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Contents

Introduction 1
Introduction to Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction to Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Advantages of Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Installing Python in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Installing Python in macOS (Apple) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Execution Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Interactive Mode of Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Script Mode of Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Python Fundamentals 11
Tokens: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tokens: Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tokens: Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tokens: Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Tokens: Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Tokens: Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Character Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Blocks and Indentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Variables, Objects & Data Types 21

What are Objects & Variables? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Variables & Assignment Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Built-in Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Type Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Type Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mutable & Immutable Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Input / Output 31
How to Accept User Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Displaying Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Operators & Expressions 35

Introduction to Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Assignment Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Identity Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Membership Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Operator Precedence with Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Errors & Exception Handling 49

Error Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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Syntax Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Runtime Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Logical Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Control Flow 57
Introduction to Control Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Sequential Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Selection Statements: if .. else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Iteration: for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Iteration: while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Jump Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Nested Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Strings 71
Strings: Introduction & Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Accessing Characters of a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
String Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Introduction to String Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Convert Case of Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Check Characters of a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Split a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Strip Characters from a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Check Prefix or Suffix in a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Find & Replace Characters in a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Traversing a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

List 83
What is a Python List? How to Create a List? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Accessing Items of a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Modifying a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Removing Item from a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
List Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Traversing a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Built-in Functions that can be used for a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Introduction to List Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Adding Items to a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Removing Items from a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Counting or Locating Items in a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Reversing Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Sorting a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Copying a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Nested List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
List Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Sample Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Tuple 97
List vs Tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
How to Create Tuple? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
What is a Singleton? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Accessing Items of a Tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Tuples are Immutable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Tuple Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Traversing a Tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Built-in Functions that can be used for a Tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Locating Items in a Tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Counting the Occurrence of an Item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
New Tuple with Reversed Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

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New Tuple with Sorted Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Nested Tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Understanding the Immutable Nature of Tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Dictionary 105
What is a Dictionary? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
How to Create a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Accessing Items (Key:Value) of a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Updating a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Removing an Item (Key:Value) from a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Dictionary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Traversing a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Built-in Functions for a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Creating a Copy of a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Nested Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Sample Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Python Standard Library 115

Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Mathematical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Type Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
I/O Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Base/Unicode Conversion Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
What are Built-in Modules? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
math Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
random Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
statistics Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

File Handling 123

File Handling in Python - Introduction & Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Text Files vs Binary Files - Use Case, File Formats, Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
File Opening & Closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
File Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Writing a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Reading & Writing Binary Files using pickle Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Reading & Writing a CSV File using csv Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

User Defined Functions, Modules & Packages 135

User Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Function Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Parameters and Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Scope of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Passing Objects of Mutable Type to a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
What is a Module? How to Create a Module? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Executable Scripts / Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
What is a Package? Introduction to PyPi. How to Create a Python Package? . . . . . . . . 142

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Introduction

Introduction to Programming Languages

In today’s digital era, we depend on computers, smartphones and the internet to perform a plethora of
tasks, like:

• A mathematical task, such as finding the square root of a number or solving a set of simultaneous
equations.
• A text-based task such as reading a document and performing search/replace.
• Streaming and playing multimedia files containing audio and video.
• Using a search engine to find and visit a website.
• Playing an online multiplayer game with friends.
• and many more…

Softwares play an important role as they translate human activity into corresponding machine instructions
which are executed to accomplish these tasks.

A software is a collection of programs where each program provides a sequence of instructions

specifying how the computer should act.

These instructions have to be provided in machine language or low level language (0s and 1s) that is
difficult to read or write for a human being.

This led to the invention of high-level programming languages in which programs can be easily written
and managed. The human-readable programs written using high-level languages are converted into
computer-readable machine code or bytecode using compilers or interpreters.

There are many high-level programming languages that are currently in wide use.

Some of the popular languages are Java, C, C++, C#, Go, Swift, JavaScript, PHP, Dart, Kotlin and
Python.

Introduction to Python
Guido van Rossum started the development of Python in December 1989. He released the first version
(0.9.9) of Python for general public on February 20, 1991.

The language evolved over the next few decades and so did its definition, the current version of which
is stated below:

Python is a high-level, interpreted, object-oriented programming language with dynamic

semantics.

Let us break down and analyze the above definition to gain a better understanding of Python:

High-level

Python is a high-level programming language which can be used to write a program in natural language
(english) making it readable, writable, shareable and manageable.

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While developing a Python program one is not required to handle the various components of computer
architecture like registers, memory addresses and call stacks which have to be handled if an assembly
language or a low-level language is used for development.
Python includes high-level language features like variables, data structures (lists, dictionaries, etc.),
objects, expressions, modules, classes, functions, loops, threads, file handling, string handling, error
handling and other computer science abstraction concepts.
Interpreted
In traditional programming languages like C or C++, codes are compiled into computer-readable machine
code before it can be executed.
Python is an interpreted language where the Python interpreter reads and executes the program line
by line.
The process is more time consuming compared to compiled code execution, but allows faster develop-
ment as one does not have to go through the entire compilation step during testing and debugging.
Also, the code can run on any platform as long as it has a valid Python installation (which includes
interpreter) as there is no generation of platform dependent binaries.
Object-oriented
Python does not enforce Object-oriented programming (OOP), but completely supports it.
A programmer can define Classes specifying the data in the form of attributes (or properties) and some
programming logic in the form of member functions (or methods). Once a class is defined, the user can
create an instance of that class which is known as an object.
In Python, everything ( int , list , dict , etc.) is an object. We will cover more about objects in
detail in the later sections.
Dynamic Semantics
As Python is an interpreted language in which the code is executed line-by-line, a python statement or
expression is evaluated during run-time. This allows dynamic typing (type of a variable can change over
its lifetime) and creation of dynamic objects during run-time, which provides more flexibility, usability
and fewer lines of code as compared to statically-typed compiled languages like C/C++.

Advantages of Python
The key advantages of Python are as follows:
1. Easy to Learn
The Python programming language is easy to learn with low technical and conceptual overhead. This
makes it an ideal language for beginners to learn programming.
2. Clear Syntax & Fewer Lines of Code
Python’s simple and easy to learn syntax increases code readability and leads to fewer lines of code.
A typical task which requires an average of twenty lines of code in C and seven in Java can often be
done with just one line in Python.
Also, due to fewer lines of code the chances of making any error is significantly reduced.
3. Open Source
Python is an open source programming language, so anyone can view and contribute to its source
code.
4. Portable & Platform Independent
The Python programming language is portable & platform independent as it can work on any Linux,
MacOS or Windows device.
5. Standard Library & Python Packages

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Python has a rich and extensive Standard Library, a collection of predefined functions for various tasks.

Python programmers also have at their disposal the vast ecosystem of more than 250,000 commu-
nity contributed libraries in the Python Package Index (PyPI), where one can find a solution to every
conceivable task.

6. Web Application Development

Some of the most popular web development frameworks (django, flask, etc.) are written in Python. This
coupled with the availablity of packages to connect to any database makes Python a great choice for
web application development.

Installing Python in Windows

Let’s start with the Python 3 installation process on Windows operating system.

Step 1: Download Installer

Download the latest Windows installer from the Python Software Foundation website.

Step 1: Download Installer

Step 2: Install Python 3

Once the download is complete double-click and run it.

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Step 2: Install Python 3

Select the checkbox ✅ Add Python 3.9 to PATH . This will enable you to install python packages
and run python script via command-line.

Hit � Install Now and complete the setup.

Step 3: Verify Installation

Once the setup is complete, click on the Start menu and open Python 3.9 -> IDLE (Python 3.9 64 bit)
to launch the Python interpreter.

Step 3: Launch Python Interpreter

Python 3.9 is now successfully installed on your computer.

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Step 3: Verify Installation

Installing Python in macOS (Apple)

Let’s start with the Python 3 installation process on macOS operating system.

Step 1: Download Installer

Download the latest macOS installer from the Python Software Foundation website.

Step 1: Download Installer

Step 2: Install Python 3

Once the download is complete double-click and run it.

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Step 2: Install Python 3

Hit Continue and complete the setup.

Step 3: Verify Installation

Once the setup is complete, click on the Launchpad -> IDLE to launch the Python interpreter.

Step 3: Verify Installation

Python 3.9 is now successfully installed on your computer.

Execution Modes
After installing the latest version of the Python interpreter, we can now write and execute some basic
Python codes.

There are two ways to execute a Python program:

1. Interactive Mode: When the IDLE application is launched, the Python interpreter or the Python
shell pops up on the screen. User can interact with the Python interpreter and execute statements
(single line or multiline code snippets) directly in this Python shell.
2. Script Mode: This is the most commonly used method for executing a Python program. The
entire Python program is written and saved in a file ( .py extension) which can be executed
using the IDLE application.

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Interactive Mode of Execution

Let us execute some basic Python statements and interact with the Python shell.
Launching the Python Shell

To launch the IDLE application click [Windows Start Menu Button] -> [Python 3.9 Folder] -> [IDLE (Pyth
.

Launch IDLE

The Python interpreter or the Python shell will pop-up on the screen.

Python Shell

The version ( 3.9 ) of the Python interpreter is displayed at the top of the window followed by the >>>
symbol which indicates that the interpreter is ready to take instructions.
Python commands or statements can be input on this prompt. The input statements are executed
instantaneously and any variable assignments are retained as long as the session is not terminated.
Basic Arithmetic
Let us perform some basic arithmetic operations in the interactive mode using an integer number ( 2 )
and a floating-point number ( 3.5 ):
>>> 2 + 2
4

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

>>> 2 * 3.5
7.0

It can be observed that the results of each of the above computations are displayed immediately in the
shell.

Storing Values/Results

Instead of immediately displaying the results, they can also be stored in variables using the assignment
symbol ( = ) as shown below:
>>> a = 2 + 2
>>> b = 2 * 3.5

The values of a and b can be accessed later for future calculations as shown below:
>>> a
4
>>> b
7.0
>>> a * 5
20
>>> b / 3
2.3333333333333335

Basic String Operation

Interactive mode is not just restricted to basic arithmetic or assignments. Let us join two strings -
"Hello, " and "world!" .
>>> "Hello, " + "world!"
'Hello, world!'

The complete functionality of Python is easily accessible to a user via the Interactive Mode.

This makes it convenient for testing and instant execution of small code snippets (single line or few lines
of code), a feature not available in compiled languages like C, C++ and Java.

But, the statements cannot be saved for future use and have to retyped for re-execution. This disadvan-
tage is overcome by the use of Python in Script Mode as described in the next section.

Script Mode of Execution

To write reusable codes, script mode is the most preferred mode of code execution.

File Creation

To create a new file using the IDLE application click [File] -> [New File]

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Create New File

Write a simple Python program as shown below

a = 2 + 2
a

and save the script as example.py ( .py file extension for all Python scripts) using
[File] -> [Save As...]

Save File

Script Execution

Now run this script using [Run] -> [Run Module] .

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Execute File

It can be observed that the code has been executed, but no output is displayed on the console (or the
standard output) as all outputs have to be explicitly specified when running a code in the script mode.
This can be done by using the print() function which is used in Python scripts to display output on
the output stream. Let us quickly add the print() function in the above code and execute it.
a = 2 + 2
print(a)

Now, when you run the script you will observe that the value of a , that is 4 , is now displayed on
the console.

10
Python Fundamentals

Tokens: Introduction
When a Python code is executed, the Python interpreter reads each logical line and breaks it into a
sequence of lexical units.
These lexical units are better known as tokens - the smallest individual units of a program. They are the
building blocks of a Python code and can be classified into one of the following categories:
• Keywords : Reserved words that convey special meaning when processed by the Python inter-
preter.
• Identifiers : Names defined by the programmer to refer to objects that can represent variables,
functions, classes, etc.
• Literals : Values specified in the program which belong to exactly one of the Python’s built-in
data types.
• Delimiters : Symbols that denote grouping, punctuation, and assignment/binding.
• Operators : Symbols that can operate on data and compute results.

Tokens: Keywords
Keywords are reserved words that have special meaning when processed by the Python interpreter.
They are case-sensitive and cannot be used for naming identifiers (class, function, variable or structure
names).
The list of keywords in Python are provided below:

True False import

from as None
and or not
in is try
except finally raise
del global nonlocal
lambda def class
with if elif
else pass for
while continue break
assert return yield
async await

Tokens: Identifiers
Identifiers are used for defining the names of Python objects such as variables, functions, classes,
modules, etc. The naming convention for identifiers is as follows:

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• Must begin with a lowercase character ( a-z ) or an uppercase character ( A-Z ) or underscore
sign ( _ ).
• Followed by any number of letters ( a-z , A-Z ), digits ( 0-9 ), or underscores ( _ ).
• Should not be a keyword.
• No special symbols are allowed like ! , @ , # , $ , % , etc.
Some points to keep in mind while naming identifiers:
• Identifiers are case-sensitive in nature and any difference in case of any character refers to a
different identifier. e.g., length and Length are different identifiers.
• Identifiers differing by only underscores are different. e.g., unitlength and unit_length
are different identifiers.
It is also a good practice (although not compulsory) to follow the following procedure while naming
identifiers:
• Identifiers should be named carefully with an emphasis on clarity and readability. For example, in a
program that calculates the area of a rectangle, a good choice for identifier names are - length
, breadth and area .
• Class names should start with uppercase character.
• Identifiers starting with an underscore have special meaning in a program.
• Variable, function and method names should be in lowercase characters, with underscores
separating multiple words like area_of_square , area_of_triangle , etc.

Tokens: Literals
Literals are tokens in the source code which represent fixed or constant values. They are often used in
assignment statements for initializing variables or in comparison expressions.
The various types of literals available in Python are as follows:

Numeric Literals
Numeric literals are used for representing numeric values in the source code. They can be of three types
- integers, float point numbers and imaginary numbers.

Integer Literals

Integer literals are numbers without any fractional component.

In Python, integer literals can be written in four positional (base) numeral systems:
i. Decimal or base-10 Integer
A decimal integer literal consists of one or more digits ( 0-9 ) and cannot have any zeros preceding the
first non-zero digit, except when the number is 0 .
Example base-10 integers:
34
3283298
864
0

092 is not a valid decimal integer literal as a zero precedes the first non-zero digit 9 .
ii. Binary or base-2 Integer
A binary integer or base-2 integer begins with 0b or 0B followed by binary digits 0-1 .

For example, 27 can be written as a binary integer literal 0b11011 .

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iii. Octal or base-8 Integer

An octal integer or base-8 integer begins with 0o or 0O followed by octal digits 0-7 .

For example, 27 can be written as an octal integer literal 0o33 .

iv. Hexadecimal or base-16 Integer
A hexadecimal integer or base-16 integer begins with 0x or 0X followed by digits 0-9 or letters
A-F (case insensitive).

For example, 27 can be written as a hexadecimal integer literal 0x1B or 0x1b .

Thus, it can be observed that number 27 can be written in the program as 27 (decimal), 0b11011
(binary), 0o33 (octal) or 0x1B (hexadecimal).
Underscores in Integer Literals
An optional character _ (underscore) is also allowed in an integer literal to group digits for enhanced
readability.
One underscore can occur between digits, and after base specifiers like 0o .
They are ignored while determining the actual numerical value of the literal.
Some valid underscore usages are - 10_00_00_000 , 0b_1110_0101 , 0x23_123 .

Floating Point Literals

Floating point literals are real numbers present in the source code. They contain fractional component
and/or exponential component.
The fractional component includes the digits after the decimal point ( . ).
Example floating point literals:
3.4
.4
8.
3.4E2
3.4e-2

In the above example, .4 is equivalent to 0.4 and 8. is equivalent to 8.0 .

The exponential component can be identified by the letter e or E followed by an optional sign ( +
or - ) and digits ( 0-9 ). This exponent is equivalent to multiplying the real number with the power of
10 .

For example, 3.4E2 is equivalent to 3.4 x 10^2 or 340.0 , whereas 3.4e-2 is equivalent to
3.4 x 10^-2 or .034 .

Imaginary Literals
To specify complex numbers and perform complex number mathematics, Python supports imaginary
literals which are given by real or integer number followed by the letter j or J which represents the
unit imaginary number.
Example imaginary literals:
3.5j
15.j
12j
.005j
3e100j
3.5e-10j

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Points to Note
In Python,
• there is no specialized literal such as a complex literal. A complex number is actually represented
in the program using an expression comprising a real number (integer/float numeric literal) and an
imaginary number (imaginary literal). For example, 1 + 2j consists of an integer literal ( 1 )
and a imaginary literal ( 2j ).
• numeric literals do not include the minus sign ( - ). - is actually a unary operator it combines
with a numeric literal to represent negative numbers. For example, in -3.14 the numeric literal
is 3.14 and - is an operator.

Boolean Literals
The reserved words True and False are also boolean literals which can be used to specify the
truth value in a program.

String Literals
String literals are texts which can be specified in a variety of ways in Python:

• Single quotes: 'python'

• Double quotes: "python"
• Triple quoted: '''Triple python''' , """Three python""" .

Triple quoted strings can also span multiple lines.

Example:
s = "I am a String"

s1 = """A
multiline
String"""

s2 = '''Also a
multiline
String'''

The backslash ( \ ) character can be used in a string literal to escape characters that otherwise have a
special meaning, such as newline, linefeed, or the quote character.

Escape Sequence Meaning

\\ Backslash ( \ )
\' Single quote ( ' )
\" Double quote ( " )
\a ASCII Bell (BEL)
\b ASCII Backspace (BS)
\f ASCII Formfeed (FF)
\n ASCII Linefeed (LF)
\r ASCII Carriage Return (CR)
\t ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB)
\v ASCII Vertical Tab (VT)

Although \' and \" can be used to specify quote characters, Python allows embedding double

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quotes inside a single-quoted string ( 'My name is "Python".' ) and single quotes inside a double-
quoted string ( "Python's World" ).

String literals also support unicode characters which can be specified using \u escape sequence
followed by the 4 letter unicode.
>>> print("E = mc\u00B2")
E = mc²

In the above example, \u00B2 is the unicode character which represents the ‘SUPERSCRIPT TWO’.

Special Literal
None is a special literal which is used to denote the absence of value.

It should not be confused with 0 as 0 is an integer literal with a defined finite value, whereas None
implies nothingness.
>>> a = None
>>> a
>>>

In the above example, the Python shell does not display any value of a as it is assigned as None
which has no value.

Collection of Literals
Python has the provision for specifying a collection of literals in the source code using a special syntax
known as “displays”.
One can create specialized containers like list, set and dictionary using this syntax.
Some example collection of literals (displays) are provided below:

• List: a = ['a', 'b', 'c']

• Set: a = {'a', 'b', 'c'}
• Dictionary: a = {'a':1, 'b':2, 'c':3}
List, set and dictionary will be covered in detail in later chapters.

Tokens: Operators
Operators are tokens which can be combined with values and variables to create expressions which
evaluate to a single value. Python supports a rich set of operators:
+ - * **
/ // % @
<< >>
& | ^ ~
:= < >
<= >= == !=

Each of the above operators are covered in detail in the chapter - Operators.

Tokens: Delimiters
Delimiters are tokens which are useful for organizing a program and are used in statements, expressions,
functions, literal collections, and various other code structures.
They can be classified based on utility as follows:

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

Grouping
() , [] and {} are delimiters used for:

• grouping expressions which can be spread across multiple physical lines.

• creating collection of literals like list display, dictionary display, set display.
• creating parenthesized sub-expression having the highest operator precedence (evaluated first) in
a complex expression.
Example
days = ['Sunday', 'Monday',
'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',
'Thursday', 'Friday',
'Saturday']

sum_6 = (1 + 2 +
3 + 4 +
5 + 6)

is equivalent to
days = ['Sunday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday']

sum_6 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6)

Punctuation, Decoration and Annotation

Tokens in Python which are used for punctuation, decoration and annotation are:
. , :
; @ ->

Assignment/Binding
The assignment or binding delimiters are used for binding objects to names via assignment statements.
The complete list of tokens are provided below:
= += -= *=
/= //= %= **=
@= &= |= ^=
<<= >>=

Except = , the rest of the tokens have an operator followed by = character.

These delimiters are also known as augmented assignment operators as they perform an operation in
combination with assignment.

Character Set
A set of valid characters that a programming language recognizes is known as its character set.
Python is a new age programming language which supports Unicode encoding standard. The default
encoding for Python source code is UTF-8 (Unicode Transformation Format – 8-bit) which enables
developers to use Unicode characters not only as literals, but also as identifiers.
This makes Python one of the very few programming languages that support multiple languages as
shown in the example below:
Code

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�㶻 github.com/animator/learn-python · �㰐 edpunk.com Ankit Mahato

message = "हमें print करे"

print(message)

क = 1 # Devanagari Letter KA
ক = 2 # Bengali Letter KA
க = 3 # Tamil Letter KA
ક = 4 # Gujarati Letter KA
print(क + ক + க + ક)

Output
हमें print करे
10

Blocks and Indentation

In traditional programming languages like C++ or Java, programs are organised in form of code blocks.

Each code block contains one or more statements which are enclosed between braces - { and }
and are executed sequentially.
A sample C++/Java code is provided below which checks for an input x .
C++
if (x < 10) {
cout << "x is less than 10" << endl;
if (x <= 5) {
cout << "x is less than or equal to 5" << endl;
}
else {
cout << "x is more than 5 but less than 10" << endl;
}
}
else {
cout << "x is not less than 10" << endl;
}

Java
if (x < 10) {
System.out.println("x is less than 10");
if (x <= 5) {
System.out.println("x is less than or equal to 5");
}
else {
System.out.println("x is more than 5 but less than 10");
}
}
else {
System.out.print("x is not less than 10");
}

It can be seen how indentations ( tab at the beginning of line) are added (not required by programming
language) to the code to increase readability, which helps in guiding readers through the code.
Python
Code blocks in Python are inspired by this idea as it makes it easier to understand a Python code.
A block of code is denoted by line indentation, typically 4 spaces (preferred) or a tab. This indentation

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