibration tank is measured with the help of load cells technique, accelerometers are mounted on the guide vane
which are located below the calibration tank. Also, the and on the turbine guide bearing in both radial and axial
filling time of the calibration tank is recorded. Consequently, directions. With turbine guide bearing measurements,
the flow rate is calculated from the weight of the collected leading edge cavitation, one of the most hazardous
water and the filling time and it is compared with the digital cavitation types, detection becomes possible which produces
flowmeter readings. Design of the calibration test circuit is vibrations in the runner.
detailed in ref [17].
iii) Travelling bubble cavitation detection technique:
C. Cavitation Test Mode (Close Circuit) Travelling bubble cavitation, which starts from guide vane
The cavitation test setup is composed of model turbine, and extends to the runner blades, can be detected with an
high head tank, low head tank and vacuum pump. While accelerometer mounted on the guide vane. Moreover, draft
conducting experiments with the cavitation test rig, a tube pressure pulsations can be the reason of the travelling
vacuum is created in the low head tank artificially. To create
bubble cavitation which forms between runner blades.
this vacuum, vacuum pump is mounted to the low head tank
and ptw is decreased. While pressure is changed, the head
iv)Inter-blade vortex cavitation detection technique:
and rotational speed are maintained constant. With
decreasing ptw, as it is given in equation 1, σop is changed. Pressure measurement pads are glued to the runner blades.
Using σop values, cavitation coefficient versus efficiency When separation takes place pressure fluctuations are seen
graph is obtained (Figure 4). While mode of operation (σop) ,and after separation, negative pressure zones arise.
is decreased, efficiency remains constant at a critical σ value. Therefore a pressure measurement is a sufficient method to
After this critical value, efficiency starts to drop and detect inter-blade vortex cavitation.
cavitation occurs.
v) Trailing edge cavitation detection technique: In this type
of cavitation, cavities collapse in the draft tube therefore
Critical Value
draft tube swirl detection techniques are also used for this
cavitation type. Also hazardous type of the trailing edge
cavitation develops upstream of the runner blade. To detect
this type of trailing edge cavitation acoustic emission sensor
is used. This device measures cavitation sound and audible
sound in the form of sound pressure level. According to
Escaler et al [9], a frequency band from 10 to 15 kHz is
defined as a high frequency content which can be measured
by acoustic emission sensors. Also trailing edge and leading
edge cavitation types can be in a weak mode which cannot
be detected precisely due to their low intensity.

V. CONCLUSION
Fig. 4. Efficiency versus cavitation coefficient graph [Adapted from 13]
The TOBB ETU Hydro Energy Research Laboratory is
Cavitation onset and location is not easy to detect due to responsible for the computational fluid dynamics aided
operating condition, turbine behavior and design of the design, manufacturing and standardized tests of model
turbine. Therefore both quantitative and qualitative hydraulic turbines. The hydroturbine design process at the
observations are necessary to detect cavitation zone and the test center is mainly composed of five steps: preliminary

ISBN: 978-988-14047-0-1 WCE 2015

ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2015 Vol II
WCE 2015, July 1 - 3, 2015, London, U.K.

design, CFD aided design, model-prototype similarity,

model manufacturing and model tests. In this paper model-
prototype similarity laws and test rigs are described. Also
cavitation phenomenon, which is formation of bubbles in
low pressure regions and collapse in high pressure regions,
is described briefly for Francis type turbines. Cavitation
detection and measurement methods are given in detail.
Accelerometer, acoustic emission sensors, pressure
transducers are used to monitor pressure fluctuations,
vibrations, and sound pressure levels which are induced by
cavitation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This project is financially supported by Turkish Ministry
of Development.

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ISBN: 978-988-14047-0-1 WCE 2015

ISSN: 2078-0958 (Print); ISSN: 2078-0966 (Online)