(Ebook) Laws of UX - Using Psychology to Design

Better Products & Services by Jon Yablonski ISBN

9781492055310, 149205531X online version

Purchase at ebooknice.com
( 4.6/5.0 ★ | 483 downloads )

https://ebooknice.com/product/laws-of-ux-using-psychology-to-design-
better-products-services-11020920
 (Ebook) Laws of UX - Using Psychology to Design Better
Products & Services by Jon Yablonski ISBN 9781492055310,
149205531X Pdf Download

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

(Ebook) Laws of UX - Using Psychology to Design Better Products &

Services [ 2nd Ed ] by Jon Yablonski ISBN 9781098146962, 1098146964

https://ebooknice.com/product/laws-of-ux-using-psychology-to-design-
better-products-services-2nd-ed-55047008

(Ebook) Collaborative Product Design: Working Better Together for

Better UX by Austin Govella ISBN 9781491975039, 1491975032

https://ebooknice.com/product/collaborative-product-design-working-
better-together-for-better-ux-10046204

(Ebook) App Design Apprentice: A Non-Designer’s Guide to Better Mobile

UI and UX by Prateek Prasad ISBN 9781950325207, 1950325202

https://ebooknice.com/product/app-design-apprentice-a-non-designers-
guide-to-better-mobile-ui-and-ux-33581264

(Ebook) Urban Design: A Typology of Procedures and Products by Lang,

Jon ISBN 9781315642406, 9781138188358

https://ebooknice.com/product/urban-design-a-typology-of-procedures-
and-products-56159750
(Ebook) App Design Apprentice : A Non-Designer's Guide to Making
Better Mobile UI & UX (2nd Edition) by Prateek Prasad; raywenderlich
Tutorial Team ISBN 9781950325696, 1950325695

https://ebooknice.com/product/app-design-apprentice-a-non-designer-s-
guide-to-making-better-mobile-ui-ux-2nd-edition-43772656

(Ebook) What Customers Want: Using Outcome-Driven Innovation to Create

Breakthrough Products and Services by T. Scott Gross ISBN
9780793176816, 0793176816

https://ebooknice.com/product/what-customers-want-using-outcome-
driven-innovation-to-create-breakthrough-products-and-services-1270292

(Ebook) A Guide to UX Design and Development : Developer's Journy

Through the UX Process by Tom Green, Joseph Labrecque

https://ebooknice.com/product/a-guide-to-ux-design-and-development-
developer-s-journy-through-the-ux-process-51263120

(Ebook) UX for Business : How to Design Valuable Digital Companies by

Joel Marsh

https://ebooknice.com/product/ux-for-business-how-to-design-valuable-
digital-companies-54824878

(Ebook) The Design Thinking Playbook: Mindful Digital Transformation

of Teams, Products, Services, Businesses and Ecosystems by Michael
Lewrick ISBN 9781119467502, 1119467500

https://ebooknice.com/product/the-design-thinking-playbook-mindful-
digital-transformation-of-teams-products-services-businesses-and-
ecosystems-7206946
Laws of UX
Using Psychology to Design Better Products & Services

Jon Yablonski
Laws of UX
Using Psychology to Design
Better Products & Services

Jon Yablonski
Laws of UX
by Jon Yablonski

Copyright © 2020 Jon Yablonski. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.

O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online
editions are also available for most titles (https://oreilly.com). For more information, contact our
corporate/institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or [email protected].

Acquisitions Editor: Jessica Haberman Indexer: Ellen Troutman-Zaig

Development Editor: Angela Rufino Interior Designer: Monica Kamsvaag
Production Editor: Kristen Brown Cover Designer: Randy Comer
Copyeditor: Rachel Head Illustrator: Rebecca Demarest
Proofreader: Arthur Johnson

May 2020: First Edition

Revision History for the First Edition

2020-04-21: First Release

See https://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781492055310 for release details.

The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Laws of UX, the cover image,
and related trade dress are trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.

The views expressed in this work are those of the author, and do not represent the publisher’s
views. While the publisher and the author have used good faith efforts to ensure that the infor-
mation and instructions contained in this work are accurate, the publisher and the author dis-
claim all responsibility for errors or omissions, including without limitation responsibility for
damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this work. Use of the information and instruc-
tions contained in this work is at your own risk. If any code samples or other technology this
work contains or describes is subject to open source licenses or the intellectual property rights
of others, it is your responsibility to ensure that your use thereof complies with such licenses
and/or rights.

978-1-492-05531-0

[LSI]
 Contents

| Preface v

1 | Jakob’s Law 1

2 | Fitts’s Law 13

3 | Hick’s Law 23

4 | Miller’s Law 35

5 | Postel’s Law 43

6 | Peak–End Rule 53

7 | Aesthetic–Usability Effect 65

8 | von Restorff Effect 77

9 | Tesler’s Law 87

10 | Doherty Threshold 97

11 | With Power Comes Responsibility 107

12 | Applying Psychological Principles in Design 121

| Index 129

iii
Preface

This book had its origins in what felt at the time like the most arduous point of
my design career, while I was working on a very challenging client project. From
the beginning, there were several indications that it would be an exciting albeit
difficult project: a relatively short timeline and a somewhat unfamiliar space, but
a well-known brand and the chance to help design something that’d be seen by
many across the world. These have always been my favorite kinds of projects
because they are the ones that offer the most opportunity to learn and grow,
which I’ve always striven to do. But this project was somewhat unique in one
specific way: I was being asked to justify a number of design decisions to project
stakeholders, without any data to support them. Normally, when you have quanti-
tative or qualitative data available to draw upon, this a pretty straightforward
task—but in this case the data wasn’t available, so the process of justifying the
decisions would have to be a little different. How do you validate initial designs
without any proof that there is a need to change the existing designs to begin
with? As you can imagine, design reviews quickly became a matter of subjectivity
and personal bias, resulting in designs that were more difficult to validate.
Then it occurred to me: psychology, which provides a deeper understanding
of the human mind, could be helpful in these circumstances. I quickly became
immersed in the rich and expansive field of behavioral and cognitive psychology,
and found myself reading through countless research papers and articles in order
to find empirical evidence that supported the design decisions I was making.
This research became quite useful in convincing project stakeholders to move in
the proposed design direction, and I felt as if I had found a treasure trove of
knowledge that would ultimately make me a better designer. There was only one
problem: finding good reference material online quickly turned into an exhaust-
ing task. Searches led me to a vast array of academic papers, scientific research,
and the occasional article in the popular press—none of which felt directly

v
vi | Preface

relatable to my work as a designer. I was looking for a designer-friendly resource

that just wasn’t available online, or at least not in the form I wanted it. Eventually
I decided to dive in and produce the resource I was looking for myself, resulting
in the creation of a website called Laws of UX (Figure P-1). This passion project
became a way for me to both learn and document what I was discovering at this
time.

Figure P-1. Screenshot of the Laws of UX website, circa 2020

The absence of quantitative or qualitative data related to the project I was

working on led me to look elsewhere, and what I discovered regarding the inter-
section of psychology and user experience (UX) design has been nothing short of
transformative for my practice. While such data, where available, remains valua-
ble, my foray into psychology helped form a solid foundation for my work
grounded in an understanding of how people behave, and why. This book is an
expansion of the Laws of UX website that focuses on various psychological prin-
ciples and concepts that I’ve found particularly useful as a designer.

Why I Wrote This Book

I wrote this book in order to make complex laws of psychology accessible to more
designers—specifically designers that don’t have background knowledge in psy-
chology or behavioral science. The intersection of psychology and UX design has
become an increasingly relevant topic in an era when design roles are having an
ever-stronger impact within organizations. Along with a growing focus on
design, there has been an increase in debate around which additional skills
 Preface | vii

designers should learn, if any, to increase their value and contribution. Should
designers code, write, or understand business? These skills are all valuable, but
perhaps not essential. However, I would argue that every designer should learn
the fundamentals of psychology.
As humans, we have an underlying “blueprint” for how we perceive and pro-
cess the world around us, and the study of psychology helps us decipher this
blueprint. Designers can use this knowledge to build more intuitive, human-
centered products and experiences. Instead of forcing users to adapt to the
design of a product or experience, we can use some key principles from psychol-
ogy as a guide for designing in a way that is adapted to people. This is the funda-
mental basis of human-centered design, and it is the foundation of this book.
But knowing where to start can be a challenge. Which principles from psy-
chology are useful? What are some examples of these principles at work? There’s
an endless list of laws and theories that occupy this space, but there are a few that
I’ve found particularly helpful and widely applicable. In this book, I explore these
concepts and present some examples of how they are effectively leveraged by
products and experiences we interact with every day.

Who This Book Is For

This book is for anyone that wishes to improve their design craft, learn more
about the intersection of psychology and design, or simply explore why people
react to good design the way they do. It’s aimed at designers who want to have a
better understanding of psychology and how it impacts and overlaps with the
work we do. It’s for professional and aspiring designers alike: anyone who seeks
to understand how the overall user experience is affected by an understanding of
human perception and mental processes. While the book is specifically focused
on digital design as opposed to the more traditional mediums of graphic or
industrial design, the information it contains is broadly applicable to anyone
responsible for shaping user experience. I should also mention that it isn’t
intended to be a comprehensive resource, but rather an accessible introduction to
the psychology fundamentals that have a direct influence on design and how peo-
ple process and interact with the interfaces we create. It’s full of examples and
intended to be easily read and referenced by designers who wish to incorporate
this information into their daily work.
This book will also be relevant to anyone that seeks to understand the busi-
ness value of good design and why good design is transformative for businesses
and organizations. The field of UX design has grown and expanded into new
viii | Preface

areas thanks to the increase in investment by companies looking to gain a com-

petitive advantage. With this new interest has come the expectation that products
and services should be well designed, and simply having a website or mobile
application is no longer enough. Companies must ensure their websites and
applications, and any other digital experiences they offer, are helpful, effective,
and well designed. In order to achieve this, designers can, I believe, use psychol-
ogy as a guide, enabling them to design for how people actually perceive, process,
and interact not only with digital interfaces but also with the world.

What’s in This Book

Chapter 1, Jakob’s Law
Users spend most of their time on other sites, and they prefer your site to
work the same way as all the other sites they already know.
Chapter 2, Fitts’s Law
The time to acquire a target is a function of the distance to and size of the
target.
Chapter 3, Hick’s Law
The time it takes to make a decision increases with the number and com-
plexity of choices available.
Chapter 4, Miller’s Law
The average person can keep only 7 (± 2) items in their working memory.
Chapter 5, Postel’s Law
Be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others.
Chapter 6, Peak–End Rule
People judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak and at
its end, rather than on the total sum or average of every moment of the
experience.
Chapter 7, Aesthetic–Usability Effect
Users often perceive aesthetically pleasing design as design that’s more
usable.
Chapter 8, von Restorff Effect
When multiple similar objects are present, the one that differs from the
rest is most likely to be remembered.
 Preface | ix

Chapter 9, Tesler’s Law

Tesler’s law, also known as the law of conservation and complexity, states
that for any system there is a certain amount of complexity that cannot be
reduced.
Chapter 10, Doherty Threshold
Productivity soars when a computer and its users interact at a pace (<400
ms) that ensures that neither has to wait on the other.
Chapter 11, With Power Comes Responsibility
Here, we take a closer look at the implications of using psychology to create
more intuitive products and experiences.
Chapter 12, Applying Psychological Principles in Design
This chapter considers ways designers can internalize and apply the psy-
chological principles we’ve looked at in this book and then articulate them
through principles that relate back to the goals and priorities of their team.

O’Reilly Online Learning

For more than 40 years, O’Reilly Media has provided tech-
nology and business training, knowledge, and insight to
help companies succeed.
Our unique network of experts and innovators share their knowledge and
expertise through books, articles, and our online learning platform. O’Reilly’s
online learning platform gives you on-demand access to live training courses, in-
depth learning paths, interactive coding environments, and a vast collection of
text and video from O’Reilly and 200+ other publishers. For more information,
visit https://oreilly.com.

How to Contact Us
Please address comments and questions concerning this book to the publisher:
O’Reilly Media, Inc.
1005 Gravenstein Highway North
Sebastopol, CA 95472
800-998-9938 (in the United States or Canada)
707-829-0515 (international or local)
x | Preface

We have a web page for this book, where we list errata, examples, and any
additional information. You can access this page at https://oreil.ly/laws-of-UX.
Email [email protected] to comment or ask technical questions
about this book.
For news and more information about our books and courses, see our web-
site at https://oreilly.com.
Find us on Facebook: http://facebook.com/oreilly
Follow us on Twitter: http://twitter.com/oreillymedia
Watch us on YouTube: http://youtube.com/oreillymedia

Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I must acknowledge and thank my wife Kristen, whose love
and support have been both endless and critical in so many ways—without her
this book would not have been possible. Thanks also to my mom, the strongest
person I know and the one who encouraged, supported, and enabled me to fol-
low my dreams to begin with, and to James Rollins, a man I’m forever grateful to
have in my life and the lives of my family. I’d like to also acknowledge all of my
design colleagues who helped with the book in some way or another: in no partic-
ular order, Jonathan Patterson and Ross Legacy for always-on-point design advice
and feedback; Xtian Miller for the encouragement, feedback, and words of wis-
dom; and Jim and Lindsey Rampton, Dave Thackery, Mark Michael Koscierzyn-
ski, Amy Stoddard, Boris Crowther, Trevor Anulewicz, Clemens Conrad, and
countless others for the support and encouragement. I also owe a debt of grati-
tude to all the individuals involved in the project that inspired this book, who
therefore directly influenced its creation. I’d like to thank Jessica Haberman, who
saw the potential in me to become an author and encouraged me to begin the
endeavor of writing this book. And finally, I owe Angela Rufino a great deal of
gratitude for all the advice, patience, and feedback throughout the process.
 | 1

Jakob’s Law

Users spend most of their time on other sites, and they prefer your site to
work the same way as all the other sites they already know.

Key Takeaways

• Users will transfer expectations they have built around one familiar
product to another that appears similar.
• By leveraging existing mental models, we can create superior user
experiences in which the users can focus on their tasks rather
than on learning new models.
• When making changes, minimize discord by empowering users to
continue using a familiar version for a limited time.

Overview
There is something incredibly valuable to be found in familiarity. Familiarity
helps the people interacting with a digital product or service know immediately
how to use it, from interacting with the navigation to finding the content they
need to processing the layout and visual cues on the page in order to understand
the choices available to them. The cumulative effect of mental effort saved
ensures a lower cognitive load. In other words, the less mental energy users have
to spend learning an interface, the more they can dedicate to achieving their
objectives. The easier we make it for people to achieve their goals, the more likely
they are to do so successfully.

1
2 | LAWS OF UX

As designers, it is our objective to ensure people successfully achieve their

goals when using the interfaces we’ve built by eliminating as much friction as
possible. Not all friction is bad—in fact, sometimes it is even necessary. But
when there is an opportunity to remove or avoid extraneous friction, or friction
that doesn’t provide value or service a purpose, then we should do so. One of the
primary ways designers can remove friction is by leveraging common design pat-
terns and conventions in strategic areas such as page structure, workflows, navi-
gation, and placement of expected elements such as search. When we do this, we
ensure people can immediately be productive instead of first having to learn how
a website or app works. In this chapter, we’ll take a look at some examples of how
this design principle can be achieved—but first, let’s look at its origins.

Origins
Jakob’s law (also known as “Jakob’s law of the internet user experience”) was put
forth in 2000 by usability expert Jakob Nielsen, who described the tendency for
users to develop an expectation of design conventions based on their cumulative
experience from other websites.1 This observation, which Nielsen describes as a
law of human nature, encourages designers to follow common design conven-
tions, enabling users to focus more on the site’s content, message, or product. In
contrast, uncommon conventions can lead to people becoming frustrated, con-
fused, and more likely to abandon their tasks and leave because the interface
does not match up with their understanding of how things should work.
The cumulative experience that Nielsen refers to is helpful for people when
visiting a new website or using a new product because it informs their under-
standing of how things work and what’s possible. This underlying factor is per-
haps one of the most important in user experience, and it is directly related to a
psychological concept known as mental models.

1 Jakob Nielsen, “End of Web Design,” Nielsen Norman Group, July 22, 2000, https://www.nngroup.com/
articles/end-of-web-design.
 JAKOB’S LAW | 3

PSYCHOLOGY CONCEPT

Mental Models
A mental model is what we think we know about a system, especially
about how it works. Whether it’s a digital system such as a website or a
physical system such as a checkout line in a retail store, we form a model
of how a system works, and then we apply that model to new situations
where the system is similar. In other words, we use the knowledge we
already have from past experiences when interacting with something
new.
Mental models are valuable for designers because we can match our
designs to our users’ mental models to improve their experience by ena-
bling them to easily transfer their knowledge from one product or experi-
ence to another, without the need to first take the time to understand
how the new system works. Good user experiences are made possible
when the design of a product or service is in alignment with the user’s
mental model. The task of shrinking the gap between our own mental
models and those of the users is one of the biggest challenges we face,
and to achieve this goal we use a variety of methods: user interviews,
personas, journey maps, empathy maps, and more. The point of these
various methods is to gain a deeper insight into not only the goals and
objectives of our users but also users’ preexisting mental models and
how all of these factors apply to the product or experience we are
designing.
4 | LAWS OF UX

Examples
Have you ever wondered why form controls look the way they do (Figure 1-1)? It’s
because the humans designing them had a mental model of what these elements
should look like, which they based on control panels they were familiar with in
the physical world. The design of web elements like form toggles, radio inputs,
and even buttons originated from the design of their tactile counterparts.

Figure 1-1. Comparison between control panel elements and typical form elements
(source: Jonathan H. Ward [left], Google’s Material Design [right])

When our designs do not align with the user’s mental model, there will be
problems. A misalignment can affect not only how users perceive the products
and services we’ve helped build, but also the speed at which they understand
them. This is called mental model discordance, and it occurs when a familiar prod-
uct is suddenly changed.
One notorious example of mental model discordance is the 2018 redesign of
Snapchat. Instead of gradually introducing changes through slow iteration and
extensive beta testing, the company launched a major overhaul that dramatically
changed the familiar format of the app by combining watching stories and com-
municating with friends in the same place. Unhappy users immediately took to
Twitter and expressed their disapproval en masse. Even worse was the subse-
quent migration of users to Snapchat’s competitor, Instagram. Snap CEO Evan
Spiegel had hoped that the redesign would reinvigorate advertisers and allow for
ads to be customized to users, but instead it caused ad views and revenue to drop
and led to the app’s user count dramatically shrinking. Snapchat failed to ensure
the mental model of its users would be aligned with the redesigned version of the
app, and the resulting discordance caused a major backlash.
 JAKOB’S LAW | 5

But major redesigns don’t always drive users away—just ask Google. Google
has a history of allowing users to opt in to redesigned versions of its products,
like Google Calendar, YouTube, and Gmail. When the company launched the
new version of YouTube in 2017 (Figure 1-2) after years of essentially the same
design, it allowed desktop users to ease in to the new Material Design UI without
having to commit. Users could preview the new design, gain some familiarity,
submit feedback, and even revert to the old version if they preferred it. The inevi-
table mental model discordance was mitigated by simply empowering users to
switch when they were ready.

Figure 1-2. Before (left) and after (right) comparison of YouTube redesign in 2017
(source: YouTube)

Most ecommerce websites also leverage preexisting mental models. By mak-

ing use of familiar patterns and conventions, shopping sites such as Etsy
(Figure 1-3) can effectively keep customers focused on the important stuff—find-
ing and purchasing products. By conforming to users’ expectations about the
process of selecting products, adding them to the virtual cart, and checking out,
designers can ensure users are able to apply their accumulated knowledge from
previous ecommerce experiences; the whole process feels comfortable and
familiar.
6 | LAWS OF UX

Figure 1-3. Ecommerce sites like Etsy leverage preexisting mental models to keep customers
focused on purchasing products rather than on learning new interaction patterns
(source: Etsy, 2019)

The use of mental models to inform design isn’t isolated to the digital space.
Some of my favorite examples can be found in the automotive industry, specifi-
cally in regard to controls. Take, for instance, the 2020 Mercedes-Benz EQC 400
Prototype (Figure 1-4). The seat controls found on the door panel next to each
seat are mapped to the shape of the seat. The resulting design makes it easy for
users to understand which part of their seat they can adjust by identifying the
corresponding button. It’s an effective design because it builds on our preexisting
mental model of a car seat and then matches the controls to that mental model.

Figure 1-4. Seat controls in the 2020 Mercedes-Benz EQC 400 Prototype,
informed by the mental model of a car seat (source: MotorTrend, 2018)
 JAKOB’S LAW | 7

These examples demonstrate how we can leverage users’ existing mental

models to enable them to become immediately productive. In contrast, failure to
consider the mental model a user has formed can result in confusion and frustra-
tion. The conclusion here also begs an important question: does Jakob’s law
argue that all websites or apps should behave identically? Additionally, does it
suggest that we should use only preexisting UX patterns, even when there’s a
more appropriate solution that’s new?

TECHNIQUE

User Personas
Have you ever heard another designer within your company or organiza-
tion refer to “the user,” but it wasn’t quite clear whom exactly this elusive
person was? The process of design becomes more difficult when a
design team lacks a clear definition of its target audience, leaving each
designer to interpret it in their own way. User personas are a tool that
helps solve this problem by framing design decisions based on real
needs, not the generic needs of the undefined “user.” These fictional rep-
resentations of a specific subset of the target audience are based on
aggregated data from real users of a product or service (Figure 1-5).

Figure 1-5. User persona example

8 | LAWS OF UX

Personas are intended to foster empathy and serve as memory aids,

as well as to create a common mental model of the traits, needs, motiva-
tions, and behaviors of a specific kind of user. The frame of reference
that personas help to define is incredibly valuable for teams: it helps
team members move away from self-referential thinking and focus on
the needs and goals of the user, which is useful for prioritizing new
features.
Any details about the user that are relevant to the feature or product
you’re building will be useful. The items common to most personas
include:

Info
Items such as a photo, memorable tagline, name, age, and occupa-
tion are all relevant for the information section of a persona. The
idea here is to create a realistic representation of the members of a
specific group within your target audience, so this data should be
reflective of the similarities they share.

Details
The information within the details section of a user persona helps
to build empathy and align focus on the characteristics that impact
what is being designed. Common information here includes a bio to
create a deeper narrative around the persona, behavioral qualities
that are relevant, and frustrations this particular group might have.
Additional details could include things like goals and motivations, or
tasks the user might perform while using the product or feature.

Insights
The insights section of a user persona helps to frame the attitude of
the user. The intention here is to add an additional layer of context
that provides further definition of the specific persona and their
mindset. This section often includes direct quotes from user
research.
 JAKOB’S LAW | 9

KEY CONSIDERATION

Sameness
I know what you’re thinking: if all websites or apps followed the same
design conventions, that would make everything quite boring. This is a
completely valid concern, especially given the ubiquity of specific con-
ventions that can be observed today. This pervasive sameness can be
attributed to a few factors: the popularity of frameworks to speed up
development, the maturity of digital platforms and resulting standards,
clients’ desire to emulate their competition, and just plain lack of creativ-
ity. While much of this sameness is purely based on design trends, there
is a good reason we see patterns with some conventions, such as the
placement of search, navigation in the footer, and multistep checkout
flows.
Let’s take a moment to consider the alternative: imagine that each
and every website or app that you used was completely different in every
regard, from the layout and navigation down to the styling and common
conventions like the location of the search feature. Considering what
we’ve learned about mental models, this would mean that users could no
longer rely on their previous experiences to guide them. Their ability to
be instantly productive in achieving the goal they wanted to accomplish
would be immediately thwarted because they would first have to learn
how to use the website or app. It is no stretch of the imagination to see
that this would not be an ideal situation, and conventions would eventu-
ally emerge out of pure necessity.
That’s not to say that creating something entirely new is never
appropriate—there’s certainly a time and a place for innovation. But
designers must determine the best approach by taking into considera-
tion user needs and context, in addition to any technical constraints,
before reaching for something unique, and they must take care not to
sacrifice usability.
10 | LAWS OF UX

Conclusion
Jakob’s law isn’t advocating for sameness in the sense that every product and
experience should be identical. Instead, it is a guiding principle that reminds
designers that people leverage previous experience to help them in understand-
ing new experiences. It is a not-so-subtle suggestion that (when appropriate)
designers should consider common conventions that are built around existing
mental models to ensure users can immediately be productive instead of first
needing to learn how a website or app works. Designing in a way that conforms
to expectations allows users to apply their knowledge from previous experiences,
and the resulting familiarity ensures they can stay focused on the important
stuff—finding the information they need, purchasing a product, etc.
The best piece of advice I can give in regard to Jakob’s law is to always begin
with common patterns and conventions, and only depart from them when it
makes sense to. If you can make a compelling argument for making something
different to improve the core user experience, that’s a good sign that it’s worth
exploring. If you go the unconventional route, be sure to test your design with
users to ensure they understand how it works.
 | 2

Fitts’s Law

The time to acquire a target is a function of the distance to and size

of the target.

Key Takeaways

• Touch targets should be large enough for users to accurately

select them.
• Touch targets should have ample spacing between them.
• Touch targets should be placed in areas of an interface that allow
them to be easily acquired.

Overview
Usability is a key aspect of good design. It implies ease of use, which means the
interface should be easy for users to understand and navigate. Interaction should
be painless and straightforward, requiring minimal effort. The time it takes for
users to move to and engage with an interactive object is a critical metric. It’s
important that designers size and position interactive objects appropriately to
ensure they are easily selectable and meet user expectations with regard to the
selectable region—a challenge compounded by the differing precision of the
range of input methods available today (mouse, finger, etc.).
To aid in this endeavor we can apply Fitts’s law, which states that the time it
takes for a user to engage with an object is relative to its size and the distance to
it. In other words, as the size of an object increases, the time to select it goes

13
14 | LAWS OF UX

down. Additionally, the time to select an object decreases as the distance that a
user must move to select it decreases. The opposite is true as well: the smaller
and further away an object is, the more time it takes to accurately select it. This
rather obvious concept has far-reaching implications, which we’ll unpack in this
chapter. We’ll also take a look at some supporting examples.

Origins
The origins of Fitts’s law can be traced back to 1954, when American psycholo-
gist Paul Fitts predicted that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a
function of the ratio between the distance to the target and the width of the target
(Figure 2-1). Today, it’s regarded as one of the most successful and influential
mathematical models of human motion, and it’s widely used in ergonomics and
human–computer interaction to model the act of pointing, either physically or
virtually.1

Figure 2-1. Diagram depicting Fitts’s law

1 Paul M. Fitts, “The Information Capacity of the Human Motor System in Controlling the Amplitude of
Movement,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 47, no. 6 (1954): 381–91.
 FITTS’S LAW | 15

Fitts also proposed an index of difficulty metric to quantify the difficulty of a

target selection task in which the distance to the center of the target (D) is like a
signal and the tolerance or width of the target (W) is like noise:

2D
ID = log2
W

KEY CONSIDERATION

Touch Targets
Fitts’s law was established as a model for understanding human move-
ment in the physical world before the invention of the graphical user
interface, but it can also be applied to movement through a digital inter-
face. There are three key considerations that we can derive from Fitts’s
law. First, touch targets should be large enough that users can easily dis-
cern them and accurately select them. Second, touch targets should
have ample space between them. Last, touch targets should be placed in
areas of an interface that allow them to be easily acquired.
As obvious as it might seem, touch target sizing is of vital impor-
tance: when touch targets are too small, it takes users longer to engage
them. The recommended size varies (Table 2-1), but all recommenda-
tions indicate awareness of the importance of sizing.

Table 2-1. Minimum touch target size recommendations

Company/Org Size
Human Interface Guidelines (Apple) 44 × 44 pt
Material Design Guidelines (Google) 48 × 48 dp
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 44 × 44 CSS px
Nielsen Norman Group 1 × 1 cm

It’s important to keep in mind that these recommendations are mini-

mums. Designers should aim to exceed these target touch sizes when-
ever possible to decrease the need for precision. Adequate touch target
size not only ensures interactive elements are easily selectable but also
can reinforce users’ perception that the interface is easy to use. Small
touch targets add to the perception that an interface is less usable, even
if the user is able to avoid errors when attempting to select a target.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
many as ten or fifteen years. Sometimes, as in the case of Tomasso
Ceralli and Vincenzo Matti, it is a question of a married woman and
an illegal passion. Sometimes, as in the case of Biegio Refino and
Alessandro Scia, it is some poor cigarette-factory girl who, being
used as a tool by one or more, has fallen into others’ hands and so
incensed all and brought into being a feud. Sometimes, as in the
case of Mollinero and Pagnani, it is a bold, bad Carmen who is not
sorry to see her lovers fight.
But these stories are truly legion and in some instances the
police would never have been the wiser save for a man or a woman
whom the neighbors could not get out of the way in time. Once
caught, however, they come bustling into the nearest station house,
these strange groups of wild, fantastic, disheveled men and women,
and behind them, or before, the brawny officers of our colder clime,
with their clubs and oaths and hoarse comments on the folly and the
murderous indecency of it all—and all in an effort to inspire awe and
a preventive fear that, somehow, can never be inspired. “These
damned dagos, with their stilettos! These crazy wops!” But the
melancholy Italian does not care for these commands or our laws.
They are not for him. Let the cold, chilly American threaten; he will
carry his stiletto anyhow. It is reserved as a last resource in the face
of injustice or cruelty or the too great indifference of this world and
of fate.
One of the most interesting of these love affairs that ever came
to my personal attention was that of Vincenzo Cordi, street musician
and, in a way, a ne’er-do-well, who became unduly enraged because
Antonio Fellicitti, vegetable merchant, paid too marked attention to
his sweetheart. These men, typical Italians of the quarter, knew each
other, but there was no feeling until the affections of both were
aroused by the charms of Maria Maresco, the pretty daughter of one
of the laborers of the street.
According to the best information that could be obtained at the
time, Cordi had been first in the affections of the girl, but Fellicitti
arrived on the scene and won her away from him. Idling about the
vicinity of her house in One Hundred and Fourteenth Street he had
seen her and had fallen desperately in love.
Then there was trouble, for Cordi soon became aware of the
defection which Fellicitti had caused, and told him so. “You keep
away,” was his threat. “Go, and come near her no more. If you do, I
will kill you.”
You can imagine the feeling which this conversation engendered.
You can see the gallant Antonio, eyeing his jealous rival through the
long, thin slits of his shadowy, southern eyes. He keep away? Ha!
Ha! Vincenzo keep him away? Ha! Ha! If Maria but loved him, let
Vincenzo rage. When the time came he would answer.
And of course the time came. It was of a Sunday evening in
March, the first day on which the long cold winter broke and the sun
came out and made the city summer-like. Thousands in this section
filled the little park, with its array of green benches, to overflowing.
Thousands more lounged in the streets and sunned themselves, or
swarmed the cafés where was music and red wine and lights and
conversation. Still other thousands sat by open windows or on the
steps in front of open doors and gossiped with their neighbors—a
true forerunner of the glorious summer to follow.
Then came the night, that glorious time of affection and good
humor, when every Italian of this neighborhood is at his best. The
moon was on high, a new moon, shining with all the thin delicacy of
a pearl. Soft airs were blowing, clear voices singing; from every
window streamed lamplight and laughter. It seemed as if all the
beauty of spring had been crowded into a single hour.
On this occasion the fair Maria was lounging in front of her own
doorstep when the lovesick Antonio came along. He was dressed in
his best. A new red handkerchief was fastened about his neck, a soft
crush hat set jauntily upon his forehead. Upon his hand was a ring,
in the handkerchief a bright pin, and he was in his most cavalier
mood. Together they talked, and as they observed the beauty of the
night they decided to stroll to the little park a block away.
 Somewhere in this thoroughfare, however, stood the jealous
Vincenzo brooding. It was evident that he must have been concealed
somewhere, watching, for when the two strolled toward the corner
he was seen to appear and follow. At the corner, where the evening
crowd was the thickest and the merriest—summer pleasure at its
height, as it were—he suddenly confronted Antonio and drew his
revolver.
“Ha!”
The astonished Antonio had no time to defend himself. He drew
his knife, of course, but before he could act Vincenzo had fired a
bullet into his breast and sent him reeling on his last journey.
Maria screamed. The crowd gathered. Friends of Antonio and
Vincenzo drew knives and revolvers, and for a few moments it
looked as if a feud were on. Then came the police, and with them
the prosaic ambulance and patrol wagon—and another tragedy was
recorded. Antonio was dead and Vincenzo severely cut and bruised.
And so it goes. They love desperately. They quarrel dramatically,
and in the end they often fight and die, as we have seen. The brief,
practical accounts of the newspapers give no least suggestion of the
color, the emotion, the sorrow, the rage—in a way, the dramatic
beauty—that attends them, nearly all.
 CHRISTMAS IN THE TENEMENTS

They are infatuated with the rush and roar of a great metropolis.
They are fascinated by the illusion of pleasure. Broadway, Fifth
Avenue, the mansions, the lights, the beauty. A fever of living is in
their blood. An unnatural hunger and thirst for excitement is burning
them up. For this they labor. For this they endure a hard, unnatural
existence. For this they crowd themselves in stifling, inhuman
quarters, and for this they die.
The joys of the Christmas tide are no illusion with most of us,
the strange exhibition of fancy, of which it is the name, no mockery
of our dreams. Far over the wide land the waves of expectation and
sympathetic appreciation constantly oscillate one with the other in
the human breast, and in the closing season of the year are at last
given definite expression. Rings and pins, the art of the jeweler and
the skill of the dress-maker, pictures, books, ornaments and
knickknacks—these with one great purpose are consecrated, and in
the material lavishness of the season is seen the dreams of the
world come true.
There is one region, however, where, in the terrific drag of the
struggle for existence, the softer phases of this halcyon mood are at
first glance obscure. It is a region of tall tenements and narrow
streets where, crowded into an area of a few square miles, live and
labor a million and a half of people. It is the old-time tenement area,
leading almost unbrokenly north from Franklin Square to Fourteenth
Street. Here, during these late December evenings, the holiday
atmosphere is beginning to make itself felt. It is a region of narrow
streets with tall five-story, even seven-story, tenements lining either
side of the way and running thick as a river with a busy and toilsome
throng.
 The ways are already lined with carts of special Christmas
goods, such as toys, candies, Christmas tree ornaments, feathers,
ribbons, jewelry, purses, fruit, and in a few wagons small Christmas
greens such as holly and hemlock wreaths, crosses of fir, balsam,
tamarack pine and sprigs of mistletoe. Work has not stopped in the
factories or stores, and yet these streets are literally packed with
people, of all ages, sizes and nationalities, and the buying is lively.
One man, who looks as though he might be a Bowery tough rather
than a denizen of this particular neighborhood, is offering little
three-, five- and ten-inch dolls which he announces as “genuine
American beauties here. Three, five and ten.” Another, a pale, full-
bearded Jew, is selling little Christmas tree ornaments of paste or
glass for a penny each, and in the glare of the newly-turned-on
electric lights, it is not difficult to perceive that they are the broken
or imperfect lots of the toy manufacturers who are having them
hawked about during the eleventh hour before Christmas as the best
way of getting rid of them. Other dusty, grim and raucous denizens
are offering candy, mixed nuts, and other forms of special
confections, at ten cents a pound, a price at which those who are
used to the more expensive brands may instructively ponder.
Meats are selling in some of the cheaper butcher shops for ten,
fifteen and twenty cents a pound, picked chickens in barrels at
fifteen and twenty. A whole section of Elizabeth Street is given up to
the sale of stale fish at ten and fifteen cents a pound, and the crowd
of Italians, Jews and Bohemians who are taking advantage of these
modest prices is swarming over the sidewalk and into the gutters. A
four- or five-pound fish at fifteen cents a pound will make an
excellent Christmas dinner for four, five or six. A thin, ice-packed and
chemically-preserved chicken at fifteen or twenty cents a pound will
do as much for another family. Onions, garlic, old cast-off preserves,
pickles and condiments that the wholesale houses uptown have seen
grow stale and musty on their shelves, can be had here for five, ten
and fifteen cents a bottle, and although the combination is
unwholesome it will be worked over as Christmas dinners for the
morrow. Cheap, unsalable, stale, adulterated—these are the words
that should be stamped on every bottle, basket and barrel that is
here being scrambled over. And yet the purchasers would not be
benefited any thereby. They must buy what they can afford. What
they can afford is this.
The street, with its mass of life, lingers in this condition until six
o’clock, when the great shops and factories turn loose their horde of
workers. Then into the glare of these electric-lighted streets the
army of shop girls and boys begins to pour. Here is a spectacle
interesting and provocative of thought at all seasons, but trebly so
on this particular evening. It is a shabby throng at best,
commonplace in garb and physical appearance, but rich in the
qualities of youth and enthusiasm, than which the world holds
nothing more valuable.
Youth in all the glory of its illusions and its ambitions. Youth, in
whom the cold insistence of life’s physical limitations and the law
have not as yet worked any permanent depression. Thousands are
hurrying in every direction. The street cars which ply this area are
packed as only the New York street car companies can pack their
patrons, and that in cold, old, dirty and even vile cars. There are
girls with black hair, and girls with brown. Some have even, white
teeth, some shapely figures, some a touch of that persuasive charm
which is indicated by the flash of an eye. There are poor dresses,
poor taste, and poor manners mingled with good dresses, good
taste and good manners. In the glow of the many lights and
shadows of the evening they are hurrying away, with that lightness
of spirit and movement which is the evidence of a long strain of
labor suddenly relaxed.
“Do you think Santa Claus will have enough to fill that?” asks an
officer, who is standing in the glare of a balsam- and pine-trimmed
cigar store window, to a smartly dressed political heeler or detective
who is looking on with him at the mass of shop-girls hurrying past. A
shop-girl had gone by with her skirt cut to an inch or two below her
knee, revealing a trim little calf and ankle.
“Eee yo! I hope so! Isn’t she the candy?”
 Christmas in the Tenements

“Don’t get fresh,” comes quickly from the hurrying figure as she
disappears in the throng with a toss of her head. She has enjoyed
the comment well enough, and the rebuke is more mischievous than
angry.
“A goldfish! A goldfish! Only one cent!” cries a pushcart vendor,
who is one of a thousand lining the pavements to-night, and at his
behest another shop-girl, equally budding and youthful, stops to
extract a penny from her small purse and carries away a thin,
transparent prize of golden paste, for a younger brother, probably.
 Others like her are being pushed and jostled the whole length of
this crowded section. They are being nudged and admired as well as
sought and schemed for. Whatever affections or attachments they
have will be manifesting themselves to-night, as may be seen by the
little expenditures they themselves are making. A goldfish of
transparent paste or a half pound of candy, a cheap gold-plated
stickpin, brooch or ring, or a handkerchief, collar or necktie bought
of one of the many pushcart men, tell the story plainly enough.
Sympathy, love, affection and passion are running their errant ways
among this vast unspoken horde no less than among the more
pretentious and well-remembered of the world.
And the homes to which they are hurrying, the places which are
dignified by that title, but which here should have another name!
Thousands upon thousands of them are turning into entry ways, the
gloom or dirtiness or poverty of which should bar them from the
steps of any human being. Up the dark stairways they are pouring
into tier upon tier of human hives, in some instances not less than
seven stories high and, of course, without an elevator, and by grimy
landings they are sorted out and at last distributed each into his own
cranny. Small, dark one-, two- and three-room apartments, where
yet on this Christmas evening, one, and sometimes three, four and
five are still at work sewing pants, making flowers, curling feathers,
or doing any other of a hundred tenement tasks to help out the
income supplied by the one or two who work out. Miserable one-
and two-room spaces where ignorance and poverty and sickness,
rather than greed or immorality, have made veritable pens out of
what would ordinarily be bad enough. Many hundreds or thousands
of others there are where thrift and shrewdness are making the best
of very unfortunate conditions, and a hundred or two where actual
abundance prevails. These are the homes. Let us enter.
Zorg is a Bohemian, and has a little two-room apartment. The
windows of the only one which has windows looks into Elizabeth
Street. It is a dingy apartment, unswept and unwhitewashed at
present, where on this hearty Christmas Eve, himself, his wife, his
wife’s mother, and his little twelve-year-old son are laboring at a fair-
sized deal table curling feathers. The latter is a simple task, once
you understand it, dull, tedious, unprofitable. It consists in taking a
feather in one hand, a knife in the other, and drawing the fronds
quickly over the knife’s edge. This gives them a very sprightly curl
and can be administered, if the worker be an expert, by a single
movement of the hand. It is paid for by the dozen, as such work is
usually paid for in this region, and the ability to earn much more
than sixty cents a day is not within the range of human possibility.
Forty cents would be a much more probable average, and this is
approximately the wages which these several individuals earn. Rent
uses up three of the twelve dollars weekly income; food, dress, coal
and light six more. Three dollars, when work is steady, is the sum
laid aside for all other purposes and pleasures, and this sum, if no
amusements were indulged in and no sickness or slackness of work
befell, might annually grow to the tidy sum of one hundred and fifty-
six dollars; but it has never done so. Illness invariably takes one
part, lack of work a greater part still. In the long drag of weary labor
the pleasure-loving instincts of man cannot be wholly restrained, and
so it comes about that the present Christmas season finds the funds
of the family treasury low.
It is in such a family as this that the merry Christmas time comes
with a peculiar emphasis, and although the conditions may be
discouraging, the efforts to meet it are almost always commensurate
with the means.
However, on this Christmas Eve it has been deemed a duty to
have some diversion, and so, although the round of weary labor may
not be thus easily relaxed, the wife has been deputed to do the
Christmas shopping and has gone forth into the crowded East Side
street, from which she has returned with a meat bone, a cut from a
butcher’s at twelve cents a pound, green pickles, three turnips, a
carrot, a half-dozen small candles, and two or three toys, which,
together with a small three-foot branch of hemlock, purchased
earlier in the day, completes the Christmas preparation for the
morrow. Arba, the youngest, although like the others she will work
until ten this Christmas Eve, is to have a pair of new shoes; Zicka,
the next older, a belt for her dress. Mrs. Zorg, although she may not
suspect, will receive a new market basket with a lid on it. Zorg—
grim, silent, weary of soul and body—is to have a new fifteen-cent
tie. There will be a tree, a small sprig of a tree, upon which will hang
colored glass or paste balls of red and blue and green, with threads
of popcorn and sprays of flitter-gold, all saved from the years before.
In the light of early dawn to-morrow the youngest of the children
will dance about these, and the richness of their beauty will be
enjoyed as if they had not been so presented for the seventh and
eighth time.
Thus it runs, mostly, throughout the entire region on this joyous
occasion, a wealth of feeling and desire expressing itself through the
thinnest and most meager material forms. About the shops and
stores where the windows are filled with cheap displays of all that is
considered luxury, are hosts of other children scarcely so
satisfactorily supplied, peering earnestly into the world of make-
believe and illusion, the wonder of it not yet eradicated from their
unsophisticated hearts. Joy, joy—not a tithe of all that is represented
by the expenditures of the wealthy, but only such as may be
encompassed in a paper puff-ball or a tinsel fish, is here sought for
and dreamed over, an earnest, child-heart-longing which may never
again be gratified if not now. Horses, wagons, fire engines, dolls—
these are what the thousands upon thousands of children whose
faces are pressed closely against the commonplace window panes
are dreaming about, and the longing that is thereby expressed is the
strongest evidence of the indissoluble link which binds these
weakest and most wretched elements of society to the best and
most successful.
 THE RIVERS OF THE NAMELESS DEAD
The body of a man was found yesterday in the North
River at Twenty-fifth Street. A brass check, No. 21,600,
of the New York Registry Company, was found on the
body.—N. Y. Daily Paper.

There is an island surrounded by rivers, and about it the tide

scurries fast and deep. It is a beautiful island, long, narrow,
magnificently populated, and with such a wealth of life and interest
as no island in the whole world before has ever possessed. Long
lines of vessels of every description nose its banks. Enormous
buildings and many splendid mansions line its streets.
It is filled with a vast population, millions coming and going, and
is the scene of so much life and enthusiasm and ambition that its
fame is, as the sound of a bell, heard afar.
And the interest which this island has for the world is that it is
seemingly a place of opportunity and happiness. If you were to
listen to the tales of its glory carried the land over and see the
picture which it presents to the incoming eye, you would assume
that it was all that it seemed. Glory for those who enter its walls
seeking glory. Happiness for those who come seeking happiness. A
world of comfort and satisfaction for all who take up their abode
within it—an island of beauty and delight.
The sad part of it is, however, that the island and its beauty are,
to a certain extent, a snare. Its seeming loveliness, which promises
so much to the innocent eye, is not always easy of realization.
Thousands come, it is true; thousands venture to reconnoiter its
mysterious shores. From the villages and hamlets of the land is
streaming a constant procession of pilgrims who feel that here is the
place where their dreams are to be realized; here is the spot where
they are to be at peace. That their hopes are not, in so many cases,
to be realized, is the thing which gives a poignant tang to their
coming. The beautiful island is not compact of happiness for all.
And the exceptional tragedy of it is that the waters which
surround the beautiful island are forever giving evidence of the
futility of the dreams of so many. If you were to stand upon any of
its shores, where the tide scurries past in its never-ending hurry, or
were to idle for a time upon its many docks and piers, which reach
far out into the water and give lovely views of the sky and the gulls
and the boats, you might see drifting past upon the bosom of the
current some member of all the ambitious throng who, in time past,
set his face toward the city, and who entered only to find that there
was more of sorrow than of joy. Sad, white-faced maidens; grim,
bearded, time-worn men; strange, strife-worn, grief-stricken women;
and, saddest of all, children—soft, wan, tender children—floating in
the waters which wash the shores of the island city.
And such waters! How green they look, how graceful, how
mysterious! From far seas they come—strange, errant, peculiar
waters—prying along the shores of the magnificent island; sucking
and sipping at the rocks which form its walls; whispering and
gurgling about the docks and piers, and flowing, flowing, flowing.
Such waters seem to be kind, and yet they are not so. They seem to
be cruel, and yet they are not so; merely indifferent these waters
are—dark, strong, deep, indifferent.
And curiously the children of men who come to seek the joys of
the city realize the indifference and the impartiality of the waters.
When the vast and beautiful island has been reconnoitered, when its
palaces have been viewed, its streets disentangled, its joys and its
difficulties discovered, then the waters, which are neither for nor
against, seem inviting. Here, when the great struggle has been
ended, when the years have slipped by and the hopes of youth have
not been realized; when the dreams of fortune, the delights of
tenderness, the bliss of love and the hopes of peace have all been
abandoned—the weary heart may come and find surcease. Peace in
the waters, rest in the depths and the silence of the hurrying tide;
surcease and an end in the chalice of the waters which wash the
shores of the beautiful island.
And they do come, these defeated ones? Not one, nor a dozen,
nor a score every year, but hundreds and hundreds. Scarcely a day
passes but one, and sometimes many, go down from the light and
the show and the merriment of the island to the shores of the
waters where peace may be found. They stop on its banks; they
reflect, perhaps, on the joys which they somehow have missed; they
give a last, despairing glance at the wonderful scene which once
seemed so joyous and full of promise, and then yield themselves
unresistingly to the unswerving strength of the powerful current and
are borne away. Out past the docks and the piers of the wonderful
city. Out past its streets, its palaces, its great institutions. Out past
its lights, its colors, the sound of its merriment and its seeking, and
then the sea has them and they are no more. They have
accomplished their journey, the island its tragedy. They have come
down to the rivers of the nameless dead. They have yielded
themselves as a sacrifice to the variety of life. They have proved the
uncharitableness of the island of beauty.
THE END
 Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made

consistent when a predominant preference was found in
the original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected;
unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the
change was obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned
between paragraphs. In versions of this eBook that
support hyperlinks, the page references in the List of
Illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations.
Transcriber removed duplicate book title on page
before first chapter.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COLOR OF A
GREAT CITY ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States
copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy
and distribute it in the United States without permission and
without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the
General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the

free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this
work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase
“Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of
the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or
online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand,
agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual
property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree
to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease
using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for
obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™
electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms
of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only

be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by
people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.
There are a few things that you can do with most Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the
full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There
are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™
electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and
help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright
law in the United States and you are located in the United
States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works
based on the work as long as all references to Project
Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will
support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free
access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for
keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the
work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement
by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full
Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project

Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project
Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed,
viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in

the United States and most other parts of the
world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-
use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg
License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of
the country where you are located before using
this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of
the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to
anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges.
If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of
paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use
of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth
in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and
distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder.
Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™
License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright
holder found at the beginning of this work.
 1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project
Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files
containing a part of this work or any other work associated with
Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute

this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the
Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if
you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project
Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other format used in the official version posted on the official
Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must,
at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy,
a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy
upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or
other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project
Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™
works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or

providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
 but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend
considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these
efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium
on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as,
but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data,
transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property
infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be
read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE
THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT
EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE
THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you
do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.
 Section 2. Information about the Mission
of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status
by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or
federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions
to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine
the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current
donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com