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SECTIONS LABS, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND ACTIVITIES TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES
PACING • 45 min pp. 96 –103 TE Reading Skill Builder K/W/L, p. 96 b TR 23 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Section 1 The Development of a New Atomic Model TE Lesson Starter, p. 97 g TR 24 Wavelength and Frequency
TE Visual Strategy, p. 98 g TR 25 Photoelectric Effect
TE Demonstration, p. 98 ◆ TR 26 Hydrogen’s Line-Emission Spectrum
TE Reading Skill Builder Brainstorming, p. 98 b TR 27 Photon Emission and Absorption
TE Demonstration, p. 100 ◆
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Section 2 The Quantum Model of the Atom TE Visual Strategy, p. 105 g TR 18A Electrons Accommodated in Energy
SE QuickLab The Wave Nature of Light: Interference, p. 106 Levels and Sublevels
◆g TR 19A Quantum Numbers of the First 30 Atomic
TE Visual Strategy, p. 107 g Orbitals
TE Table Strategy, p. 108 g EXT Cross-Disciplinary Connection Spintronics,
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Classroom
www.scilinks.org Technology
Maintained by the National Science Teachers Association. • Chapter Summaries Audio Program Search for any lab by topic, standard,
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Topic: Photoelectric Effect
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Chapter 4 Planning Guide 96B

 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4
Arrangement
of Electrons
in Atoms Arrangement of
Chapter Overview
Section 1 describes the prin-
ciples of electromagnetic radia-
Electrons in Atoms
tion and the development of
the Bohr model of the atom.
Section 2 describes the The emission of light is fundamentally
location of electrons around
the nucleus from a wave- related to the behavior of electrons.
mechanical, or quantum,
perspective using quantum
numbers.
Section 3 discusses the rules
used to determine the electron
configurations of the elements
and introduces electron-
configuration notations.

Concept Base
Students may need a review of
the following concepts:
• inverse proportions, Chapter 2
• the mass of electrons,
Chapter 3

Reading Skill Builder

K/W/L Write the words light and
electron on the board. Have stu-
dents list what they know or think
they know about how these terms
are related. Then have them list
what they want to know. After
they have read Section 1, have
them look at their lists and write
down what they have learned
about light and electrons. Also
have them write down any new
questions that they have after
reading the section.

96 Neon Walkway
 SECTION 1

The Development of a SECTION 1 Lesson Starter

Ask students if they agree with
GENERAL

Rutherford’s view that an atom has

New Atomic Model OBJECTIVES protons and neutrons at the center of

a sphere of almost empty space. Tell
them that Rutherford’s model was an
Explain the mathematical
important development but that
relationship among the speed,
more research led to changes in the
wavelength, and frequency of
model. Bohr envisioned the electrons
electromagnetic radiation.
outside the nucleus orbiting in the
T he Rutherford model of the atom was an improvement over previ- same way that the planets orbit the
ous models, but it was incomplete. It did not explain how the atom’s Discuss the dual wave-particle sun. The problem with this model is
negatively charged electrons are distributed in the space surrounding its nature of light. that the electrons and the nucleus
positively charged nucleus. After all, it was well known that oppositely are oppositely charged. The tug of
charged particles attract each other. So what prevented the negative the electrostatic force between elec-
Discuss the significance of tron and nucleus would inevitably
electrons from being drawn into the positive nucleus?
the photoelectric effect and pull the electrons into the nucleus.
In the early twentieth century, a new atomic model evolved as a
the line-emission spectrum of
result of investigations into the absorption and emission of light by mat- hydrogen to the development
ter. The studies revealed a relationship between light and an atom’s of the atomic model. Common
electrons.This new understanding led directly to a revolutionary view of Misconception
the nature of energy, matter, and atomic structure. Show students a slide or picture of
Describe the Bohr model
of the hydrogen atom. the planets. Explain that even though
many people think that the organiza-
Properties of Light tion of electrons in an atom is similar
to the organization of the planets in
Before 1900, scientists thought light behaved solely as a wave. This a solar system, the two situations are
belief changed when it was later discovered that light also has particle- quite different. The elliptical orbits in
like characteristics. Still, many of light’s properties can be described in which planets travel are constant.
terms of waves. A quick review of these wavelike properties will help Orbitals vary in shape and represent
you understand the basic theory of light as it existed at the beginning of probable locations of electrons rather
than paths that electrons travel.
the twentieth century.

The Wave Description of Light

Visible light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation, which is a form of
energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space. Other
kinds of electromagnetic radiation include X rays, ultraviolet and
infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves. Together, all the forms of
electromagnetic radiation form the electromagnetic spectrum. The elec-
tromagnetic spectrum is represented in Figure 1 on the next page.
All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at a constant speed of
3.00 × 108 meters per second (m/s) through a vacuum and at slightly
slower speeds through matter. Because air is mostly empty space, the
value of 3.00 × 108 m/s is also light’s approximate speed through air.
The significant feature of wave motion is its repetitive nature, which
can be characterized by the measurable properties of wavelength and www.scilinks.org
Topic: Electromagnetic
frequency. Wavelength (λ) is the distance between corresponding points Spectrum
on adjacent waves. The unit for wavelength is a distance unit. Depending Code: HC60482
on the type of electromagnetic radiation, it may be expressed in meters,

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 97 97

SECTION 1
Visible spectrum
FIGURE 1 Electromagnetic
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red radiation travels in the form of
Visual Strategy GENERAL
400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm waves covering a wide range of
FIGURE 2 In each water wave, the wavelengths and frequencies.
wavelength is shown as the distance This range is known as the elec-
between the crest of one wave and tromagnetic spectrum. Only a
the crest of the next. However, stu- small portion of the spectrum,
dents should realize that wavelength from 400 nm to 700 nm, is visi-
is the distance between any two cor- ble to the human eye.
responding points on adjacent waves.
Frequency refers to the number of
waves that pass a given point in a
specific time. Have students imagine
rays X rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwave Radio waves
that they are watching waves at the Radar TV Short Long
beach. If the waves begin to break wave wave
FM
more frequently on the beach and
their speed remains the same, then
the frequency of the waves is 10–2 nm 10–1 nm 100 nm 101 nm 102 nm 103 nm 10–3 cm 10–2 cm 10–1 cm 100 cm 101 cm 1m 101 m 102 m 103 m 104 m
increasing and the distance between Wavelength, 
the wave crests is decreasing.
1019 Hz 1018 Hz 1017 Hz 1016 Hz 1015 Hz 1014 Hz 1013 Hz 1012 Hz 1011 Hz 1010 Hz 109 Hz 100 MHz 10 MHz 1 MHz 100 KHz
Frequency, ν

Electromagnetic spectrum
DEMONSTRATION
Have two students hold a coiled
spring along the floor or a tabletop. centimeters, or nanometers, as shown in Figure 1. Frequency (ν) is
Ask one of the students to begin defined as the number of waves that pass a given point in a specific time,
moving the spring back and forth so
usually one second. Frequency is expressed in waves/second. One
that a wave pattern forms. How does
wave/second is called a hertz (Hz), named for Heinrich Hertz, who was
the wavelength change when the
student moves the spring back and a pioneer in the study of electromagnetic radiation. Figure 2 illustrates
forth with greater frequency? (The the properties of wavelength and frequency for a familiar kind of wave,
wavelength decreases.) a wave on the surface of water. The wave in Figure 2a has a longer wave-
length and a lower frequency than the wave in Figure 2b.

Reading Skill Builder

BRAINSTORMING Have stu- To the beach
dents brainstorm a list of different λ
types of waves. Invite students to
speculate about how the different
types of waves are similar and
how they are different.

(a)
FIGURE 2 The distance between λ
any two corresponding points on
one of these water waves, such as
from crest to crest, is the wave’s
wavelength, λ. We can measure the
wave’s frequency, ν, by observing
how often the water level rises and
falls at a given point, such as at the
post. (b)

98 98 CHAPTER 4
 SECTION 1
Frequency and wavelength are mathematically related to each other.
For electromagnetic radiation, this relationship is written as follows.
Analogy
c = λν If you were throwing balls at milk
bottles to try to knock them over to
win a prize at a carnival, would you
In the equation, c is the speed of light (in m/s), λ is the wavelength of
choose to throw 3 baseballs or 12
the electromagnetic wave (in m), and ν is the frequency of the electro-
table-tennis balls? You would choose
magnetic wave (in s−1). Because c is the same for all electromagnetic the baseballs, because each table-
radiation, the product λν is a constant. Consequently, we know that λ is tennis ball would not have enough
inversely proportional to ν. In other words, as the wavelength of light energy to knock over a milk bottle.
decreases, its frequency increases, and vice versa. Light Similarly, because of the photoelectric
effect, an electron remains bound to
a metal unless a single photon with
the required minimum energy hits
Stream of electrons
The Photoelectric Effect the metal with enough energy to
Anode eject the electron.
In the early 1900s, scientists conducted two experiments involving inter- Cathode
(metal plate)
actions of light and matter that could not be explained by the wave theory Application
of light. One experiment involved a phenomenon known as the photo- Voltage source
The photoelectric effect causes elec-
electric effect. The photoelectric effect refers to the emission of electrons trons to be ejected from the surface of
from a metal when light shines on the metal, as illustrated in Figure 3. a metal when light of high enough
The mystery of the photoelectric effect involved the frequency of the frequency hits the metal’s surface. This
light striking the metal. For a given metal, no electrons were emitted if FIGURE 3 The photoelectric phenomenon is utilized in electric-eye
the light’s frequency was below a certain minimum—regardless of the effect: electromagnetic radiation door openers, light meters, and photo-
light’s intensity. Light was known to be a form of energy, capable of strikes the surface of the metal, voltaic cells.
knocking loose an electron from a metal. But the wave theory of light ejecting electrons from the metal
and causing an electric current.
predicted that light of any frequency could supply enough energy to INCLUSION
eject an electron. Scientists couldn’t explain why the light had to be of Strategies
a minimum frequency in order for the photoelectric effect to occur. • Learning Disabled
• Developmentally Delayed
The Particle Description of Light Have the students draw and color a
The explanation of the photoelectric effect dates back to 1900, when rainbow on a poster board. Have the
German physicist Max Planck was studying the emission of light by hot students label each color of the visi-
objects. He proposed that a hot object does not emit electromagnetic ble spectrum with its approximate
energy continuously, as would be expected if the energy emitted were in frequency or range of frequencies. In
the form of waves. Instead, Planck suggested that the object emits ener- addition, have the students give
gy in small, specific packets called quanta. A quantum of energy is the examples of living things that can
detect parts of the electromagnetic
minimum quantity of energy that can be lost or gained by an atom.
spectrum that humans cannot detect.
Planck proposed the following relationship between a quantum of ener-
gy and the frequency of radiation.
DEMONSTRATION
E = hν To demonstrate the photoelectric effect,
use different colors of LED keychain lights
In the equation, E is the energy, in joules, of a quantum of radiation, ν and phosphorescent paper (such as that
used for “glow in the dark” items). When
is the frequency, in s−1, of the radiation emitted, and h is a fundamental
low energy is used, such as red, no
physical constant now known as Planck’s constant; h = 6.626 × 10−34 J• s.
www.scilinks.org phosphorescence is observed. But when
In 1905, Albert Einstein expanded on Planck’s theory by introducing Topic: Photoelectric Effect using blue, UV, or white light, the
the radical idea that electromagnetic radiation has a dual wave-particle Code: HC61138 phosphorescent paper glows.
nature. While light exhibits many wavelike properties, it can also be

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 99 99

100_MC_TE_CH04_ARR 6/22/07 10:59 AM Page 100

SECTION 1
thought of as a stream of particles. Each particle of light carries a quan-
tum of energy. Einstein called these particles photons. A photon is a
Common particle of electromagnetic radiation having zero mass and carrying a
Misconception quantum of energy. The energy of a particular photon depends on the
It is easy for students to confuse an frequency of the radiation.
emission spectrum with an absorption
spectrum. The spectra presented in
Ephoton = hν
this section are emission spectra
because they show the frequencies
at which light is emitted, or given off, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by proposing that elec-
from excited electrons in atoms. In an tromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter only in whole numbers of
absorption spectrum, the frequencies photons. In order for an electron to be ejected from a metal surface, the
shown are those of light that is electron must be struck by a single photon possessing at least the mini-
absorbed, or taken in, by electrons in mum energy required to knock the electron loose. According to the
atoms. The energy absorbed excites equation Ephoton = hν, this minimum energy corresponds to a minimum
the electrons to higher energy states. frequency. If a photon’s frequency is below the minimum, then the elec-
tron remains bound to the metal surface. Electrons in different metals
are bound more or less tightly, so different metals require different
✔Teaching Tip minimum frequencies to exhibit the photoelectric effect.
Much information can be derived from
a single line in an atomic-emission
spectrum. The fact that a single color The Hydrogen-Atom
is produced proves that electrons Line-Emission Spectrum
are moving from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level, and When current is passed through a gas at low pressure, the potential ener-
that the difference in energy between gy of the gas atoms increases. The lowest energy state of an atom is its
the two levels is always the same.
ground state. A state in which an atom has a higher potential energy than
it has in its ground state is an excited state. There are many possible excit-
ed states, each with a unique energy, but only one ground state energy
DEMONSTRATION for atoms of a given element.When an excited atom returns to its ground
If your school has gas discharge state or a lower energy excited state, it gives off the energy it gained in
tubes and a power supply, have stu- the form of electromagnetic radiation. The production of colored light in
dents view the individual lines of neon signs, as shown in Figure 4, is a familiar example of this process.
emission spectra through spectro-
When investigators passed electric current through a vacuum tube
scopes. Students can also use a CD
containing hydrogen gas at low pressure, they observed the emission of a
as a diffraction grating to observe
different light sources. White light characteristic pinkish glow. When a narrow beam of the emitted light was
gives all of the colors of visible light, shined through a prism, it was separated into four specific colors of the vis-
FIGURE 4 Excited neon atoms ible spectrum. The four bands of light were part of what is known
but other lights, such as mercury
emit light when electrons in higher as hydrogen’s emission-line spectrum. The production of hydrogen’s
vapor or sodium vapor, may show
energy levels fall back to the ground
only a few lines. emission-line spectrum is illustrated in Figure 5. Additional series of lines
state or to a lower-energy excited
state.
were discovered in the ultraviolet and infrared regions of hydrogen’s
emission-line spectrum. The wavelengths of some of the spectral series
✔Teaching Tip are shown in Figure 6. They are known as the Lyman, Balmer, and
A rainbow is a familiar example of Paschen series, after their discoverers.
a continuous spectrum. Sunlight Classical theory predicted that the hydrogen atoms would be excited
contains a continuous range of colors by whatever amount of energy was added to them. Scientists had thus
(frequencies, wavelengths) of light. expected to observe the emission of a continuous range of frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation, that is, a continuous spectrum. Why had the
hydrogen atoms given off only specific frequencies of light? Attempts to
explain this observation led to an entirely new atomic theory called
quantum theory.
100 100 CHAPTER 4
 SECTION 1
FIGURE 5 Excited hydrogen
atoms emit a pinkish glow, as is
Visual Strategy GENERAL
shown in this diagram. When the
visible portion of the emitted light FIGURE 5 When we watch a hydro-
is passed through a prism, it is sepa- gen lamp, our brains combine the dif-

397 nm
410 nm

434 nm

486 nm

656 nm
rated into specific wavelengths that ferent colors of its spectrum and
are part of hydrogen’s emission-line perceive a single color. The visible
spectrum. The line at 397 nm is in lines of the hydrogen spectrum are a
Slits Prism the ultraviolet and is not visible to result of electron transitions from
the human eye. higher energy levels to the second
energy level. Other electron transi-
tions produce light of longer wave-
lengths (in the infrared region) and
light of shorter wavelengths (in the
ultraviolet region), none of which are
visible.

Current is passed through

FIGURE 6 Have students confirm
a glass tube containing
hydrogen at low pressure. that the four lines in the Balmer
The line at 397 nm series are the same four lines shown
is in the ultraviolet and is in Figure 5. Why don’t we see the
not visible to the human eye. lines of the Lyman or Paschen series
in Figure 5? (They are outside the
Lyman series Balmer series Paschen series
(ultraviolet) (visible) (infrared)
visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.)

Did You Know?

The emission spectrum of each ele-
e a dc b a c b a ment is unique. Emission spectra are
d c b used to identify unknown samples
and to determine the relative compo-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
sition of stars.
Wavelength (nm)

FIGURE 6 A series of specific wavelengths of emitted light makes up hydro-

gen’s emission-line spectrum. The letters below the lines label hydrogen’s vari-
ous energy-level transitions. Niels Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom
✔Teaching Tip
provided an explanation for these transitions.
The Elements Handbook features the
different colors that are emitted by
several different elements (see sec-
Whenever an excited hydrogen atom falls to its ground state or to a E2 tions Group 1, Group 2, and
lower-energy excited state, it emits a photon of radiation. The energy of Group 15) and displays an emission
spectrum for strontium (see section
this photon (Ephoton = hν) is equal to the difference in energy between
Group 2).
the atom’s initial state and its final state, as illustrated in Figure 7. The
fact that hydrogen atoms emit only specific frequencies of light indicated
Ephoton = E2 – E1 = hν
that the energy differences between the atoms’ energy states were fixed.
This suggested that the electron of a hydrogen atom exists only in very
E1
specific energy states.
In the late nineteenth century, a mathematical formula that related FIGURE 7 When an excited atom
the various wavelengths of hydrogen’s emission-line spectrum was dis- with energy E2 falls back to energy
covered. The challenge facing scientists was to provide a model of the E1, it releases a photon that has
hydrogen atom that accounted for this relationship. energy E2 − E1 = Ephoton = hν.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 101 101

SECTION 1
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Analogy
Expand on the ladder rung analogy. The puzzle of the hydrogen-atom spectrum was solved in 1913 by the
If you slip from a low rung (excited Danish physicist Niels Bohr. He proposed a hydrogen-atom model that
state) and fall to the ground (ground linked the atom’s electron to photon emission. According to the model,
state), you won't be hurt badly. But the electron can circle the nucleus only in allowed paths, or orbits.
if you fall from a high rung (higher- When the electron is in one of these orbits, the atom has a definite, fixed
energy excited state), you hit the
energy. The electron—and therefore the hydrogen atom—is in its low-
ground with more kinetic energy. The
est energy state when it is in the orbit closest to the nucleus. This orbit
energy change is greater from the
Fireflies is separated from the nucleus by a large empty space where the electron
excited-state rung at the top of the
ladder to the ground than from the What kinds of reactions produce light? cannot exist. The energy of the electron is higher when the electron is in
In this chapter, you are learning how orbits that are successively farther from the nucleus.
first rung to the ground. Point out to
excited atoms can produce light. In The electron orbits, or atomic energy levels, in Bohr’s model can be
students that the rung analogy has
parts of the United States, summer is
limitations—unlike the rungs on a accompanied by the appearance of fire-
compared to the rungs of a ladder. When you are standing on a ladder,
ladder, the "rungs" (energy levels) in flies, or lightning bugs. What makes your feet are on one rung or another. The amount of potential energy
an atom are not evenly spaced. them glow? A bioluminescent chemical that you possess corresponds to standing on the first rung, the second
reaction that involves luciferin, rung, and so forth. Your energy cannot correspond to standing between
luciferase (an enzyme), adenosine
✔Teaching Tip triphosphate (ATP), and oxygen takes
place in the firefly and produces the
two rungs because you cannot stand in midair. In the same way, an elec-
tron can be in one orbit or another, but not in between.
Bohr used classical Newtonian characteristic yellow-green glow. How does Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom explain the observed
mechanics to study the angular Unlike most reactions that produce spectral lines? While in a given orbit, the electron is neither gaining nor
momentum and radius of the elec- light, bioluminescent reactions do not losing energy. It can, however, move to a higher-energy orbit by gaining
tron around the nucleus. In the next generate energy in the form of heat. an amount of energy equal to the difference in energy between the
section, students will see how higher-energy orbit and the initial lower-energy orbit. When a hydrogen
quantum mechanics allows a more atom is in an excited state, its electron is in one of the higher-energy
complete description of atomic orbits. When the electron falls to a lower energy level, a photon is emit-
structure. ted, and the process is called emission. The photon’s energy is equal to
the energy difference between the initial higher energy level and the
Alternative final lower energy level. Energy must be added to an atom in order to
Assessment GENERAL move an electron from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
This section continues the discussion This process is called absorption. Absorption and emission of radiation
of atomic structure from Chapter 3. in Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom are illustrated in Figure 8. The
Have students revise their chronology energy of each absorbed or emitted photon corresponds to a particular
of current atomic theory to include frequency of emitted radiation, Ephoton = hν.
Bohr and give reasons why he should Based on the different wavelengths of the hydrogen emission-line
be included. spectrum, Bohr calculated the allowed energy levels for the hydrogen

Ephoton = E3 – E1
e–

E3 E3
Ephoton = E2 – E1 e– E2
FIGURE 8 (a) Absorption and (b) E2
emission of a photon by a hydrogen E1 E1
atom according to Bohr’s model. The
frequencies of light that can be Nucleus Nucleus
absorbed and emitted are restricted
because the electron can only be in
orbits corresponding to the energies
E1, E2, E3, and so forth. (a) Absorption (b) Emission

102 102 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 1
E
E6
FIGURE 9 This energy-state dia-
E5 gram for a hydrogen atom shows
some of the energy transitions for
E4
the Lyman, Balmer, and Paschen
spectral series. Bohr’s model of the
E3 atom accounted mathematically for
a b c the energy of each of the transitions
Paschen series shown.

E2
a b c d
Energy

Balmer series

E1
a b c d e
Lyman series
SECTION REVIEW
atom. He then related the possible energy-level changes to the lines in 1. It did not explain how negative
electrons fill the space surrounding
the hydrogen emission-line spectrum. The five lines in the Lyman series,
a positive nucleus.
for example, were shown to be the result of electrons dropping from
energy levels E6, E5, E4, E3, and E2 to the ground-state energy level E1. 2. c = λν; c = speed, λ = wavelength,
Bohr’s calculated values agreed with the experimentally observed ν = frequency
values for the lines in each series. The origins of three of the series of 3. a. a form of energy that exhibits
lines in hydrogen’s emission-line spectrum are shown in Figure 9. wavelike behavior as it travels
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom explained observed spectral lines through space
so well that many scientists concluded that the model could be applied to b. the distance between correspond-
ing points on adjacent waves
all atoms. It was soon recognized, however, that Bohr’s approach did not
c. the number of waves that pass a
explain the spectra of atoms with more than one electron. Nor did Bohr’s
given point in a specified amount of
theory explain the chemical behavior of atoms. time, usually 1 s
d. a finite quantity of energy gained
or lost by an atom
e. a quantum of light
SECTION REVIEW 5. Describe the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. 4. Depending on the experiment
devised to observe it, the behavior of
1. What was the major shortcoming of Rutherford’s Critical Thinking light can be described in terms of
model of the atom?
6. INTERPRETING GRAPHICS Use the diagram in waves or in terms of particles.
2. Write and label the equation that relates the speed, Figure 9 to answer the following: 5. The Bohr model depicts a hydro-
wavelength, and frequency of electromagnetic
a. Characterize each of the following as absorp- gen nucleus with a single electron
radiation.
tion or emission: an electron moves from E2 to circling the nucleus at a specific
3. Define the following: E1; an electron moves from E1 to E3; and an radius in a path called an orbit. The
a. electromagnetic radiation b. wavelength electron moves from E6 to E3. electron exists in one of only a finite
number of allowed orbits.
c. frequency d. quantum e. photon b. Which energy-level change above emits or
absorbs the highest energy? the lowest energy? 6. a. E2 to E1, emission; E1 to E3,
4. What is meant by the dual wave-particle nature
absorption; E6 to E3, emission
of light?
b. highest energy, E1 to E3; lowest
energy, E6 to E3

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 103 103

 1
SECTION 2

Lesson Starter
Write down some fake student
GENERAL

addresses. Use the format of street

SECTION 2
The Quantum Model
name, house/apartment number, and
ZIP Code. These items describe the
location of their residence. How
OBJECTIVES of the Atom
Discuss Louis de Broglie’s role
many students have the same ZIP
in the development of the
Code? How many live on the same
quantum model of the atom.
street? How many have the same
house number? Create a unique
address for each student. In the Compare and contrast the T o the scientists of the early twentieth century, Bohr’s model of the
same way that no two houses have Bohr model and the quantum hydrogen atom contradicted common sense. Why did hydrogen’s
the same address, no two electrons model of the atom. electron exist around the nucleus only in certain allowed orbits with
in an atom have the same set of four definite energies? Why couldn’t the electron exist in a limitless number
quantum numbers. In this section, of orbits with slightly different energies? To explain why atomic energy
students will learn how to use the Explain how the Heisenberg
states are quantized, scientists had to change the way they viewed the
quantum-number code to describe uncertainty principle and the
nature of the electron.
the properties of electrons in atoms. Schrödinger wave equation
led to the idea of atomic
orbitals.
✔Teaching Tip
De Broglie’s hypothesis came about List the four quantum Electrons as Waves
partly by combining two equations numbers and describe
that were well known at the time. their significance.
The investigations into the photoelectric effect and hydrogen’s
Planck had suggested that E = hc/ λ; emission-line spectrum revealed that light could behave as both a wave
Einstein suggested that matter and
Relate the number of and a particle. Could electrons have a dual wave-particle nature as well?
energy are conserved, E = mc 2,
sublevels corresponding In 1924, the French scientist Louis de Broglie asked himself this very
where m is mass and c is the speed
to each of an atom’s main question. And the answer that he proposed led to a revolution in our
of light. Setting the two energy
energy levels, the number of basic understanding of matter.
equations equal to one another and
orbitals per sublevel, and the De Broglie pointed out that in many ways the behavior of electrons
substituting velocity, v, for c, the
number of orbitals per main
equation becomes  = h mv. This in Bohr’s quantized orbits was similar to the known behavior of waves.
energy level.
equation suggests that anything with For example, scientists at the time knew that any wave confined to a
both mass and velocity has a corre- space can have only certain frequencies. De Broglie suggested that elec-
sponding wavelength. However, trons be considered waves confined to the space around an atomic
everyday objects have very large nucleus. It followed that the electron waves could exist only at specific
masses compared to electrons. As a frequencies. And according to the relationship E = hν, these frequencies
result, the mv term for them would corresponded to specific energies—the quantized energies of Bohr’s
be very large, and the wavelengths
orbits.
would be too small to be observed.
Other aspects of de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have wave-
like properties were soon confirmed by experiments. Investigators
demonstrated that electrons, like light waves, can be bent, or diffracted.
Diffraction refers to the bending of a wave as it passes by the edge of an
object or through a small opening. Diffraction experiments and other
investigations also showed that electron beams, like waves, can interfere
with each other. Interference occurs when waves overlap (see the Quick
Lab in this section). This overlapping results in a reduction of energy in
some areas and an increase of energy in others. The effects of diffrac-
tion and interference can be seen in Figure 10.

104 104 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 2
FIGURE 10 Diffraction patterns
produced by (a) a beam of electrons
Visual Strategy GENERAL
passed through a substance and
(b) a beam of visible light passed FIGURE 10 Diffraction and interfer-
through a tiny aperture. Each pat- ence are two traits common to all
tern shows the results of bent waves waves. For example, water waves
that have interfered with each other. coming from two nearby sources will
The bright areas correspond to areas create diffraction and interference
of increased energy, while the dark patterns. This could be demonstrated
areas correspond to areas of using a wave table if one is available.
decreased energy.

✔Teaching Tip
(a) (b) The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
can be difficult for students to under-
stand. Ask them to imagine a mouse
running through a dark house. If they
hear the mouse and point a flashlight
The Heisenberg Uncertainty at it, the mouse will turn and run in a
Principle different direction than it would have
gone without the light. The result is
The idea of electrons having a dual wave-particle nature troubled scien- similar when you use light to try to
tists. If electrons are both particles and waves, then where are they in the observe an electron. The light’s effect
atom? To answer this question, it is important to consider a proposal first on the electron makes it impossible
made in 1927 by the German theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg. to know the electron’s exact location
Heisenberg’s idea involved the detection of electrons. Electrons are and velocity at the same time.
detected by their interaction with photons. Because photons have about
the same energy as electrons, any attempt to locate a specific electron
with a photon knocks the electron off its course. As a result, there is
always a basic uncertainty in trying to locate an electron (or any other
particle). The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossi-
ble to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity of an elec-
tron or any other particle. Although it was difficult for scientists to
accept this fact at the time, it has proven to be one of the fundamental
principles of our present understanding of light and matter.

The Schrödinger Wave Equation

In 1926, the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger used the hypothesis
that electrons have a dual wave-particle nature to develop an equation
that treated electrons in atoms as waves. Unlike Bohr’s theory, which
assumed quantization as a fact, quantization of electron energies was
a natural outcome of Schrödinger’s equation. Only waves of specific
energies, and therefore frequencies, provided solutions to the equa-
tion. Together with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the
Schrödinger wave equation laid the foundation for modern quantum
theory. Quantum theory describes mathematically the wave properties
of electrons and other very small particles.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 105 105

 1
SECTION 2

Wear safety goggles and an apron.

Materials
Both light and electrons exhibit wave-
like properties during experiments that
The Wave Nature of Light: Interference • scissors
• manila folders
test for wave properties. Interference
Question about 50 cm from the projec- • thumbtack
is one property of waves. This activity
Does light show the wave tion screen, as shown in the • masking tape
duplicates a historic experiment that
property of interference diagram. Adjust the distance to • aluminum foil
tested both light and electrons for form a sharp image on the pro-
when a beam of light is pro- • white poster board or
interference. jection screen.
jected through a pinhole cardboard
onto a screen? • flashlight
Discussion Discussion
1. Most students should observe Procedure 1. Did you observe interference
light and dark rings around the edge Record all your observations.
patterns on the screen?
of the hole illuminated on the screen. 1. To make the pinhole screen,
2. As a result of your observa-
These light and dark patterns are a cut a 20 cm × 20 cm square
tions, what do you conclude
result of interference. from a manila folder. In the
about the nature of light?
2. Light has wavelike properties. center of the square, cut a
2 cm square hole. Cut a
7 cm × 7 cm square of alu-
Analogy minum foil. Using a thumb-
tack, make a pinhole in the
Ask students to imagine the propeller
center of the foil square. Tape
of an airplane. They can be certain of the aluminum foil over the
its position as long as it has no kinetic 2 cm square hole, making sure
energy, that is, as long as it is not the pinhole is centered as
moving. But as the propeller begins shown in the diagram. 1cm
to move, it seems to take a different
shape—that of a disk—and its posi- 2. Use white poster board to
tion at any one instant is less certain. make a projection screen
Electrons are much smaller and move 35 cm × 35 cm. Image
much more quickly, creating even 3. In a dark room, center the light
greater uncertainty. Like the propeller beam from a flashlight on the 50 cm
taking the shape of a disk, the elec- pinhole. Hold the flashlight
tron is no longer considered to be at about 1 cm from the pinhole.
a single point in space, but rather it The pinhole screen should be
is thought of as a cloud. The mathe-
matical solution to the Schrödinger
equation established the different
possible regions in space (orbitals)
that electrons could occupy. These Solutions to the Schrödinger wave equation are known as wave func-
regions are summarized using quan- tions. Based on the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the early devel-
tum numbers. opers of quantum theory determined that wave functions give only the
probability of finding an electron at a given place around the nucleus.
Thus, electrons do not travel around the nucleus in neat orbits, as Bohr
had postulated. Instead, they exist in certain regions called orbitals. An
orbital is a three-dimensional region around the nucleus that indicates
the probable location of an electron.
Figure 11 illustrates two ways of picturing one type of atomic orbital.
As you will see later in this section, atomic orbitals have different
shapes and sizes.

106 106 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 2
z z
FIGURE 11 Two ways of showing
a simple atomic orbital are present-
Visual Strategy GENERAL
ed. In (a) the probability of finding
y y FIGURE 11 Remind students that
the electron is proportional to the
density of the cloud. Shown in (b) is these images represent electron den-
a surface within which the electron sities in three dimensions.
x x
can be found a certain percentage
of the time, conventionally 90%. FIGURE 12 Each n value, or energy
level, is one possible location for elec-
(a) (b) trons around the nucleus. Emphasize
that electrons can have energies cor-
responding only to those energies
associated with values of n. The prin-
cipal quantum number, n, also indi-
cates the general distance of an
Atomic Orbitals and electron to the nucleus. Electrons far-
Quantum Numbers ther from the nucleus have greater
energies and thus greater values of n.
In the Bohr atomic model, electrons of increasing energy occupy orbits
farther and farther from the nucleus. According to the Schrödinger
equation, electrons in atomic orbitals also have quantized energies. An
Common
electron’s energy level is not the only characteristic of an orbital that is
Misconception
indicated by solving the Schrödinger equation. Although the word orbital is used
In order to completely describe orbitals, scientists use quantum num- to describe the location of electrons,
electrons do not actually occur in
bers. Quantum numbers specify the properties of atomic orbitals and the
planetlike orbits. In the quantum
properties of electrons in orbitals. The first three quantum numbers
model, orbitals are actually electron
result from solutions to the Schrödinger equation. They indicate the clouds, or most likely locations for
main energy level, the shape, and the orientation of an orbital. The electrons. Students often cling to the
fourth, the spin quantum number, describes a fundamental state of the Bohr model, which suggested that an
electron that occupies the orbital. As you read the following descrip- orbiting electron moves at a specific
tions of the quantum numbers, refer to the appropriate columns in n=6 radius, like a planet does. Help stu-
n=5
Table 2. n=4
dents move away from the Bohr
model toward the quantum model.
n=3
Principal Quantum Number
The principal quantum number, symbolized by n, indicates the main
Alternative
energy level occupied by the electron. Values of n are positive integers
n=2
Assessment GENERAL
only—1, 2, 3, and so on. As n increases, the electron’s energy and its
At this point, students can complete
Energy

average distance from the nucleus increase (see Figure 12). For exam-
their chronology of the building of
ple, an electron for which n = 1 occupies the first, or lowest, main ener-
current atomic theory. Suggest that
gy level and is located closest to the nucleus. As you will see, more than they put a new chronology on a
one electron can have the same n value. These electrons are sometimes concept map that also contains the
said to be in the same electron shell. The total number of orbitals that experiments or ideas used to make
exist in a given shell, or main energy level, is equal to n2. each step: isolating different sub-
atomic particles, locating each
n=1
Angular Momentum Quantum Number particle, discovering the nature
Except at the first main energy level, orbitals of different shapes— of electrons, and so on.
known as sublevels—exist for a given value of n. The angular momentum
quantum number, symbolized by l, indicates the shape of the orbital. For FIGURE 12 The main energy lev-
a specific main energy level, the number of orbital shapes possible is els of an atom are represented by
equal to n. The values of l allowed are zero and all positive integers less the principal quantum number, n.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 107 107

 1
SECTION 2
TABLE 1 Orbital Letter Designations According to
Values of l
TABLE STRATEGY GENERAL
l Letter
Table 1 Emphasize that the values
of l and the letters s, p, d, and 0 s
f are synonymous for the names of 1 p
differently shaped orbitals. Be sure 2 d
students are aware of the general
orbital shapes, which are shown in 3 f
Figure 13.

✔Teaching Tip than or equal to n − 1. For example, orbitals for which n = 2 can have
Distinguish between the concepts of one of two shapes corresponding to l = 0 and l = 1. Depending on its
sublevel and orbital. An orbital is a value of l, an orbital is assigned a letter, as shown in Table 1.
single allowed location for atomic As shown in Figure 13, s orbitals are spherical, p orbitals have dumb-
electrons. It is described by specific bell shapes, and d orbitals are more complex. (The f orbital shapes are
values of n, m, and l, and it is capa- even more complex.) In the first energy level, n = 1, there is only one
ble of holding, at most, two electrons sublevel possible—an s orbital. As mentioned, the second energy level,
of opposite spin states, according to
n = 2, has two sublevels—the s and p orbitals. The third energy level,
the Pauli exclusion principle. A sub-
level includes all the similarly shaped
n = 3, has three sublevels—the s, p, and d orbitals. The fourth energy
orbitals in a particular main energy level, n = 4, has four sublevels—the s, p, d, and f orbitals. In an nth main
level. In other words, for a given energy level, there are n sublevels.
value of n, a sublevel consists of all Each atomic orbital is designated by the principal quantum number
orbitals with the same value of l. followed by the letter of the sublevel. For example, the 1s sublevel is the
s orbital in the first main energy level, while the 2p sublevel is the set of
three p orbitals in the second main energy level. On the other hand, a 4d
Answers to In-Text orbital is part of the d sublevel in the fourth main energy level. How
Questions would you designate the p sublevel in the third main energy level? How
• The p sublevel in the third main many other sublevels are in the third main energy level with this one?
energy level is designated 3p.
• There are two other sublevels in Magnetic Quantum Number
the third main energy level, 3s Atomic orbitals can have the same shape but different orientations
and 3d. around the nucleus. The magnetic quantum number, symbolized by m,
indicates the orientation of an orbital around the nucleus. Values of m are
FIGURE 13 The orbitals s, p, and whole numbers, including zero, from −l to +l. Because an s orbital is
Reading Skill Builder d have different shapes. Each
spherical and is centered around the nucleus, it has only one possible
READING HINT Explain the of the orbitals shown occupies a
different region of space around
orientation. This orientation corresponds to a magnetic quantum num-
different quantum numbers. Then
have students form pairs and use the nucleus.
the following figures to explain z z z
what the different quantum y y y
numbers indicate. Have them use
Figure 12 to explain the principal
quantum number, n; Figure 13 to
explain the angular momentum
x x x
number, l; and Figures 14 and 15
to explain the magnetic quantum
number, m.
s orbital p orbital d orbital

108 108 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 2
z z z
y y y
Visual Strategy GENERAL
FIGURE 14 Use three rulers at right
angles to help students visualize the
x x x three-dimensional nature of the x, y,
z coordinate system.

px orbital py orbital pz orbital Teaching Strategy

The number of different possible
values for the magnetic quantum
FIGURE 14 The subscripts x,
number determines the number of
y, and z indicate the three different
ber of m = 0. There is therefore only one s orbital in each s sublevel. As orbitals in a particular sublevel. For
orientations of p orbitals. The inter-
shown in Figure 14, the lobes of a p orbital extend along the x, y, or z section of the x, y, and z axes indi-
example, when l = 1, m can equal
axis of a three-dimensional coordinate system. There are therefore cates the location of the center of –1, 0, or 1. These three possible
three p orbitals in each p sublevel, which are designated as px , py , and the nucleus. values for m indicate that there are
pz orbitals. The three p orbitals occupy different regions of space and three different orbitals (each oriented
those regions are related to values of m = −1, m = 0, and m = +1. differently around the nucleus) in the
sublevel corresponding to l = 1.
There are five different d orbitals in each d sublevel (see
These three orbitals are known as p
Figure 15). The five different orientations, including one with a differ-
orbitals. More specifically, they are
ent shape, correspond to values of m = −2, m = −1, m = 0, m = +1, and the px , py , and pz orbitals, as shown
m = +2. There are seven different f orbitals in each f sublevel. in Figure 14.

Teaching Strategy
z z z Hold two bar magnets parallel to
each other. If the north ends of both
y y y magnets point in the same direction,
the magnets will repel each other. If
the north end of one magnet faces
the south end of the other magnet,
x x x then the magnets will attract each
other. In this analogy, the magnets
represent the magnetic fields around
two electrons. For the two electrons
to coexist in the same orbital, their
dx2–y 2 orbital dxy orbital dyz orbital spin quantum numbers must be
different.
z z

y y

FIGURE 15 The five different ori-

x x entations of the d orbitals. Four have
the same shape but different orien-
tations. The fifth has a different
shape and a different orientation
than the others. Each orbital occu-
dxz orbital dz 2 orbital pies a different region of space.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 109 109

 1
SECTION 2
TABLE 2 Quantum Number Relationships in Atomic Structure
Answer to In-Text Principal Number of Number of
Question quantum Sublevels in Number of orbitals Number of electrons
There are 9 orbitals in the third main number: main energy orbitals per main electrons per main
energy level: 3s, 3px , 3py , 3pz , main energy level per energy level per energy level
3dx 2–y 2, 3dxy , 3dyz , 3dxz , and 3dz 2 . level (n) (n sublevels) sublevel (n 2) sublevel (2n 2)
1 s 1 1 2 2
s 1 2
TABLE STRATEGY GENERAL 2 4 8
p 3 6
Table 2 Have students use the s 1 2
table to determine the number of 3 p 3 9 6 18
electrons each sublevel can hold d 5 10
and the number of electrons that
may be contained in a given main s 1 2
energy level. p 3 6
4 16 32
d 5 10
f 7 14

As you can see in Table 2, the total number of orbitals in a main

SECTION REVIEW energy level increases with the value of n. In fact, the number of orbitals
C ROSS -D ISCIPLINARY
1. a. quantized levels of increasing at each main energy level equals the square of the principal quantum
Go to go.hrw.com for for a full-
energy, specified by the quantum length article on spintronics.
number, n2. What is the total number of orbitals in the third energy
number n, at which atomic orbitals level? Specify each of the sublevels using the orbital designations
can exist Keyword: HC6ARRX you’ve learned so far.
b. numbers used to specify the ener-
gy, location, shape, and orientation of Spin Quantum Number
atomic orbitals, as well as the spins An electron in an orbital behaves in some ways like Earth spinning on
of electrons in these orbitals
an axis. The electron exists in one of two possible spin states, which cre-
2. a. principal, n; angular momentum, ates a magnetic field. To account for the magnetic properties of the elec-
l; magnetic, m; and spin (+1/2 or −1/2 ) tron, theoreticians of the early twentieth century created the spin
b. the distance of an orbital to the quantum number. The spin quantum number has only two possible
nucleus, the energy, shape, and orien-
values—(+ 1/2 , − 1/2 )—which indicate the two fundamental spin states of an
tation of the orbital, and the spin of
electron in an orbital. A single orbital can hold a maximum of two elec-
the electrons in the orbital
trons, but the two electrons must have opposite spin states.
3. The principal quantum number, n,
describes the energy of the orbital as
well as the orbital’s distance to the
nucleus. The angular momentum
quantum number, l, signifies the
shape of the orbital. The magnetic
SECTION REVIEW 3. Describe briefly what specific information is given
quantum number, m, indicates the 1. Define the following: by each of the four quantum numbers.
orientation of an orbital. The spin
a. main energy levels Critical Thinking
quantum number indicates which of
an electron’s two fundamental states b. quantum numbers 4. INFERRING RELATIONSHIPS What are the possible
within an orbital an electron is in. 2. a. List the four quantum numbers. values of the magnetic quantum number m for f
orbitals? What is the maximum number of elec-
4. The seven values of m are −3, −2, b. What general information about atomic orbitals trons that can exist in 4f orbitals?
−1, 0, +1, +2, +3; 14 is provided by the quantum numbers?

110 110 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 3

Electron SECTION 3 Lesson Starter GENERAL

Write an electron configuration—such
as that of carbon, 1s 22s 22p 2—on the

Configurations OBJECTIVES board. Explain that an electron con-

figuration describes the arrangement
of electrons in an atom. For example,
List the total number of elec-
in carbon’s electron configuration, the
trons needed to fully occupy
integers indicate the main energy level
each main energy level.
(or principal quantum number, n) of
each orbital occupied by electrons. The
T he quantum model of the atom improves on the Bohr model because State the Aufbau principle, letters indicate the shape (or angular
it describes the arrangements of electrons in atoms other than hydrogen. the Pauli exclusion principle, momentum quantum number, l ) of
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is known as the atom’s electron and Hund’s rule. the occupied orbitals. The superscripts
configuration. Because atoms of different elements have different num- identify the number of electrons in
bers of electrons, a unique electron configuration exists for the atoms of each sublevel.
Describe the electron
each element. Like all systems in nature, electrons in atoms tend to
configurations for the
assume arrangements that have the lowest possible energies. The lowest-
energy arrangement of the electrons for each element is called the ele-
atoms of any element using
orbital notation, electron-
✔Teaching Tip
ment’s ground-state electron configuration. A few simple rules, combined configuration notation, and, When Erwin Schrödinger used quan-
with the quantum number relationships discussed in Section 2, allow us to when appropriate, noble-gas tum numbers to describe the locations
determine these ground-state electron configurations. notation. of electrons, he allowed scientists to
accept the uncertainty of the exact
location of electrons. Electron config-
urations summarize the locations of
Rules Governing Electron electrons in clouds, or orbitals,
around the nuclei of atoms.
Configurations
To build up electron configurations for the ground state Reading Skill Builder
of any particular atom, first the energy levels of the 6d PAIRED READING Have stu-
orbitals are determined. Then electrons are added to the 7s
5f
6d dents read the section and mark
6p 5f
orbitals, one by one, according to three basic rules. 5d 7s with self-adhesive notes the pas-
4f 6p
(Remember that real atoms are not built up by adding 6s 5d sages they do not understand. Be
5p 6s 4f
protons and electrons one at a time.) 4d sure students study all tables and
5s 5p
The first rule shows the order in which electrons occu- 4p 4d figures to help clarify the relevant
5s
py orbitals. According to the Aufbau principle, an elec- 4s
3d 4p passages. After reading, pair up
Energy

tron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it. 3d students and have the pairs dis-
3p 4s
Figure 16 shows the atomic orbitals in order of increas- 3s 3p cuss those passages that were dif-
ing energy. The orbital with the lowest energy is the 3s ficult. For the passages that cannot
2p be clarified by the pairs, have stu-
1s orbital. In a ground-state hydrogen atom, the electron 2s 2p
dents ask questions for later class
is in this orbital. The 2s orbital is the next highest in 2s
discussion or teacher explanation.
energy, then the 2p orbitals. Beginning with the third
main energy level, n = 3, the energies of the sublevels in
different main energy levels begin to overlap. 1s
Note in the figure, for example, that the 4s sublevel is 1s
lower in energy than the 3d sublevel. Therefore, the
4s orbital is filled before any electrons enter the FIGURE 16 The order of increasing energy for
3d orbitals. (Less energy is required for two electrons to atomic sublevels is shown on the vertical axis. Each
individual box represents an orbital.
pair up in the 4s orbital than for those two electrons to

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 111 111

 1
SECTION 3
occupy a 3d orbital.) Once the 3d orbitals are fully occupied, which
sublevel will be occupied next?
Visual Strategy GENERAL
The second rule reflects the importance of the spin quantum num-
FIGURE 17 The significance of the 1s orbital ber. According to the Pauli exclusion principle, no two electrons in the
Pauli exclusion principle is that two same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. The princi-
electrons can occupy the same FIGURE 17 According to the pal, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers specify the
orbital, but they must have opposite Pauli exclusion principle, an orbital
energy, shape, and orientation of an orbital. The two values of the spin
spins states. The arrows distinguish can hold two electrons of opposite
quantum number reflect the fact that for two electrons to occupy the
the two electrons in an orbital. spin states. In this electron configu-
ration of a helium atom, each arrow same orbital, they must have opposite spin states (see Figure 17).
represents one of the atom’s two The third rule requires placing as many unpaired electrons as possible
Analogy electrons. The direction of the arrow in separate orbitals in the same sublevel. In this way, electron-electron
Hund’s rule can be compared to the indicates the electron’s spin state. repulsion is minimized so that the electron arrangements have the low-
way students would arrange them- est energy possible. According to Hund’s rule, orbitals of equal energy are
selves on a school bus after a muddy each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second
game of soccer. Each student will try electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same
to have his or her own seat until all spin state. Applying this rule shows, for example, that one electron will
the seats are filled. Only then will enter each of the three p orbitals in a main energy level before a second
students begin to double up. In a like electron enters any of them. This is illustrated in Figure 18. What is the
manner, each orbital in a sublevel
maximum number of unpaired electrons in a d sublevel?
will hold one electron until all of the
sublevel’s orbitals are half-filled. Only
then will orbitals begin accepting
second, higher-energy electrons. FIGURE 18 The figure shows how
(a) two, (b) three, and (c) four elec-
trons fill the p sublevel of a given
Answers to In-Text main energy level according (a) (b) (c)
Questions to Hund’s rule.
• The 4p orbitals will begin to fill
after the 3d orbitals are fully
occupied.
• The maximum number of unpaired
electrons in a d sublevel is five. Representing Electron
Configurations
✔Teaching Tip Three methods, or notations, are used to indicate electron configura-
Emphasize the relationship between tions. Two of these notations will be discussed in the next two sections
orbital diagrams and electron con- for the first-period elements, hydrogen and helium. The third notation
figurations. Write an orbital diagram is used mostly with elements of the third period and higher. It will be
on the board and show how the discussed in the section on third-period elements.
number of arrows corresponds to In a ground-state hydrogen atom, the single electron is in the lowest-
the superscripts in an electron con- energy orbital, the 1s orbital. The electron can be in either one of its
figuration. When students begin to two spin states. Helium has two electrons, which are paired in the
feel comfortable with electron 1s orbital.
configurations, organize a friendly
competition between different
Orbital Notation
groups. Have students from each
In orbital notation, an unoccupied orbital is represented by a line, ,
group go to the board, then give
them an element. The first group with the orbital’s name written underneath the line.An orbital containing
member who puts the correct elec- one electron is represented as ↑ . An orbital containing two electrons
tron configuration on the board is represented as ↑↓ , showing the electrons paired and with opposite
earns a point for his or her group. spin states. The lines are labeled with the principal quantum number and

112 112 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 3
sublevel letter. For example, the orbital notations for hydrogen and
helium are written as follows.
ADDITIONAL
↑ ↑↓
H He SAMPLE
1s 1s
PROBLEMS GENERAL

Electron-Configuration Notation A-1 The electron configuration of

carbon is 1s 22s 22p 2. How many
Electron-configuration notation eliminates the lines and arrows of
electrons are present in carbon?
orbital notation. Instead, the number of electrons in a sublevel is shown
What is the atomic number of carbon?
by adding a superscript to the sublevel designation. The hydrogen con-
figuration is represented by 1s1. The superscript indicates that one elec- Ans. 6, 6
tron is present in hydrogen’s 1s orbital. The helium configuration is A-2 Write the electron configuration
represented by 1s2. Here the superscript indicates that there are two of the element sulfur, which has an
electrons in helium’s 1s orbital. atomic number of 16.
Ans. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 4

SAMPLE PROBLEM A For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of Chapter 5. Practice Answers
The electron configuration of boron is 1s22s22p1.
How many electrons are present in an atom of boron? ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
1. 7, 7,
What is the atomic number for boron? Write the orbital notation for boron. 1s 2s egfgh
2p
2. 9, 2
SOLUTION The number of electrons in a boron atom is equal to the sum of the superscripts in its
electron-configuration notation: 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 electrons. The number of protons equals the
number of electrons in a neutral atom. So we know that boron has 5 protons and thus has an
atomic number of 5. To write the orbital notation, first draw the lines representing orbitals.
✔Teaching Tip
Tell students that the order in which
the three 2p orbitals are filled is not
1s 2s egfgh
2p important.
Next, add arrows showing the electron locations. The first two electrons occupy n = 1 energy
level and fill the 1s orbital.
↑↓
1s 2s egfgh
2p
The next three electrons occupy the n = 2 main energy level. Two of these occupy the lower-
energy 2s orbital. The third occupies a higher-energy p orbital.

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
1s 2s egfgh
2p

PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E

1. The electron configuration of nitrogen is 1s22s22p3. How many

electrons are present in a nitrogen atom? What is the atomic num-
ber of nitrogen? Write the orbital notation for nitrogen.
Go to go.hrw.com for
2. The electron configuration of fluorine is 1s22s22p5. What is the more practice problems
atomic number of fluorine? How many of its p orbitals are filled? that deal with electron
configurations.
Keyword: HC6ARRX

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 113 113

 1
SECTION 3

Historical Chemistry

Class Discussion GENERAL

This feature outlines the progression
of scientific activity that uncovered The Noble Decade
the noble gases, which made up a
whole new group in the periodic By the late nineteenth century, the science of chemistry Rayleigh was at a loss to explain his discovery. Finally, in
table. Ask students if there are other had begun to be organized. In 1860, the First International 1892, he published a letter in Nature magazine to appeal
examples—even outside the scientific Congress of Chemistry established the field’s first stan- to his colleagues for an explanation. A month later, he
world—in which several discoveries dards. And Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements received a reply from a Scottish chemist named William
are made after a single person had a gave chemists across the globe a systematic understand- Ramsay. Ramsay related that he too had been stumped by
new insight. (Examples within the sci- ing of matter’s building blocks. But many important the density difference between chemical and atmospheric
entific world may include the discov- findings—including the discovery of a family of rare, nitrogen. Rayleigh decided to report his findings to the
eries of the lanthanides and actinides unreactive gases that were unlike any substances known Royal Society.
or of the subatomic particles.) Discuss
at the time—were yet to come.
the importance of using scientific lit- A Chemist’s Approach
erature to report findings in this Cross-Disciplinary Correspondence With Rayleigh’s permission, Ramsay attempted to remove
process of discovery. Sharing informa- In 1888, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh encountered a all known components from a sample of air and to ana-
tion is important because different small but significant discrepancy in the results of one of lyze what, if anything, remained. Having removed water
people have different talents. One
his experiments. In an effort to redetermine the atomic vapor, carbon dioxide, and oxygen from the air, Ramsay
investigator may be diligent in the
mass of nitrogen, he measured the densities of several repeatedly passed the sample over hot magnesium. The
laboratory and obtain clear results.
Another may be better suited to samples of nitrogen gas. Each sample had been prepared nitrogen reacted with the magnesium to form solid mag-
reflect on the meaning of the results. by a different method. All samples that had been isolated nesium nitride. As a result, all of the then-known compo-
from chemical reactions exhibited similar densities. But nents of air were removed. What remained was a
they were about one-tenth of a percent less dense than minuscule portion of a mysterious gas.
the nitrogen isolated from air, which at the time was Ramsay tried to cause the gas to react with chemically
believed to be a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, active substances, such as hydrogen, sodium, and caustic
and carbon dioxide. soda, but the gas remained unaltered. He decided to name
this new atmospheric component argon (Greek for “inert”
or “idle”).

Periodic Problems
This excerpt from Lord Rayleigh’s letter was originally pub- Rayleigh and Ramsay were sure that they had discovered a
lished in Nature magazine in 1892.
new element. But this created a problem. Their calculations
indicated that argon had an atomic mass of about 40.
However, as it appeared in 1894, the periodic table had no
space for such an element. The elements with atomic masses
closest to that of argon were chlorine and potassium.
Unfortunately, the chemical properties of the families of each
of these elements were completely dissimilar to those of the
strange gas.
Ramsay contemplated argon’s lack of reactivity. He knew
that Mendeleev had created the periodic table on the basis
of valence, or the number of atomic partners an element
bonds with in forming a compound. Because Ramsay could
not cause argon to form any compounds, he assigned it a
valence of zero. And because the valence of the elements in

114 114 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 3

Alternative
Assessment
Groups III IV V VI VII VIII I II III IV V VI VII 0 I II Some students may be interested in
Periods b b b b b b b b a a a a a a a mythology and its relationship to
early alchemy. Have these students
1 H He
find out which names of elements on
2 Li Be the periodic table have their origins
3 B C N O F Ne Na Mg in mythology. Then, have them give a
brief report to the class.
4 Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
5 Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr
6 Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba Answers
1. Ramsay tried to make the
7 La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra
unknown gas react with other chemi-
8 Ac cally reactive substances, but no
In 1893, Scottish chemist William Transition elements Main-group elements chemical change occurred.
Ramsay isolated a previously unknown
component of the atmosphere. 2. The other elements of similar
This version of the periodic table shows how it looked after the discovery of the atomic weight reacted with other
noble gases. The placement of the Group 1 and 2 elements at the far right of the substances and had been assigned a
table shows clearly how the noble gases fit in between the chlorine family and the combining tendency (valence) of 1.
potassium family of elements. The 0 above the noble-gas family indicates the zero Because argon did not react, it was
valency of the gases. assigned a valence of 0 and placed
between Cl and K.
the families of both chlorine and potassium was one, Questions
perhaps argon fit in between them.
1. What evidence led Ramsay to report that the mysteri-
Ramsay’s insight that argon merited a new spot
ous gas was inert?
between the halogen family and the alkali metal family on
the periodic table was correct. And as Ramsay would soon 2. What property of argon caused Ramsay to propose a
confirm, his newly discovered gas was indeed one of a new column in the periodic table?
previously unknown family of elements.

New Neighbors
In 1895, Ramsay isolated a light, inert gas from a mineral www.scilinks.org
called cleveite. Physical analysis revealed that the gas was Topic: William Ramsay
the same as one that had been identified in the sun in Code: HC61666
1868—helium. Helium was the second zero-valent ele-
ment found on Earth, and its discovery made chemists
aware that the periodic table had been missing a whole
column of elements.
Over the next three years, Ramsay and his assistant,
Morris Travers, identified three more inert gases present in
the atmosphere: neon (Greek for “new”), krypton (“hid-
den”), and xenon (“stranger”). Finally in 1900, German
chemist Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered radon, the last of
the new family of elements known today as the noble
gases. For his discovery, Ramsay received the Nobel Prize
in 1904.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 115 115

 1
SECTION 3

1s Elements of the Second Period

Visual Strategy GENERAL
2s 2p In the first-period elements, hydrogen and helium, electrons occupy the
FIGURE 19 Students can also use
the periodic table to determine the 3s 3p 3d orbital of the first main energy level. The ground-state configurations in
order in which orbitals are filled. Use Table 3 illustrate how the Aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle,
the first three rows of the table as 4s 4p 4d 4f
and Hund’s rule are applied to atoms of elements in the second period.
examples. 5s 5p 5d 5f Figure 19 provides a pattern to help you remember the order in which
orbitals are filled according to the Aufbau principle.
6s 6p 6d
CHAPTER CONNECTION According to the Aufbau principle, after the 1s orbital is filled, the
7s 7p next electron occupies the s sublevel in the second main energy level.
See Chapter 5 for a detailed discus- Thus, lithium, Li, has a configuration of 1s22s1. The electron occupying
sion of electron configurations and FIGURE 19 Follow the diagonal the 2s level of a lithium atom is in the atom’s highest, or outermost, occu-
the periodic table. arrows from the top to get the order pied level. The highest-occupied energy level is the electron-containing
in which atomic orbitals are filled main energy level with the highest principal quantum number. The two
according to the Aufbau principle.
electrons in the 1s sublevel of lithium are no longer in the outermost
main energy level. They have become inner-shell electrons, which are
electrons that are not in the highest-occupied energy level.
The fourth electron in an atom of beryllium, Be, must complete the
pair in the 2s sublevel because this sublevel is of lower energy than the
2p sublevel. With the 2s sublevel filled, the 2p sublevel, which has three
vacant orbitals of equal energy, can be occupied. One of the three p
orbitals is occupied by a single electron in an atom of boron, B. Two of
the three p orbitals are occupied by unpaired electrons in an atom of
carbon, C. And all three p orbitals are occupied by unpaired electrons
in an atom of nitrogen, N. Hund’s rule applies here, as is shown in the
orbital notations in Table 3.
According to the Aufbau principle, the next electron must pair with
another electron in one of the 2p orbitals rather than enter the third main
energy level. The Pauli exclusion principle allows the electron to pair with

TABLE 3 Electron Configurations of Atoms of Second-Period

Elements Showing Two Notations
Orbital notation Electron-
2p configuration
Name Symbol 1s 2s notation
Lithium Li ↑↓ ↑ 1s22s1
Beryllium Be ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s22s2
Boron B ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ 1s22s22p1
Carbon C ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s22s22p2
Nitrogen N ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ 1s22s22p3
Oxygen O ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s22s22p4
Fluorine F ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ 1s22s22p5
Neon Ne ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s22s22p6

116 116 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 3
one of the electrons occupying the 2p orbitals as long as the spins of the
paired electrons are opposite. Thus, atoms of oxygen, O, have the config-
uration 1s22s22p4. Oxygen’s orbital notation is shown in Table 3. TABLE STRATEGY GENERAL
Two 2p orbitals are filled in fluorine, F, and all three are filled in neon, Table 4 Have students compare the
Ne. Atoms such as those of neon, which have the s and p sublevels of information provided by orbital nota-
their highest occupied level filled with eight electrons, are said to have tion and noble-gas notation. (Orbital
an octet of electrons. Examine the periodic table inside the back cover notation indicates each orbital and
of the text. Notice that neon is the last element in the second period. its electrons. Noble-gas notation
shows an electron configuration in
an abbreviated manner, specifying
the arrangements of only the elec-
trons in the outer shell.)
Elements of the Third Period
After the outer octet is filled in neon, the next electron enters the s sub-
level in the n = 3 main energy level. Thus, atoms of sodium, Na, have
the configuration 1s22s22p63s1. Compare the configuration of a sodium
atom with that of an atom of neon in Table 3. Notice that the first
10 electrons in a sodium atom have the same configuration as a neon
atom, 1s22s22p6. In fact, the first 10 electrons in an atom of each of the
third-period elements have the same configuration as neon. This simi-
larity allows us to use a shorthand notation for the electron configura-
tions of the third-period elements.

Noble-Gas Notation
Neon is a member of the Group 18 elements. The Group 18 elements
(helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) are called the noble
gases. To simplify sodium’s notation, the symbol for neon, enclosed in
square brackets, is used to represent the complete neon configuration:
[Ne] = 1s22s22p6. This allows us to write sodium’s electron configuration
as [Ne]3s1, which is called sodium’s noble-gas notation. Table 4 shows
the electron configuration of each of the third-period elements using
noble-gas notation.

TABLE 4 Electron Configurations of Atoms of Third-Period Elements

Atomic Number of electrons in sublevels Noble-gas
Name Symbol number 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p notation
Sodium Na 11 2 2 6 1 *[Ne]3s1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 2 6 2 [Ne]3s2
Aluminum Al 13 2 2 6 2 1 [Ne]3s23p1
Silicon Si 14 2 2 6 2 2 [Ne]3s23p2
Phosphorus P 15 2 2 6 2 3 [Ne]3s23p3
Sulfur S 16 2 2 6 2 4 [Ne]3s23p4
Chlorine Cl 17 2 2 6 2 5 [Ne]3s23p5
Argon Ar 18 2 2 6 2 6 [Ne]3s23p6
*[Ne] = 1s22s22p6

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 117 117

 1
SECTION 3
The last element in the third period is argon, Ar, which is a noble gas.
As in neon, the highest-occupied energy level of argon has an octet of
TABLE STRATEGY GENERAL electrons, [Ne]3s23p6. In fact, each noble gas other than He has an elec-
Table 5 Have students observe the tron octet in its highest energy level. A noble-gas configuration refers to
situations in which an electron leaves an outer main energy level occupied, in most cases, by eight electrons.
an s orbital to create a half-filled or
filled d sublevel. Explain that in each
of these situations the electron con-
figuration that results is the most sta- Elements of the Fourth Period
ble configuration possible.
The electron configurations of atoms in the fourth-period elements
are shown in Table 5. The period begins by filling the 4s orbital, the
✔Teaching Tip empty orbital of lowest energy. Thus, the first element in the fourth
period is potassium, K, which has the electron configuration [Ar]4s1.
Teachers should emphasize that in
The next element is calcium, Ca, which has the electron configuration
writing out electron configurations, it
is acceptable to group together all [Ar]4s2.
occupied orbitals having the same With the 4s sublevel filled, the 4p and 3d sublevels are the next avail-
value of n, even though this is not the able vacant orbitals. Figure 16 shows that the 3d sublevel is lower in
usual order of filling. In other words, energy than the 4p sublevel. Therefore, the five 3d orbitals are next to
it is acceptable to write 3d before 4s,
as is done in Table 5, and 4f before
5d before 6s. TABLE 5 Electron Configuration of Atoms of Elements in the Fourth Period
Number of electrons
Atomic in sublevels above 2p Noble-gas
Name Symbol number 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p notation
Potassium K 19 2 6 1 *[Ar]4s1
Calcium Ca 20 2 6 2 [Ar]4s2
Scandium Sc 21 2 6 1 2 [Ar]3d 14s2
Titanium Ti 22 2 6 2 2 [Ar]3d 24s2
Vanadium V 23 2 6 3 2 [Ar]3d 34s2
Chromium Cr 24 2 6 5 1 [Ar]3d 54s1
Manganese Mn 25 2 6 5 2 [Ar]3d 54s2
Iron Fe 26 2 6 6 2 [Ar]3d 64s2
Cobalt Co 27 2 6 7 2 [Ar]3d 74s2
Nickel Ni 28 2 6 8 2 [Ar]3d 84s2
Copper Cu 29 2 6 10 1 [Ar]3d 104s1
Zinc Zn 30 2 6 10 2 [Ar]3d 104s2
Gallium Ga 31 2 6 10 2 1 [Ar]3d 104s24p1
Germanium Ge 32 2 6 10 2 2 [Ar]3d 104s24p2
Arsenic As 33 2 6 10 2 3 [Ar]3d 104s24p3
Selenium Se 34 2 6 10 2 4 [Ar]3d 104s24p4
Bromine Br 35 2 6 10 2 5 [Ar]3d 104s24p5
Krypton Kr 36 2 6 10 2 6 [Ar]3d 104s24p6
*[Ar] = 1s22s22p63s23p6

118 118 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 3
be filled. A total of 10 electrons can occupy the 3d orbitals. These are
filled successively in the 10 elements from scandium (atomic number
21) to zinc (atomic number 30).
Additional Example
Scandium, Sc, has the electron configuration [Ar]3d 14s2. Titanium, Ti,
Problems GENERAL

has the configuration [Ar]3d 24s2. And vanadium, V, has the configura- 1. Identify the element whose atoms
tion [Ar]3d 34s2. Up to this point, three electrons with the same spin have have two electrons in the p sublevel
of their second main energy level.
been added to three separate d orbitals, as required by Hund’s rule.
What is the total number of electrons
Surprisingly, chromium, Cr, has the electron configuration [Ar]3d 54s1.
in the second main energy level of
Not only did the added electron go into the fourth 3d orbital, but an an atom of this element? Name the
electron also moved from the 4s orbital into the fifth 3d orbital, leaving element in the third period that has
the 4s orbital with a single electron. Chromium’s electron configuration the same number of electrons in its
is contrary to what is expected according to the Aufbau principle. outermost main energy level as the
However, in reality the [Ar]3d 54s1 configuration is of lower energy than element described in the first part of
a [Ar]3d 44s2 configuration. For chromium, having six orbitals, all with the problem.
unpaired electrons, is a more stable arrangement than having four Ans. carbon; 4; silicon
unpaired electrons in the 3d orbitals and forcing two electrons to pair
2. Identify the element whose atoms
up in the 4s orbital. On the other hand, for tungsten, W, which is in the have five electrons in the p sublevel
same group as chromium, having four electrons in the 5d orbitals and of their third main energy level. What
two electrons paired in the 6s orbital is the most stable arrrangement. is the total number of electrons in
Unfortunately, there is no simple explanation for such deviations from the third main energy level of an
the expected order given in Figure 19. atom of this element? Name the
Manganese, Mn, has the electron configuration [Ar]3d 54s2. The element in the fourth period that has
added electron goes to the 4s orbital, completely filling this orbital the same number of electrons in its
while leaving the 3d orbitals still half-filled. Beginning with the next ele- outermost main energy level as the
ment, electrons continue to pair in the d orbitals. Thus, iron, Fe, has the element described in the first part
configuration [Ar]3d 64s2; cobalt, Co, has the configuration [Ar]3d 74s2; of the problem.
and nickel, Ni, has the configuration [Ar]3d 84s2. Next is copper, Cu, in Ans. chlorine; 7; bromine
which an electron moves from the 4s orbital to pair with the electron in 3. Which element does the noble-gas
the fifth 3d orbital. The result is an electron configuration of notation [Ne]3s1 represent the elec-
[Ar]3d 104s1—the lowest-energy configuration for Cu. As with Cr, there tron configuration of? How many
is no simple explanation for this deviation from the expected order. inner-shell electrons do its atoms
In atoms of zinc, Zn, the 4s sublevel is filled to give the electron con- contain?
figuration [Ar]3d 104s2. In atoms of the next six elements, electrons add Ans. sodium; 10
one by one to the three 4p orbitals. According to Hund’s rule, one elec- 4. Write the noble-gas notation for
tron is added to each of the three 4p orbitals before electrons are paired aluminum. How many outer-shell
in any 4p orbital. electrons does an atom of aluminum
contain? How many unpaired elec-
trons does an atom of aluminum
contain?
Elements of the Fifth Period Ans. [Ne]3s 23p1; 3; 1

In the 18 elements of the fifth period, sublevels fill in a similar manner

as in elements of the fourth period. However, they start at the 5s orbital
instead of the 4s. Successive electrons are added first to the 5s orbital,
then to the 4d orbitals, and finally to the 5p orbitals. This can be seen in
Table 6. There are occasional deviations from the predicted configura-
tions here also. The deviations differ from those for fourth-period ele-
ments, but in each case the preferred configuration has the lowest
possible energy.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 119 119

 1
SECTION 3
TABLE 6 Electron Configurations of Atoms of Elements in the Fifth Period
ADDITIONAL Number of electrons
SAMPLE Atomic in sublevels above 3d Noble-gas
Name Symbol number 4s 4p 4d 5s 5p notation
PROBLEM GENERAL
Rubidium Rb 37 2 6 1 *[Kr]5s1
B-1 a. Write both the complete
Strontium Sr 38 2 6 2 [Kr]5s2
electron-configuration notation and
the noble-gas notation for titanium, Ti. Yttrium Y 39 2 6 1 2 [Kr]4d 15s2
b. How many electron-containing Zirconium Zr 40 2 6 2 2 [Kr]4d 25s2
orbitals are in an atom of titanium?
Niobium Nb 41 2 6 4 1 [Kr]4d 45s1
How many of these orbitals are filled?
How many unpaired electrons are Molybdenum Mo 42 2 6 5 1 [Kr]4d 55s1
there in an atom of titanium? Technetium Tc 43 2 6 6 1 [Kr]4d 65s1
Ans. Ruthenium Ru 44 2 6 7 1 [Kr]4d 75s1
a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d 24s 2,
Rhodium Rh 45 2 6 8 1 [Kr]4d 85s1
[Ar]3d 24s 2
b. 12 (one 1s orbital, one 2s orbital, Palladium Pd 46 2 6 10 [Kr]4d 10
three 2p orbitals, one 3s orbital, three Silver Ag 47 2 6 10 1 [Kr]4d 105s1
3p orbitals, one 4s orbital, and two
Cadmium Cd 48 2 6 10 2 [Kr]4d 105s2
3d orbitals); 10; 2
Indium In 49 2 6 10 2 1 [Kr]4d 105s25p1
Tin Sn 50 2 6 10 2 2 [Kr]4d 105s25p2
Antimony Sb 51 2 6 10 2 3 [Kr]4d 105s25p3
Tellurium Te 52 2 6 10 2 4 [Kr]4d 105s25p4
Iodine I 53 2 6 10 2 5 [Kr]4d 105s25p5
Xenon Xe 54 2 6 10 2 6 [Kr]4d 105s25p6
*[Kr] = 1s22s22p63s23p63d 104s24p6

SAMPLE PROBLEM B For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of Chapter 5.
a. Write both the complete electron-configuration notation and the noble-gas notation for iron, Fe.
b. How many electron-containing orbitals are in an atom of iron? How many of these orbitals are com-
pletely filled? How many unpaired electrons are there in an atom of iron? In which sublevel are the
unpaired electrons located?

SOLUTION a. The complete electron-configuration notation of iron is 1s22s22p63s23p63d 64s2. The

periodic table inside the back cover of the text reveals that 1s22s22p63s23p6 is the
electron configuration of the noble gas argon, Ar. Therefore, as shown in Table 5,
iron’s noble-gas notation is [Ar]3d 64s2.

b. An iron atom has 15 orbitals that contain electrons. They consist of one 1s orbital, one
2s orbital, three 2p orbitals, one 3s orbital, three 3p orbitals, five 3d orbitals, and one
4s orbital. Eleven of these orbitals are filled, and there are four unpaired electrons.
They are located in the 3d sublevel. The notation 3d 6 represents
3d ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

120 120 CHAPTER 4

 SECTION 3
PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E

1. a. Write both the complete electron-configuration notation and

Practice Answers
the noble-gas notation for iodine, I. How many inner-shell elec- 1. a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p63d 104s 24p 6
trons does an iodine atom contain? 4d 105s 25p 5, [Kr]4d 105s 25p 5, 46
b. 27, 26, 1
b. How many electron-containing orbitals are in an atom of 2. a. [Kr]4d 105s 25p 2, 2
iodine? How many of these orbitals are filled? How many b. 10, germanium
unpaired electrons are there in an atom of iodine?
3. a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p63d 54s 2
2. a. Write the noble-gas notation for tin, Sn. How many unpaired b. manganese
electrons are there in an atom of tin? 4. a. 9, 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p6
b. argon
b. How many electron-containing d orbitals are there in an atom
of tin? Name the element in the fourth period whose atoms
have the same number of electrons in their highest energy lev-
els that tin’s atoms do.
3. a. Write the complete electron configuration for the element
with atomic number 25. You may use the diagram shown in
Figure 19.
b. Identify the element described in item 3a.
4. a. How many orbitals are completely filled in an atom of the ele-
ment with atomic number 18? Write the complete electron con-
Go to go.hrw.com for
figuration for this element.
more practice problems
b. Identify the element described in item 4a. that deal with electron
configurations.
Keyword: HC6ARRX

Elements of the Sixth

and Seventh Periods
The sixth period consists of 32 elements. It is much longer than the
periods that precede it in the periodic table. To build up electron con-
figurations for elements of this period, electrons are added first to the
6s orbital in cesium, Cs, and barium, Ba. Then, in lanthanum, La, an
electron is added to the 5d orbital.
With the next element, cerium, Ce, the 4f orbitals begin to fill,
giving cerium atoms a configuration of [Xe]4f 15d 16s2. In the next 13
elements, the 4f orbitals are filled. Next the 5d orbitals are filled and
the period is completed by filling the 6p orbitals. Because the 4f and
the 5d orbitals are very close in energy, numerous deviations from the
simple rules occur as these orbitals are filled. The electron configura-
tions of the sixth-period elements can be found in the periodic table
inside the back cover of the text.
The seventh period is incomplete and consists largely of synthetic
elements, which will be discussed in Chapter 21.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 121 121

 1
SECTION 3
SAMPLE PROBLEM C For more help, go to the Math Tutor at the end of Chapter 5.
ADDITIONAL a. Write both the complete electron-configuration notation and the noble-gas notation
SAMPLE for a rubidium atom.
PROBLEM GENERAL
b. Identify the elements in the second, third, and fourth periods that have the same number of highest-
C-1 a. How many inner-shell elec- energy-level electrons as rubidium.
trons does an atom of silicon, Si,
contain? SOLUTION a. 1s22s22p63s23p63d 104s24p65s1, [Kr]5s1
b. How many electron-containing
orbitals are in an atom of silicon? b. Rubidium has one electron in its highest energy level (the fifth). The elements with the
How many of these orbitals are filled? same outermost configuration are, in the second period, lithium, Li; in the third period,
How many unpaired electrons are sodium, Na; and in the fourth period, potassium, K.
there in an atom of silicon?
c. How many electron-containing p PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E
orbitals are there in an atom of
silicon? Name the element in the 1. a. Write both the complete electron-configuration notation and
fourth period whose atoms have the the noble-gas notation for a barium atom.
same number of highest-energy-level
electrons as atoms of silicon. b. Identify the elements in the second, third, fourth, and fifth peri-
ods that have the same number of highest-energy-level elec-
Ans.
a. 10 b. 8, 6, 2 c. 5; germanium trons as barium.
2. a. Write the noble-gas notation for a gold atom.
Go to go.hrw.com for
Practice Answers more practice problems
b. Identify the elements in the sixth period that have one
1. a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d 104s 2 unpaired electron in their 6s sublevel. that deal with electron
4p 64d 105s 25p 66s 2, [Xe]6s 2 configurations.
b. Be, Mg, Ca, Sr Keyword: HC6ARRX
2. a. [Xe]4f 145d 106s1
b. Au, Cs, Pt

SECTION REVIEW
SECTION REVIEW 5. Identify the elements having the following
Answers are found on page 131A.
1. a. What is an atom’s electron configuration? electron configurations:
b. What three principles guide the electron a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3
configuration of an atom? b. [Ar]4s 1
2. What three methods are used to represent c. contains four electrons in its third and outer
the arrangement of electrons in atoms? main energy level
3. What is an octet of electrons? Which d. contains one set of paired and three unpaired
elements contain an octet of electrons? electrons in its fourth and outer main energy level
4. Write the complete electron-configuration
notation, the noble-gas notation, and the Critical Thinking
orbital notation for the following elements: 6. RELATING IDEAS Write the electron configuration
a. carbon b. neon c. sulfur for the third-period elements Al, Si, P, S, and Cl. Is
there a relationship between the group number of
each element and the number of electrons in the
outermost energy level?

122 122 CHAPTER 4

 CHAPTER REVIEW
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
REVIEW ANSWERS
The Development of a New Atomic Model 1. a. Examples include gamma rays,
Vocabulary • In the early twentieth century, light was determined to have X rays, ultraviolet light, visible
electromagnetic radiation a dual wave-particle nature. light, infrared light, microwaves,
electromagnetic spectrum • Quantum theory was developed to explain observations such and radio waves.
wavelength as the photoelectric effect and the line-emission spectrum of b. 3.00 × 108 m/s
frequency hydrogen. 2. Light’s wavelike properties
photoelectric effect • Quantum theory states that electrons can exist only at specific include the measurable character-
quantum atomic energy levels. istics of frequency and wave-
photon • When an electron moves from one main energy level to a main length as well as the ability to
interfere and diffract. Light
ground state energy level of lower energy, a photon is emitted. The photon’s
exhibits particle-like properties
excited state energy equals the energy difference between the two levels.
when it is absorbed and emitted
line-emission spectrum • An electron in an atom can move from one main energy level by matter in phenomena such as
continuous spectrum to a higher main energy level only by absorbing an amount of the photoelectric effect, emission
energy exactly equal to the difference between the two levels. of light by hot objects, and the
line-emission spectra of elements.
The Quantum Model of the Atom 3. Frequency ranges from approxi-
Vocabulary • In the early twentieth century, electrons were determined mately 4.29 × 1014 to 7.50 ×
1014 Hz. Wavelength ranges from
Heisenberg uncertainty principle to have a dual wave-particle nature.
400 to 700 nm.
quantum theory • The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossi-
orbital ble to determine simultaneously the position and velocity of 4. red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
quantum number an electron or any other particle. and violet
principal quantum number • Quantization of electron energies is a natural outcome of the 5. The wave theory could not explain
angular momentum quantum number Schrödinger wave equation, which describes the properties of the photoelectric effect or hydro-
magnetic quantum number an atom’s electrons. gen’s line-emission spectrum.
spin quantum number • An orbital, a three-dimensional region around the nucleus, 6. a. c = λν, where λ is the wave-
shows the region in space where an electron is most likely to length, ν is the frequency, and c
be found. is the velocity
• The four quantum numbers that describe the properties of b. E = hν, where E is energy, h is
electrons in atomic orbitals are the principal quantum number, Planck’s constant, and ν is the
frequency
the angular momentum quantum number, the magnetic quan-
c. E = hc /λ
tum number, and the spin quantum number.
7. a. wave theory
b. particle theory
Electron Configurations c. particle theory
Vocabulary • The ground-state electron configuration of an atom can be 8. The ground state of an atom is the
electron configuration written by using the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule, and the atom’s lowest energy state. An
Aufbau principle Pauli exclusion principle. excited state of an atom is any
Pauli exclusion principle • Electron configurations can be depicted by using different energy state that is higher in ener-
Hund’s rule types of notation. In this book, three types of notation are gy than the atom’s ground state is.
noble gas used: orbital notation, electron-configuration notation, and 9. According to Bohr, a line-emission
noble-gas configuration noble-gas notation. spectrum is produced when an
• Electron configurations of some atoms, such as chromium, electron drops from a higher-energy
deviate from the predictions of the Aufbau principle, but the orbit to a lower-energy orbit, emit-
ground-state configuration that results is the configuration ting a photon. The photon’s energy
with the minimum possible energy. is equal to the difference in energy
between the two levels.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 123 123

CHAPTER REVIEW
CHAPTER REVIEW
10. 7.05 × 1016 Hz
11. 2.35 × 10−16 J 12. Using the two equations E = hv and c = λv,
12. E = hc /λ The Development of a New derive an equation expressing E in terms of h, c,
13. 267 s Atomic Model and λ.
14. 1.99 × 10−13 J 13. How long would it take a radio wave whose fre-
SECTION 1 REVIEW quency is 7.25 × 105 Hz to travel from Mars to
15. The Bohr model was valid only 1. a. List five examples of electromagnetic Earth if the distance between the two planets is
for a single-electron atom, and it
radiation. approximately 8.00 × 107 km?
did not explain the chemical
b. What is the speed of all forms of electro- 14. Cobalt-60 is an artificial radioisotope that is
nature of atoms.
magnetic radiation in a vacuum? produced in a nuclear reactor and is used as a
16. a. the number used to specify 2. Prepare a two-column table. List the properties gamma-ray source in the treatment of certain
the main energy level of an atom
of light that can best be explained by the wave types of cancer. If the wavelength of the gamma
b. by the letter n
c. all orbitals within the same
theory in one column. List those best explained radiation from a cobalt-60 source is 1.00 ×
main energy level by the particle theory in the second column. 10−3 nm, calculate the energy of a photon of this
d. The number of electrons You may want to consult a physics textbook for radiation.
allowed per main energy level is reference.
equal to 2n 2. 3. What are the frequency and wavelength ranges
17. a. The angular momentum quan- of visible light? The Quantum Model
tum number indicates an 4. List the colors of light in the visible spectrum in
orbital’s shape. order of increasing frequency. of the Atom
b. A sublevel, or subshell, con- 5. In the early twentieth century, what two experi- SECTION 2 REVIEW
sists of the orbitals that are with- ments involving light and matter could not be
15. Describe two major shortcomings of Bohr’s
in a given main energy level and explained by the wave theory of light?
that share the same value of l. model of the atom.
6. a. How are the wavelength and frequency of
For example, an atom’s 3d sub- 16. a. What is the principal quantum number?
electromagnetic radiation related?
shell consists of five d orbitals. b. How is it symbolized?
b. How are the energy and frequency of elec-
c. What are shells?
18. a. 1; s tromagnetic radiation related?
b. 2; s and p d. How does n relate to the number of elec-
c. How are the energy and wavelength of elec-
c. 3; s, p, and d trons allowed per main energy level?
tromagnetic radiation related?
d. 4; s, p, d, and f 17. a. What information is given by the angular
7. Which theory of light—the wave or particle
e. 7 momentum quantum number?
theory—best explains the following phenomena?
19. a. the orientation of an orbital b. What are sublevels, or subshells?
a. the interference of light
about the nucleus 18. For each of the following values of n, indicate
b. the photoelectric effect
b. 1, 3, 5, and 7, respectively the numbers and types of sublevels possible for
c. the emission of electromagnetic radiation
c. Subscripts are used to indicate that main energy level. (Hint: See Table 2.)
by an excited atom
the various orbital orientations a. n = 1
8. Distinguish between the ground state and an
possible in terms of an x, y, z, b. n = 2
excited state of an atom.
three-dimensional coordinate c. n = 3
system centered on the nucleus. 9. According to Bohr’s model of the hydrogen
d. n = 4
For example, px refers to a p atom, how is hydrogen’s emission spectrum
e. n = 7 (number only)
orbital along the x-axis, py indi- produced?
19. a. What information is given by the magnetic
cates a p orbital along the y-axis,
quantum number?
and pz indicates a p orbital along PRACTICE PROBLEMS b. How many orbital orientations are possible
the z-axis.
10. Determine the frequency of light whose wave- in each of the s, p, d, and f sublevels?
20. a. The total number of possible length is 4.257 × 10−7 cm. c. Explain and illustrate the notation for distin-
orbitals in each main energy
11. Determine the energy in joules of a photon guishing between the different p orbitals in a
level is equal to n 2.
whose frequency is 3.55 × 1017 Hz. sublevel.

124 124 CHAPTER 4

 CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

b. There are 9 orbitals in the

20. a. What is the relationship between n and the 31. Write the orbital notation for the following el- third energy level and 25 orbitals
total number of orbitals in a main energy ements. (Hint: See Sample Problem A.) in the fifth energy level.
level? a. P 21. a. The spin quantum number
b. How many total orbitals are contained in the b. B indicates the spin state of an
third main energy level? in the fifth? c. Na electron in an orbital.
21. a. What information is given by the spin quan- d. O b. +1/2 and −1/2.
tum number? 32. Write the electron-configuration notation for 22. a. 2
b. What are the possible values for this quan- the element whose atoms contain the following b. 18
tum number? number of electrons: c. 32
22. How many electrons could be contained in the a. 3 d. Theoretically, n = 6 can
following main energy levels with n equal to the b. 6 contain 72 electrons.
number provided? c. 8 e. Theoretically, n = 7 can
a. 1 d. 13 contain 98 electrons.
b. 3 33. Given that the electron configuration for oxy- 23. Sketches should look like the s
c. 4 gen is 1s22s22p4, answer the following questions: and p orbitals shown in Figure 13
d. 6 a. How many electrons are in each oxygen atom? or should show a line-circle and
e. 7 b. What is the atomic number of this element? a line-dumbbell shape.
c. Write the orbital notation for oxygen’s elec- 24. The 2s orbital has a higher ener-
PRACTICE PROBLEMS tron configuration. gy than a 1s orbital does, and
d. How many unpaired electrons does oxygen the distance of the electron from
23. Sketch the shape of an s orbital and a p orbital. the nucleus is farther for a 2s
have?
24. How does a 2s orbital differ from a 1s orbital? orbital than for a 1s orbital.
e. What is the highest occupied energy level?
25. How do a 2px and a 2py orbital differ?
f. How many inner-shell electrons does the 25. The orientation of a 2px and a
atom contain? 2py orbital are at right angles to
each other.
Electron Configurations g. In which orbital(s) are these inner-shell elec-
trons located? 26. a. An electron occupies the lowest-
SECTION 3 REVIEW 34. a. What are the noble gases? energy orbital that can receive it.
26. a. In your own words, state the Aufbau principle. b. What is a noble-gas configuration? b. In a multi-electron atom, the
c. How does noble-gas notation simplify writing lowest-energy orbital is filled
b. Explain the meaning of this principle in
an atom’s electron configuration? first. Electrons are then added to
terms of an atom with many electrons.
35. Write the noble-gas notation for the electron the orbital with the next lowest
27. a. In your own words, state Hund’s rule. energy, and so on, until all of the
b. What is the basis for this rule? configuration of each of the elements below.
electrons in the atom have been
28. a. In your own words, state the Pauli exclusion (Hint: See Sample Problem B.)
placed in orbitals.
principle. a. Cl
b. Ca 27. a. Orbitals of equal energy are
b. What is the significance of the spin quantum each occupied by one electron
number? c. Se
before any orbital is occupied by
29. a. What is meant by the highest occupied energy 36. a. What information is given by the noble-gas
a second electron.
level in an atom? notation [Ne]3s2? b. By placing as many single
b. What are inner-shell electrons? b. What element does this represent? electrons as possible in separate
30. Determine the highest occupied energy level in 37. Write both the complete electron-configuration orbitals in the same energy level,
the following elements: notation and the noble-gas notation for each electron-electron repulsion is
a. He of the elements below. (Hint: See Sample minimized and favorable lower-
b. Be Problem C.) energy arrangements result.
c. Al a. Na 28. a. No two electrons in the same
d. Ca b. Sr atom can have the same four
e. Sn c. P quantum numbers.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 125 125

CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

b. The two different values of the

spin quantum number permit two 38. Identify each of the following atoms on the c. Write the orbital notation for this element.
electrons of opposite spin states basis of its electron configuration: d. How many unpaired electrons does an atom
to occupy the same orbital. a. 1s22s22p1 of phosphorus have?
29. a. The highest occupied energy b. 1s22s22p5 e. What is its highest occupied energy level?
level in an atom is the electron- c. [Ne]3s2 f. How many inner-shell electrons does the
containing main energy level that d. [Ne]3s23p2 atom contain?
has the highest principal quan- e. [Ne]3s23p5 g. In which orbital(s) are these inner-shell elec-
tum number. f. [Ar]4s1 trons located?
b. Inner-shell electrons are elec- g. [Ar]3d 64s2 47. What is the frequency of a radio wave whose
trons that are not in the highest energy is 1.55 × 10−24 J per photon?
occupied energy level. 48. Write the noble-gas notation for the electron
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
30. a. first main energy level (n = 1) configurations of each of the following elements:
b. second main energy level (n = 2) 39. List the order in which orbitals generally fill,
a. Hf d. At
c. third main energy level (n = 3) from the 1s to the 7p orbital.
b. Sc e. Ac
d. fourth main energy level (n = 4) 40. Write the noble-gas notation for the electron
c. Fe f. Zn
e. fifth main energy level (n = 5) configurations of each of the following elements:
49. Describe the major similarities and differences
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ a. As e. Sn
31. a. between Schrödinger’s model of the atom and
1s 2s egfgh b. Pb f. Xe
the model proposed by Bohr.
2p c. Lr g. La
50. When sodium is heated, a yellow spectral
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ d. Hg
line whose energy is 3.37 × 10−19 J per photon is
3s egfgh 41. How do the electron configurations of chromi-
3p produced.
um and copper contradict the Aufbau principle?
a. What is the frequency of this light?
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
b. b. What is the wavelength of this light?
1s 2s egfgh
2p 51. a. What is an orbital?
MIXED REVIEW b. Describe an orbital in terms of an electron
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
c.
1s 2s egfgh 3s 42. a. Which has a longer wavelength: green light cloud.
2p
or yellow light?
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ b. Which has a higher frequency: an X ray or a
d.
1s 2s egfgh CRITICAL THINKING
2p microwave?
c. Which travels at a greater speed: ultraviolet
32. a. 1s 22s1 52. Inferring Relationships In the emission spec-
light or infrared light?
b. 1s 22s 22p 2 trum of hydrogen shown in Figure 5, each col-
43. Write both the complete electron-configuration
c. 1s 22s 22p 4 ored line is produced by the emission of photons
and noble-gas notation for each of the following:
d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p1 with specific energies. Substances also produce
a. Ar b. Br c. Al
33. a. 8 absorption spectra when electromagnetic radia-
44. Given the speed of light as 3.00 × 108 m/s, calcu-
b. 8 tion passes through them. Certain wavelengths
late the wavelength of the electromagnetic ra-
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ are absorbed. Using the diagram below, predict
c. diation whose frequency is 7.500 × 1012 Hz.
1s 2s egfgh what the wavelengths of the absorption lines will
2p 45. a. What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
be when white light (all of the colors of the visi-
b. What units can be used to express wavelength?
d. 2 ble spectrum) is passed through hydrogen gas.
e. second main energy level c. What unit is used to express frequencies of
(n = 2) electromagnetic waves?
f. 2 46. Given that the electron configuration for phos-
g. the 1s orbital phorus is 1s22s22p63s23p3, answer the following
34. a. The noble gases are the Group questions:
18 elements: helium, neon, argon, a. How many electrons are in each atom?
b. What is the atomic number of this element? 300 nm 700 nm
krypton, xenon, and radon. Hydrogen absorption spectrum

126 126 CHAPTER 4

 CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

b. A noble-gas configuration
53. Applying Models In discussions of the photo- RESEARCH & WRITING refers to an outer main energy
electric effect, the minimum energy needed to level occupied, in most cases, by
remove an electron from the metal is called the 57. Neon signs do not always contain neon gas. The eight electrons.
threshold energy and is a characteristic of the various colored lights produced by the signs are c. It allows one to abbreviate
metal. For example, chromium, Cr, will emit due to the emission of a variety of low-pressure large portions of the
electrons when the wavelength of the radiation gases in different tubes. Research other kinds of configuration.
is 284 nm or less. Calculate the threshold energy gases used in neon signs, and list the colors that 35. a. [Ne]3s 23p 5
for chromium. (Hint: You will need to use the they emit. b. [Ar]4s 2
two equations that describe the relationships 58. Prepare a report about the photoelectric effect, c. [Ar]3d 104s 24p 4
between wavelength, frequency, speed of light, and cite some of its practical uses. Explain the 36. a. The notation indicates that in
and Planck’s constant.) basic operation of each device or technique addition to having all of the elec-
mentioned. trons that would be contained by
54. Analyzing Information Four electrons in an
neon (10), the atom has two
atom have the four sets of quantum numbers
electrons in its 3s orbital.
given below. Which electrons are in the same b. magnesium
orbital? Explain your answer. ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
37. a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 1, [Ne]3s 1
a. 1, 0, 0, −__
59. Performance A spectroscope is a device used b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d 104s 24p 6
b. 1, 0, 0, +__
to produce and analyze spectra. Construct a 5s 2, [Kr]5s 2
c. 2, 1, 1, +__ c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3, [Ne]3s 23p 3
simple spectroscope, and determine the absorp-
d. 2, 1, 0, +__
tion spectra of several elemental gases. (Your 38. a. boron
55. Relating Ideas Which of the sets of quantum teacher will provide you with the gas discharge b. fluorine
numbers below are possible? Which are impos- tubes containing samples of different gases.) c. magnesium
sible? Explain your choices. d. silicon
a. 2, 2, 1, +__ e. chlorine
b. 2, 0, 0, −__ f. potassium
c. 2, 0, 1, −__ g. iron
Graphing Calculator Calculating
39. 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,
Quantum Number Relationships 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
Go to go.hrw.com for a graphing calculator
USING THE HANDBOOK 40. a. [Ar]3d 104s 24p 3
exercise that asks you to calculate quantum
b. [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p 2
56. Sections 1 and 2 of the Elements Handbook number relationships.
c. [Rn]5f 146d 17s 2
contain information on an analytical test and a d. [Xe]4f 145d 106s 2
Keyword: HC6ARRX
technological application for Group 1 and 2 el- e. [Kr]4d 105s 25p 2
ements. The test and application are based on f. [Kr]4d 105s 25p 6
the emission of light from atoms. Review these g. [Xe]5d 16s 2
sections to answer the following: 41. Electrons occupy the higher-
a. What analytical technique utilizes the emis- energy 3d sublevel before filling
sion of light from excited atoms? the lower-energy 4s orbital. These
b. What elements in Groups 1 and 2 can be unusual configurations result
identified by this technique? because they are the electron
c. What types of compounds are used to pro- arrangements of minimum energy.
vide color in fireworks? 42. a. yellow light
d. What wavelengths within the visible spec- b. an X ray
trum would most likely contain emission c. In a vacuum, both travel at the
lines for barium? same speed, the speed of light.
Answers are continued on page 131A.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 127 127

CHAPTER REVIEW

ANSWERS
Math Tutor WEIGHTED AVERAGES AND ATOMIC MASS
1. 85.47 amu You have learned that the mass of a proton is about 1 amu and that a neutron is only
2. 28.1 amu slightly heavier. Because atomic nuclei consist of whole numbers of protons and neu-
trons, you might expect that the atomic mass of an element would be very near a
whole number. However, if you look at the periodic table, you will see that the atomic
masses of many elements lie somewhere between whole numbers. In fact, the atomic
masses listed on the table are average atomic masses. The atomic masses are averages
because most elements occur in nature as a specific mixture of isotopes. For example,
75.76% of chlorine atoms have a mass of 34.969 amu, and 24.24% have a mass of
36.966 amu. If the isotopes were in a 1:1 ratio, you could simply add the masses of
the two isotopes together and divide by 2. However, to account for the differing abun-
dance of the isotopes, you must calculate a weighted average. For chlorine, the weight-
ed average is 35.45 amu. The following two examples demonstrate how weighted
averages are calculated.

SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
Naturally occurring silver consists of 51.839% Naturally occurring magnesium consists of
Ag-107 (atomic mass 106.905 093) and 48.161% 78.99% Mg-24 (atomic mass 23.985 042), 10.00%
Ag-109 (atomic mass 108.904 756). What is the Mg-25 (atomic mass 24.985 837), and 11.01%
average atomic mass of silver? Mg-26 (atomic mass 25.982 593). What is the
To find average atomic mass, convert each per- average atomic mass of magnesium?
centage to a decimal equivalent and multiply by Again, convert each percentage to a decimal
the atomic mass of the isotope. and multiply by the atomic mass of the isotope to
0.518 39 × 106.905 093 amu = 55.419 amu get the mass contributed by each isotope.
0.481 61 × 108.904 756 amu = 52.450 amu 0.7899 × 23.985 042 amu = 18.95 amu
107.869 amu 0.1000 × 24.985 837 amu = 2.499 amu
0.1101 × 25.982 593 amu = 2.861 amu
Adding the masses contributed by each isotope
gives an average atomic mass of 107.869 amu. 24.31 amu
Note that this value for the average atomic mass Adding the masses contributed by each isotope
of silver is very near the one given in the periodic gives an average atomic mass of 24.31 amu.
table.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Rubidium occurs naturally as a mixture of 2. The element silicon occurs as a mixture of
two isotopes, 72.17% Rb-85 (atomic mass three isotopes: 92.22% Si-28, 4.69% Si-29, and
84.911 792 amu) and 27.83% Rb-87 (atomic 3.09% Si-30. The atomic masses of these three
mass 86.909 186 amu). What is the average isotopes are as follows: Si-28 = 27.976 926
atomic mass of rubidium? amu, Si-29 = 28.976 495 amu, and Si-30 =
29.973 770 amu.
Find the average atomic mass of silicon.

128 128 CHAPTER 4

 CHAPTER REVIEW

Standardized Test Prep To give students practice under more

realistic testing conditions, give them
Answer the following items on a separate piece of paper. 9. Which element has the noble-gas notation 60 minutes to answer all of the ques-
tions in this Standardized Test
MULTIPLE CHOICE
[Kr]5s24d 2?
Preparation.
A. Se C. Zr
1. Which of the following relationships is true? B. Sr D. Mo
A. Higher-energy light has a higher frequency
SHORT ANSWER TEST ANSWERS
than lower-energy light does.
B. Higher-energy light has a longer wavelength 10. When a calcium salt is heated in a flame, a pho- 1. A
than lower-energy light does. ton of light with an energy of 3.2 × 10−19 J is 2. D
C. Higher-energy light travels at a faster speed emitted. On the basis of this fact and the table
below, what color would be expected for the 3. A
than lower-energy light does.
D. Higher-frequency light travels at a slower calcium flame? 4. D
speed than lower-energy light does. 5. B
Frequency, s–1 7.1 × 1014 6.4 × 1014 5.7 × 1014
2. The energy of a photon is greatest for 6. B
A. visible light. Wavelength, nm 422 469 526 7. C
B. ultraviolet light. Color violet blue green 8. B
C. infrared light.
Frequency, s–1 5.2 × 1014 4.8 × 1014 4.3 × 1014 9. C
D. X-ray radiation.
10. The color will be orange.
3. What is the wavelength of radio waves that Wavelength, nm 577 625 698
Converting energy into frequency
have a frequency of 88.5 MHz? gives 4.8 × 1014, which corre-
Color yellow orange red
A. 3.4 m C. 0.30 m sponds to the frequency of
B. 8.9 nm D. 300 nm orange light.
11. The electron configuration of sulfur is
4. Which transition in an excited hydrogen atom 1s22s22p63s23p4. Write the orbital notation ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
will emit the longest wavelength of light? 11.
for sulfur. 1s 2s egfgh
A. E5 to E1 C. E3 to E1 2p
EXTENDED RESPONSE
B. E4 to E1 D. E2 to E1 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
12. Explain the reason for the hydrogen line- 3s egfgh
5. Which of the following quantum numbers is emission spectrum. 3p
often designated by the letters s, p, d, and f
13. When blue light shines on potassium metal in a 12. Electrons in atoms can occupy
instead of by numbers?
photocell, electrons are emitted. But when yel- orbitals of only specific energies.
A. n C. m
low light shines on the metal, no current is When an atom is excited, the
B. l D. s electron is no longer in the
observed. Explain.
6. Which quantum number is related to the shape ground state. When the electron
of an orbital? returns to a lower energy level,
A. n C. m light is emitted. Because only
B. l D. s specific energies are allowed,
certain wavelengths of light are
7. What is the maximum number of unpaired elec- emitted, giving rise to the indi-
trons that can be placed in a 3p sublevel? vidual lines in the spectrum.
A. 1 C. 3
13. Photons of blue light are higher
B. 2 D. 4
energy than photons of yellow
8. What is the maximum number of electrons that light. Electrons can be emitted
can occupy a 3s orbital? only when a photon of sufficient
A. 1 C. 6 energy strikes the surface of the
B. 2 D. 10 metal. Therefore, the energy of
If time permits, take short mental blue light is greater than the
breaks during the test to improve your concentration. threshold energy, but the energy
of yellow light is not.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 129 129

TEACHER‘S NOTES
MICRO-
CHAPTER LAB L A B

CHAPTER LAB
RECOMMENDED TIME
1–2 lab periods
RATINGS EASY
1 2 3
HARD
4 Flame Tests
T EACHER P REPARATION 3
S TUDENT S ETUP 2 OBJECTIVES BACKGROUND
C ONCEPT L EVEL 1
• Identify a set of flame-test color standards The characteristic light emitted by an element is the
C LEANUP 2
for selected metal ions. basis for the chemical test known as a flame test.
MATERIALS To identify an unknown substance, you must first
(for each lab group) • Relate the colors of a flame test to the
behavior of excited electrons in a metal ion. determine the characteristic colors produced by
• 5 cm flame-test wire different elements. You will do this by performing
• 250 mL beaker • Identify an unknown metal ion by using a flame test on a variety of standard solutions of
• Bunsen burner, gas tubing, striker a flame test. metal compounds. Then, you will perform a flame
• cobalt glass plate • Demonstrate proficiency in performing test with an unknown sample to see if it matches
• crucible tongs a flame test and in using a spectroscope. any of the standard solutions. The presence of even
• distilled water a speck of another substance can interfere with the
• glass test plate (either a 7 cm × MATERIALS identification of the true color of a particular type
15 cm plate or a microchemistry • 250 mL beaker of atom, so be sure to keep your equipment very
plate with wells) clean and perform multiple trials to check your work.
• spectroscope • Bunsen burner and related equipment
• 5 mL 1.0 M HCl solution • cobalt glass plates SAFETY
• CaCl2 solution • crucible tongs
• K2SO4 solution
• distilled water
• Li2SO4 solution
• Na2SO4 solution • flame-test wire For review of safety, please see Safety in the
• SrCl2 solution • glass test plate Chemistry Laboratory in the front of your book.
• unknown solution (or a microchemistry
plate with wells) PREPARATION
OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT
• spectroscope 1. Prepare a data table in your lab notebook.
wooden splints
Include rows for each of the solutions of metal
SOLUTION/MATERIALS • 1.0 M HCl solution compounds listed in the materials list and an
PREPARATION • CaCl2 solution unknown solution. The table should have three
1. To prepare 1.0 M HCl, observe the wide columns for the three trials you will per-
required precautions. Add 83 mL of • K2SO4 solution
form with each substance. Each column should
concentrated HCl to enough distilled • Li2SO4 solution have room to record the colors and wavelengths
water to make 1.00 L of solution. Add
• Na2SO4 solution of light. Be sure you have plenty of room to
the acid slowly, and stir to avoid
overheating. write your observations about each test.
• SrCl2 solution
2. To prepare 0.5 M CaCl2, add 55 g 2. Label a beaker Waste. Thoroughly clean and dry
of CaCl2 to enough water to make • unknown solution
a well strip. Fill the first well one-fourth full with
1.00 L of solution. 1.0 M HCl on the plate. Clean the test wire by
OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT
first dipping it in the HCl and then holding it
• wooden splints in the colorless flame of the Bunsen burner.
Repeat this procedure until the flame is not col-
ored by the wire. When the wire is ready, rinse

130 130 CHAPTER 4

13-1 TEACHER‘S NOTES EXPERIMENT 0-0 TEACHER‘S NOTES

the well with distilled water and collect the rinse CLEANUP AND DISPOSAL
3. To prepare 0.5 M K2SO4, add 87 g
water in the waste beaker. 6. Dispose of the contents of the waste of K2SO4 to enough water to make
3. Put 10 drops of each metal ion solution listed beaker in the container designated 1.00 L of solution.
in the materials list in a row in each well of the by your teacher. Wash your hands 4. To prepare 0.5 M Li2SO4, add 65 g
well strip. Put a row of 1.0 M HCl drops on a thoroughly after cleaning up the area and of Li2SO4•H2O to enough water to
glass plate across from the metal ion solutions. equipment. make 1.00 L of solution.
Record the positions of all of the chemicals 5. To prepare 0.5 M Na2SO4, add
placed in the wells. The wire will need to be ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 71 g of Na2SO4 to enough water to
cleaned thoroughly between each test solution make 1.00 L of solution.
1. Organizing Data: Examine your data table,
with HCl to avoid contamination from the 6. To prepare 0.5 M SrCl2, add
and create a summary of the flame test for
previous test. 133.3 g of SrCl2•6H2O to enough
each metal ion.
water to make 1.00 L of solution.
PROCEDURE 2. Analyzing Data: Account for any differences 7. For the unknown solution, use any
1. Dip the wire into the CaCl2 solution, and then in the individual trials for the flame tests for one of the above solutions. (Unless
hold it in the Bunsen burner flame. Observe the metals ions. students have a spectroscope, identify-
the color of the flame, and record it in the data ing multiple ions may be too difficult.)
3. Organizing Ideas: Explain how viewing the
table. Repeat the procedure again, but this time 8. For flame-test wire, use either
flame through cobalt glass can make it easier
look through the spectroscope to view the results. No. 24 platinum wire or nichrome
to analyze the ions being tested. wire. Some teachers prefer to use
Record the wavelengths you see from the flame.
4. Relating Ideas: For three of the metal ions wooden splints for the flame tests.
Repeat each test three times. Clean the wire
tested, explain how the flame color you saw If the splints are soaked in the
with the HCl as you did in Preparation step 2.
relates to the lines of color you saw when you appropriate solutions overnight, they
2. Repeat step 1 with the K2SO4 and with each of provide a colored flame that is long-
looked through the spectroscope.
the remaining solutions in the well strip. lasting and easy to view with the
spectroscope. If this is done, however,
3. Test another drop of Na2SO4, but this time view CONCLUSIONS each splint should be extinguished in
the flame through two pieces of cobalt glass. 1. Inferring Conclusions: What metal ions are in the waste beaker. Be sure to label the
Clean the wire, and repeat the test. Record in the unknown solution? splints with the compound they were
your data table the colors and wavelengths of soaked in so that they can be reused.
2. Evaluating Methods: How would you character- To prevent the sodium content of the
the flames as they appear when viewed through
ize the flame test with respect to its sensitivity? splints from interfering with the
the cobalt glass. Clean the wire and the well
What difficulties could there be when identify- flame tests, first soak them overnight
strip, and rinse the well strip with distilled water.
ing ions by the flame test? in deionized water. Dry the splints in
Pour the rinse water into the waste beaker.
a vacuum oven. Then, soak them
4. Put a drop of K2SO4 in a clean well. Add a drop EXTENSIONS overnight in the solution to be tested.
of Na2SO4. Perform a flame test for the mixture. 1. Inferring Conclusions: A student performed REQUIRED PRECAUTIONS
Observe the flame without the cobalt glass. Repeat flame tests on several unknowns and observed • Safety goggles and a lab apron
the test again, but this time observe the flame that they all were shades of red. What should must be worn at all times.
through the cobalt glass. Record in your data table the student do to correctly identify these sub- • Tie back long hair and loose clothing
the colors and wavelengths of the flames. Clean stances? Explain your answer. when you are working in the lab.
the wire, and rinse the well strip with distilled • Read all safety precautions, and
water. Pour the rinse water into the waste beaker. 2. Applying Ideas: During a flood, the labels from
discuss them with your students.
three bottles of chemicals were lost. The three
5. Obtain a sample of the unknown solution. • Students should not handle con-
unlabeled bottles of white solids were known to
Perform flame tests for it with and without the centrated acid solutions.
contain the following: strontium nitrate, ammo-
cobalt glass. Record your observations. Clean the nium carbonate, and potassium sulfate. Explain Continued on pages 131A–B
wire, and rinse the well strip with distilled water. how you could easily test the substances and
Pour the rinse water into the waste beaker. relabel the three bottles. (Hint: Ammonium ions
do not provide a distinctive flame color.)

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ATOMS 131 131

CONTINUATION OF ANSWERS AND TEACHER’S NOTES

SECTION REVIEW b. Any length unit is acceptable. Often, shorter 53. 7.00 × 10−19 J
wavelengths are measured in nanometers, and
54. Electrons a and b are in the same orbital, because
Answers to Section 3 Review on page 122 longer wavelengths are measured in centimeters or
the only difference is the spin quantum number.
1. a. a description of the arrangement of an atom’s meters.
electrons c. hertz, Hz; one Hz equals one wave per second 55. Possible: b; All 4 quantum numbers follow rules.
b. the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule, and the Pauli Not possible: a (if n = 2, only l = 0 and l = 1 are
46. a. 15
exclusion principle allowed), c (if l = 0, only possible value of m is 0)
b. 15
2. orbital notation, electron-configuration notation, and ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ 56. a. flame tests
c. b. lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium,
noble-gas notation 1s 2s egfgh 3s egfgh
2p 3p calcium, strontium, and barium
3. An octet of electrons corresponds to filled s and p d. 3 c. chloride salts
orbitals in an atom’s highest main energy level. Noble e. the third main energy level (n = 3) d. those near 500 nm
gases (except helium, which has a filled outermost 1s f. 10
orbital) contain octets. 57. Answers will vary depending on which gases stu-
g. the 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals dents choose. One of the most common gases used
4. a. 1s 22s 22p 2, 47. 2.34 × 109 Hz or mixed with the red glow of neon is sodium,
[He]2s 22p 2, which appears yellow.
48. a. [Xe]4f 145d 26s 2
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
b. [Ar]3d 14s 2 58. Be sure students focus on the movement of elec-
1s 2s egfgh
2p c. [Ar]3d 64s 2 trons, which results from photons striking the
d. [Xe]4f 145d 106s 26p 5 surface of metal. Photovoltaic solar cells may be
b. 1s 22s 22p 6, e. [Rn]6d 17s 2 mentioned as one device in which the moving
[He]2s 22p 6, f. [Ar]3d 104s 2 electrons create an electric current. Many other
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ answers are possible.
49. Bohr’s model worked only for the hydrogen atom,
1s 2s egfgh
2p whereas Schrödinger’s mathematical model applies 59. The spectroscope can be constructed with a long
to all atoms. The essential difference between the tube of black paper covered on one end with a slit,
c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 4, two models involves the issue of certainty. Bohr over which a diffraction grating is attached.
[Ne]3s 23p 4, described definite orbits occupied by electron parti-
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ cles, whereas Schrödinger treated electrons as
1s 2s egfgh waves having a certain probability of being found CHAPTER LAB
2p
in orbitals at various distances from the nucleus.
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ The two models are similar in that both associate Continued from page 131
3s egfgh an electron’s energy with its location relative to the • Wear safety goggles, a face shield, impermeable
3p nucleus. Also, the most probable location of an gloves, and a lab apron when you prepare the HCl
electron in hydrogen, according to Schrödinger, is at solution. Work in a hood known to be in good work-
5. a. P
a distance from the nucleus exactly equal to that of ing order, and have another person stand by to call
b. K
Bohr’s lowest-energy orbit. for help in case of an emergency. Work within a 30 s
c. Si
walk from a safety shower and eyewash station.
d. As 50. a. 5.09 × 1014 Hz
• In case of an acid spill, dilute the spill with water.
6. In each case, the number of outermost energy-level b. 5.90 × 10−7 m (590. nm)
Then, mop up the spill with wet cloths or a wet cloth
electrons is equal to the group number minus 10. 51. a. An orbital is a three-dimensional region about mop designated for spill cleanup. Wear disposable
the nucleus where there is a high probability that a plastic gloves while cleaning spills.
particular electron is located.
REVIEW ANSWERS b. Orbitals are like clouds that show the region of TECHNIQUES TO DEMONSTRATE
probable electron locations. The sizes and shapes of Demonstrate the flame-test technique, including the
Continued from page 127 procedure for cleaning the flame-test wire. Point out
electron clouds depend on the energies of the elec-
43. a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6, [Ne]3s 23p 6 that because the color lasts only a short time, several
trons that occupy them.
b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d 104s 24p 5, [Ar]3d 104s 24p 5 trials may be necessary. If you have spectroscopes,
c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p1, [Ne]3s 23p1 52. 656 nm, 486 nm, 434 nm, and 410 nm. Students
demonstrate how to use them. Your students can use
might realize that these are the same frequencies
44. 4.00 × 10−5 m (4.00 × 104 nm) the spectroscope to identify the specific lines in the
of hydrogen’s line-emission spectrum. Electronic
45. a. all the forms of electromagnetic radiation spectra of the light emitted in the flame tests (see
transitions occur at the same frequencies whether
arranged according to increasing wavelength or Sample Data Table).
an electron is absorbing energy and being excited
frequency or losing energy and emitting a photon. NOTE: Student data tables should show three trials for
each compound.
131A
 CONTINUATION OF ANSWERS AND TEACHER’S NOTES

PRE-LAB DISCUSSION 3. The flame color of potassium is purple, but it is so

This identification technique can be used to introduce weak that it can be overpowered by the yellow sodium
concepts related to the behavior and arrangement of light if a mixture is tested. The cobalt glass screens out
electrons in atoms. To emphasize this point, you might the yellow sodium light.
apply high voltage to a gas-discharge tube containing 4. Answers will vary, but students should realize that
helium or neon or place a few crystals of sodium chlo- the colors seen by the eye were the result of combining
ride on the grating of a lit Fisher burner. Explain that the colors of light seen in the line spectra.
the colored lights are actually a combination of several
specific wavelengths of light. Each wavelength of light CONCLUSIONS—ANSWERS
corresponds to excited electrons moving from a differ- 1. Answers will vary. Students should be able to identify
ent energy level to their ground state, emitting light in the unknown by comparing its results with the results
the process. for the other metal compounds tested.
2. The flame test is fairly specific because it can show
SAMPLE DATA an easily detectable signal with a very small amount
Metal Color Wavelengths of material. Possible difficulties include problems with
compound of flame detected (nm) contamination and the fact that some metals have
similar colors when flame tested.
CaCl2 yellowish red 420, 445, 460, 485,
(orange) 610, 645, 650 EXTENSIONS—ANSWERS
K2SO4 violet (purple) 405, 408, 695, 700 1. The student should compare the shades of red with
Li2SO4 red (carmine) 462, 498, 612, 670 the colors of the known samples. If information about
Na2SO4 yellow 590, 595 spectral lines is available, it would also help determine
SrCl2 scarlet 405, 420, 460, 485, which metal is the unknown.
490, 500, 665, 685, 2. Strontium nitrate will change the color of the flame
710 to red, potassium sulfate will change the flame color to
Na only only blue of the purple, and ammonium will not change the flame color.
(cobalt glass) glass is visible
K only violet (purple)
(cobalt glass)
Na and K yellow
Na and K violet
(cobalt glass)
Unknown Answers will vary.

DISPOSAL
Set out a disposal container for the students. After all of
the waste beakers have been emptied into it, neutralize
the resulting solution with 0.1 M NaOH. When the solu-
tion’s pH is between 5 and 9, pour the solution down
the drain.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION—
ANSWERS
NOTE: Assign only Analysis and Interpretation items
1–3 if spectroscopes are unavailable.
1. See sample data table.
2. Student answers will vary. Some students may have
had difficulty properly cleaning the wire, so the first
test of a new compound may have traces of the
previous one.

131B