# REVIEW OF TRADITIONAL NETWORKS

A **computer network** is a group of computers and devices connected to share data and resources.

## Main Types

1. **Peer-to-Peer:** Each computer acts as both client and server; used in small setups.

2. **Client-Server:** A central server provides data/services to clients; used in organizations.

## Basic Components

- **Nodes:** Computers, printers, routers.

- **Links:** Cables or wireless connections.

- **Devices:** Hubs, switches, routers.

- **Protocols:** Rules for communication (e.g., TCP/IP).

## Features

- Physical wired connections.

- Manual configuration.

- Small-scale and low cost.

## Advantages

- Simple design.

- Easy to manage in small areas.

## Limitations

- Difficult to expand.

- Limited security and fault tolerance.

**Summary:**

Traditional networks laid the base for modern LAN, MAN, and WAN systems by introducing communication and resource sharing concepts.

# LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A **LAN** is a network that connects computers and devices within a small geographical area such as a home, school, or office building.

## Characteristics

- Covers area up to few kilometers.

- High data transfer speed (10 Mbps to 10 Gbps).

- Owned and managed by a single organization.

- Uses wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections.

## Components

- **Switches & Hubs:** Connect multiple computers.

- **Router:** Connects LAN to external networks.

- **NIC (Network Interface Card):** Connects each device to the LAN.

## Advantages

- High speed and reliability.

- Easy file and printer sharing.

- Centralized data management.

## Disadvantages

- Limited coverage area.

- Setup cost can be high initially.

**Example:**
College computer lab connected through Ethernet cables.

# METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

A **MAN** is a network that connects multiple LANs within a large city or campus.

It acts as a bridge between LAN and WAN.

## Characteristics

- Covers a city or large campus (10–50 km range).

- Data transfer speed is moderate to high.

- Owned by a group of organizations or service providers.

- Uses optical fiber or wireless links.

## Components

- Routers, switches, and transmission towers.

- Backbone connections made with high-speed cables.

## Advantages

- Connects multiple LANs efficiently.

- High-speed communication across city areas.

- Useful for universities and government networks.

## Disadvantages

- More expensive than LAN.

- Complex management and maintenance.

**Example:**

Connecting all branches of a city’s university through a fiber backbone network.

# WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

A **WAN** connects computers and LANs across large geographical areas such as countries or continents using public or private

communication links.

## Characteristics

- Covers thousands of kilometers.

- Data transmission through satellites, telephone lines, or optical fibers.

- Owned by multiple organizations or ISPs.

- Slower speed compared to LAN/MAN due to long-distance communication.

## Components

- Routers and gateways for network connection.

- Communication links (fiber, microwave, satellite).

- WAN service providers (like BSNL, Airtel).

## Advantages

- Enables global communication and data sharing.

- Connects branch offices and remote locations.

- Supports centralized data access.

## Disadvantages

- High installation and maintenance cost.

- More prone to delays and security issues.

**Example:**

The Internet is the largest example of a WAN.

# INTRANET
An **Intranet** is a private network that uses Internet technologies within an organization for internal communication and data sharing.

## Characteristics

- Accessible only to employees or authorized users.

- Uses web browsers and Internet protocols (HTTP, TCP/IP).

- Provides company information, notices, and internal communication.

- Protected by firewalls to prevent outside access.

## Components

- Web servers and databases.

- Internal websites and portals.

- Authentication systems for security.

## Advantages

- Improves internal communication.

- Easy document sharing and collaboration.

- Increases efficiency and saves time.

## Disadvantages

- Accessible only within organization.

- Needs proper maintenance and updates.

**Example:**

A company’s employee portal for attendance, salary, and announcements.

# INTERNET
The **Internet** is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate using standard protocols like TCP/IP.

It allows users worldwide to share information and access online services.

## Characteristics

- Public and worldwide network.

- Uses client-server architecture.

- Provides services like email, web browsing, file transfer, and online communication.

## Components

- **Web Servers:** Host websites and applications.

- **Routers & Gateways:** Direct network traffic.

- **Protocols:** HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.

## Advantages

- Global connectivity and information access.

- Supports communication through email, chat, and video calls.

- E-commerce, e-learning, and entertainment.

## Disadvantages

- Security and privacy risks.

- Virus and cyberattack threats.

- Misuse of information.

**Example:**

Accessing websites, online banking, and social media through the Internet.

# INTERCONNECTIVITY DEVICES
These are hardware devices that connect different computers or networks to enable communication and data sharing.

## 1. HUB

- Basic device that connects multiple computers in a LAN.

- Works at the **Physical Layer (Layer 1)**.

- Broadcasts data to all devices (less secure).

## 2. SWITCH

- Connects multiple devices but sends data only to the intended device.

- Works at the **Data Link Layer (Layer 2)**.

- Improves speed and security.

## 3. BRIDGE

- Connects two LAN segments and filters network traffic.

- Works at the **Data Link Layer**.

- Reduces network congestion.

## 4. ROUTER

- Connects different networks (e.g., LAN to WAN).

- Works at the **Network Layer (Layer 3)**.

- Uses IP addresses to forward data packets.

## 5. GATEWAY

- Connects networks using different protocols.

- Works at **all layers**.

- Converts data formats between networks.

**Summary:**

Interconnectivity devices ensure smooth communication, data transfer, and efficient routing between networks.

# TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

**TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)** is the standard communication model used for data transmission over the

Internet.

## Layers of TCP/IP Model

1. **Application Layer**

- Provides user services like email, file transfer, and web access.

- Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.

2. **Transport Layer**

- Ensures reliable data delivery between devices.

- Protocols: TCP (connection-oriented), UDP (connectionless).

3. **Internet Layer**

- Responsible for logical addressing and routing.

- Main protocol: IP (Internet Protocol).

4. **Network Access Layer**

- Handles physical transmission of data.

- Deals with hardware, drivers, and network interfaces.

## Features

- Open and widely used standard.

- Supports interoperability between different networks.

- Used for both LAN and WAN communication.

**Example:**

When you open a website, TCP ensures proper data delivery, and IP handles addressing and routing.

# ARP / RARP

## 1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

- **Purpose:** Converts an **IP address** into a **MAC address**.

- **Working:**

- When a device wants to communicate, it broadcasts an ARP request.

- The device with the matching IP responds with its MAC address.

- **Layer:** Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and Network Layer (Layer 3).

- **Example:**

If computer A knows IP of computer B but not its MAC, ARP finds it.

## 2. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

- **Purpose:** Converts a **MAC address** into an **IP address**.

- **Used by:** Diskless systems that don’t know their IP.

- **Working:** The device sends its MAC to RARP server, which replies with its IP.

- **Layer:** Network Layer.

## Difference

| Feature | ARP | RARP |

|----------|-----|------|

| Converts | IP → MAC | MAC → IP |

| Use | Data transmission | Booting diskless systems |

**Summary:**
ARP and RARP help in mapping between IP and MAC addresses, making communication possible in a network.

# IP ADDRESSING

An **IP address (Internet Protocol Address)** is a unique number assigned to every device on a network to identify it and enable

communication.

## Types of IP Address

1. **IPv4 (32-bit):**

- Format: Four numbers separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1)

- Provides around 4.3 billion addresses.

2. **IPv6 (128-bit):**

- Format: Hexadecimal numbers separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8::1)

- Provides a much larger address space.

## IPv4 Address Classes

| Class | Range | Use |

|-------|--------|-----|

| A | 1.0.0.0 – 126.0.0.0 | Very large networks |

| B | 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0 | Medium networks |

| C | 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0 | Small networks |

| D | 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 | Multicasting |

| E | 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255 | Experimental |

## Types of Address

- **Unicast:** For one-to-one communication.

- **Broadcast:** For one-to-all communication.

- **Multicast:** For one-to-group communication.

**Summary:**

IP addressing uniquely identifies each device in a network, allowing accurate routing and communication between systems.

# IP DATAGRAM FORMAT AND ITS DELIVERY

An **IP Datagram** is the basic unit of data transmitted across an IP network. It carries information from the source to the destination

using the IP protocol.

## Structure of IP Datagram

1. **Header (20–60 bytes):** Contains control information.

2. **Data:** The actual message or payload.

### Important Fields in IP Header:

- **Version:** Indicates IP version (IPv4 or IPv6).

- **Header Length:** Size of the header.

- **Total Length:** Total size of datagram (header + data).

- **Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset:** Used for fragmentation and reassembly.

- **Time to Live (TTL):** Limits the number of hops to prevent looping.

- **Protocol:** Defines upper-layer protocol (TCP, UDP, etc.).

- **Source Address:** IP address of sender.

- **Destination Address:** IP address of receiver.

- **Checksum:** Error checking for header.

## IP Datagram Delivery

- Data moves **hop by hop** from one router to another.

- Each router checks the destination IP address.

- Routers forward datagram to the next best path until it reaches the destination.

**Summary:**
An IP datagram carries both addressing and data information, enabling proper delivery of packets across interconnected networks.

# ROUTING TABLE FORMAT

A **routing table** is a database stored in a router that holds information about different network paths and how to reach them.

## Purpose

Routers use routing tables to determine the best path for forwarding data packets toward their destination.

## Basic Fields in a Routing Table

1. **Destination Network:**

- IP address of the target network or host.

2. **Subnet Mask:**

- Defines the network portion of the IP address.

3. **Next Hop / Gateway:**

- IP address of the next router to which the packet should be sent.

4. **Interface:**

- Specifies which port or network interface to use.

5. **Metric / Cost:**

- Indicates the efficiency or distance of the route (lower value = better route).

6. **Route Source:**

- How the route was learned (e.g., static or dynamic routing protocol).
## Example

| Destination | Subnet Mask | Next Hop | Interface | Metric |

|--------------|--------------|-----------|------------|--------|

| 192.168.1.0 | 255.255.255.0 | 192.168.2.1 | eth0 | 1 |

**Summary:**

The routing table helps routers make efficient path decisions, ensuring data packets reach their correct destination quickly.

# ICMP MESSAGES

**ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)** is used by network devices (like routers) to send control and error messages about network

communication.

## Purpose

- To report errors and provide feedback about IP packet processing.

- Helps diagnose network problems.

## Types of ICMP Messages

1. **Error Reporting Messages:**

- **Destination Unreachable:** Target host or network can’t be reached.

- **Time Exceeded:** Packet’s TTL (Time to Live) expired.

- **Parameter Problem:** Header field is invalid.

- **Source Quench:** Congestion detected (obsolete now).

2. **Query Messages:**

- **Echo Request & Echo Reply:** Used by the *ping* command to check connectivity.

- **Timestamp Request/Reply:** Used for time synchronization.

## Features
- Works at the **Network Layer (Layer 3)**.

- Used by administrators to monitor and troubleshoot networks.

**Example:**

When you use the “ping” command, ICMP sends echo request and reply messages to test connectivity.

# SUBNETTING

**Subnetting** is the process of dividing a large network into smaller, manageable parts called **subnets**.

It helps in efficient use of IP addresses and improves network management.

## Purpose

- To reduce network traffic.

- To improve security and performance.

- To organize IP addresses in large networks.

## How It Works

- An IP address is divided into **Network ID** and **Host ID**.

- Subnetting borrows bits from the host part to create **subnet IDs**.

- Each subnet functions as an independent network.

## Example

Class C Network: 192.168.1.0

Default Mask: 255.255.255.0

If we borrow 2 bits → New Mask: 255.255.255.192

→ Creates 4 subnets with 62 hosts each.

## Advantages
- Better utilization of IP addresses.

- Simplifies troubleshooting.

- Enhances network security and control.

**Summary:**

Subnetting divides a single network into smaller segments, improving efficiency and manageability in large organizations.

# SUPERNETTING AND CIDR

## 1. Supernetting

**Supernetting** is the opposite of subnetting.

It combines multiple smaller networks into a **larger network** to reduce the number of routing entries.

### Example:

Four Class C networks:

- 192.168.1.0

- 192.168.2.0

- 192.168.3.0

- 192.168.4.0

can be combined into one supernet: **192.168.0.0/22**

### Advantages:

- Reduces routing table size.

- Increases routing efficiency.

- Used by ISPs for address aggregation.

---
## 2. CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

**CIDR** removes the concept of fixed IP classes (A, B, C).

It uses a **slash notation (/n)** to define how many bits are used for the network part.

### Example:

192.168.1.0/24 → 24 bits for network, 8 bits for host.

### Benefits:

- Better utilization of IP address space.

- Simplifies routing.

- Supports variable-length subnet masks (VLSM).

**Summary:**

Supernetting merges networks to simplify routing, while CIDR allows flexible, classless IP address allocation.

# DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)

**DNS (Domain Name System)** is a system that translates **domain names** (like www.google.com) into **IP addresses** (like

142.250.190.78).

It acts like the phonebook of the Internet.

## Purpose

- Makes it easier for users to access websites using names instead of numeric IPs.

- Provides a hierarchical naming structure.

## Working Process

1. User enters a domain name in the browser.

2. Browser sends a DNS query to the DNS server.

3. The server returns the corresponding IP address.

4. Browser connects to the web server using that IP.

## DNS Structure

- **Root Level:** “.” at the end of every domain.

- **Top-Level Domains (TLDs):** .com, .org, .in, .edu, etc.

- **Second-Level Domains:** Organization or company name.

- **Subdomains:** Divisions within the main domain (e.g., mail.google.com).

## Advantages

- Simplifies Internet usage.

- Provides flexibility and scalability.

**Example:**

When you type *www.youtube.com*, DNS converts it into its IP address automatically.

# NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION (NAT)

**NAT** is a technique used in routers or firewalls to translate **private IP addresses** into **public IP addresses** and vice versa.

It allows multiple devices in a local network to access the Internet using a single public IP.

## Purpose

- Conserves the number of public IP addresses.

- Hides internal network structure for security.

- Enables private networks to connect to the Internet.

## Types of NAT

1. **Static NAT:**

- One private IP mapped to one public IP.

 - Used for hosting web servers.

2. **Dynamic NAT:**

- Private IPs mapped to available public IPs from a pool.

- Mapping changes dynamically.

3. **PAT (Port Address Translation) / Overloading:**

- Multiple private IPs share a single public IP using different port numbers.

- Most common form of NAT in home routers.

## Advantages

- Improves security by masking internal IPs.

- Reduces the need for public IP addresses.

**Example:**

When many computers in a Wi-Fi network access the Internet, NAT translates their private IPs into one public IP.

# PRIVATE ADDRESSING AND NAT TYPES (SNAT, DNAT)

## 1. Private Addressing

Private IP addresses are used **within local networks** and **not routable on the Internet**.

They are defined by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).

### Private IP Ranges:

- **Class A:** 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255

- **Class B:** 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255

- **Class C:** 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255

**Purpose:**

- Used for LANs, offices, or home networks.

- Reduces demand for public IPs.

---

## 2. Types of NAT

### a) **SNAT (Source NAT)**

- Changes the **source IP address** of packets leaving the network.

- Used when internal devices access the Internet.

### b) **DNAT (Destination NAT)**

- Changes the **destination IP address** of incoming packets.

- Used to redirect external requests to internal servers (e.g., web server hosting).

**Example:**

When you access a website from a home network, SNAT translates your local IP;

when someone accesses your hosted site, DNAT routes it to your server.

**Summary:**

Private addressing saves public IPs, while SNAT and DNAT allow controlled communication between private and public networks.

# NAT AND FIREWALLS

**NAT (Network Address Translation)** and **Firewalls** often work together to improve security and manage data flow between private

and public networks.

## Role of NAT

- Converts private IPs into public IPs for Internet communication.

- Masks internal network details from outsiders.

- Acts as a basic security layer by hiding internal devices.

## Role of Firewall

A **firewall** is a security device (hardware or software) that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on

security rules.

### Types of Firewalls

1. **Packet Filtering Firewall:**

- Filters packets based on IP address, port, or protocol.

2. **Stateful Inspection Firewall:**

- Monitors active connections and traffic state.

3. **Application Layer Firewall:**

- Filters traffic at the application level (e.g., web or email filtering).

## NAT + Firewall Combination

- NAT hides internal IPs, while the firewall blocks unauthorized access.

- Together, they provide **network security** and **controlled communication**.

**Example:**

A home Wi-Fi router uses NAT for IP translation and a built-in firewall for protection from external attacks.

# VLANs: CONCEPTS

**VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)** is a technology that divides a physical LAN into multiple logical networks.

It allows devices from different areas to communicate as if they were on the same network.
## Purpose

- To improve network performance and security.

- To group users or devices logically instead of physically.

- To reduce broadcast traffic within the network.

## Working

- VLANs are created using **managed switches**.

- Each VLAN has a **unique ID (VLAN ID)**.

- Devices in different VLANs can’t communicate without a **router** or **Layer 3 switch**.

## Advantages

- Better network segmentation.

- Improved security by isolating departments.

- Easier management and troubleshooting.

## Example

In a college network, separate VLANs can be created for:

- Students

- Faculty

- Administration

**Summary:**

VLANs organize networks logically, increasing efficiency and data security in large organizations.

# COMPARISON WITH REAL LANs

A **VLAN (Virtual LAN)** behaves like a **Real LAN (Physical LAN)** but works through software configuration instead of physical cabling.
## 1. Definition

- **Real LAN:** A physical network where computers are connected using switches, cables, and routers.

- **VLAN:** A logical network created within a switch using VLAN IDs.

## 2. Key Differences

| Feature | Real LAN | VLAN |

|----------|-----------|------|

| **Type** | Physical | Logical (virtual) |

| **Setup** | Requires hardware cabling | Configured in software |

| **Flexibility** | Limited (depends on wiring) | Highly flexible |

| **Security** | Shared network, less secure | Segmented, more secure |

| **Broadcast Control** | Broadcast reaches all devices | Broadcast limited to VLAN group |

| **Cost** | Higher (hardware needed) | Lower (logical segmentation) |

## 3. Advantages of VLAN Over LAN

- Easier network reconfiguration.

- Better control and isolation of data.

- Reduces congestion and improves performance.

**Summary:**

While a real LAN connects systems physically, a VLAN provides the same connectivity virtually with more flexibility, control, and security.

# TYPES OF VLAN

**VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)** can be categorized based on how the network devices are grouped or identified.

Each type has its own method of assigning devices to VLANs.

## 1. Port-Based VLAN

- Devices are assigned to VLANs based on the **switch port** they are connected to.

- Simple to configure and manage.

- If a device moves to another port, its VLAN changes.

## 2. MAC-Based VLAN

- Devices are grouped by their **MAC (hardware) addresses**.

- VLAN assignment remains the same even if the device changes ports.

## 3. Protocol-Based VLAN

- Devices are grouped based on the **network protocol** used (e.g., IP, IPX).

- Useful in multi-protocol environments.

## 4. Voice VLAN

- Special VLAN used for **VoIP (Voice over IP)** communication.

- Provides better voice quality and low latency.

## 5. Dynamic VLAN

- Devices are automatically assigned to VLANs using a **VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS)**.

**Summary:**

Different VLAN types allow flexible and secure network segmentation depending on ports, MAC addresses, or protocols.

# VLAN TAGGING

**VLAN Tagging** is the process of adding an identification tag to data packets so they can be recognized as belonging to a specific VLAN

when traveling between switches.

## Purpose
- To ensure data from different VLANs can travel over the same physical link.

- Helps maintain VLAN separation in **trunk links** (connections between switches).

## How It Works

- When a packet is sent from a VLAN, the switch adds a **VLAN ID tag** to the Ethernet frame.

- The receiving switch reads the tag and forwards the packet to the correct VLAN.

- The tag is removed before delivery to the destination device.

## Standards

- Defined by **IEEE 802.1Q** standard.

- The VLAN ID field is **12 bits long** (supports up to 4096 VLANs).

## Types of Links

- **Access Link:** Carries traffic of a single VLAN (no tags).

- **Trunk Link:** Carries traffic of multiple VLANs using tagging.

**Example:**

In a network with VLAN 10 and VLAN 20, trunk ports use VLAN tags to differentiate packets traveling between switches.

**Summary:**

VLAN tagging allows multiple VLANs to share the same connection while keeping their data separate and organized.

# IPv6: ADDRESS STRUCTURE

**IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)** is the latest version of the Internet Protocol, developed to replace IPv4 due to the shortage of

available IPv4 addresses.

## 1. Structure

- IPv6 addresses are **128 bits long**, compared to 32 bits in IPv4.

- Written as **eight groups of four hexadecimal digits**, separated by colons (:).

Example: `2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334`

- Leading zeros can be omitted, and consecutive zeros can be replaced by `::` (only once per address).

## 2. Parts of IPv6 Address

- **Network Prefix:** Identifies the network or subnet (similar to IPv4 network ID).

- **Interface ID:** Identifies a specific device (host) on the network.

## 3. Features

- Vast address space (3.4 × 10³⁸ addresses).

- Simplified header for faster routing.

- Built-in security through **IPSec**.

- No need for NAT (Network Address Translation).

## 4. Example Breakdown

`2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334`

→ `2001:db8:0:42::8a2e:370:7334` (compressed form)

**Summary:**

IPv6 provides a larger, more efficient addressing system, enhancing speed, security, and scalability of the Internet.

# IPv6 – Address Space and Header

## IPv6 Address Space

- **IPv6** uses **128-bit addresses**, allowing **3.4 × 10³⁸ unique addresses** — enough for every device on Earth and beyond.

- Written in **hexadecimal**, separated by colons `(:)`.

### Example:

`2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334`

### Address Compression Rules:

- Remove leading zeros → `2001:db8:85a3:0:0:8a2e:370:7334`

- Replace consecutive zeros with `::` → `2001:db8:85a3::8a2e:370:7334`

(only once per address)

### Address Types:

1. **Unicast:** Identifies a single interface (one-to-one communication).

2. **Multicast:** Identifies a group of interfaces (one-to-many).

3. **Anycast:** Sent to the nearest node in a group (one-to-nearest).

### Benefits of IPv6 Addressing:

- Huge address space for global connectivity.

- No need for NAT (every device can have a public IP).

- Hierarchical addressing improves routing efficiency.

---

## IPv6 Header

IPv6 header is **simplified and fixed at 40 bytes**, making routing faster than IPv4.

### IPv6 Header Format:

| Field | Size (bits) | Description |

|--------|--------------|-------------|
| Version | 4 | Always 6 (for IPv6) |

| Traffic Class | 8 | Defines packet priority (like QoS) |

| Flow Label | 20 | Identifies flow of packets for same session |

| Payload Length | 16 | Length of the data after the header |

| Next Header | 8 | Type of next header (e.g., TCP, UDP, ICMPv6) |

| Hop Limit | 8 | Similar to TTL in IPv4 – limits hops |

| Source Address | 128 | Address of sender |

| Destination Address | 128 | Address of receiver |

### Key Features:

- **Fixed header length** → faster processing.

- **No checksum field** → less overhead.

- **Supports Extension Headers** for optional features like routing, fragmentation, and security.

- **Integrated IPSec** → better security.

---

### Summary:

> IPv6 provides an enormous address space with simplified 40-byte headers, faster routing, improved security, and scalability — the future

of Internet networking.