3.

2 Paper 2 Core Human Geography

Candidates must study the following three topics.
Where appropriate, candidates should study examples and case studies drawn from low income
countries
(LICs), middle income countries (MICs) and high income countries (HICs). For further information
on the use of
examples and case studies see 2.6.
4. Population
4.1 Natural increase as a component of population change
Natural increase rate, birth rate and death rate, fertility rate, and infant mortality rate.
Factors (social, economic, environmental and political) affecting levels of fertility and mortality.
The interpretation of age/sex structure diagrams.
Population structure (age, gender, dependency, and dependency ratio).
4.2 Demographic transition
Changes in birth rate and death rate over time.
A critical appreciation of the demographic transition model, Stages 1–5.
Issues of youthful populations and ageing populations.
Links between population and development: changes in infant mortality rate and life expectancy
over
time.
4.3 Population–resource relationships
The concept of food security. Causes and consequences of food shortages.
The roles of technology and innovation in development of food production. The role of
constraints (e.g.
war, climatic hazards) in relation to sustaining population.
The concept of carrying capacity.
Candidates should be able to critically evaluate the concept of optimum population including
overpopulation and underpopulation.
please give me very detailed notes for everything for preparation for AS level geography 9696
exams
Here are very detailed notes for AS Level Geography 9696 Paper 2 Core Human Geography
topics on Population, covering the entire syllabus section 4 requested, with inclusions of LICs,
MICs, and HIC examples where appropriate:
Population - AS Level Geography 9696 Detailed Notes

Natural Increase as a Component of Population Change

Key terms and definitions:
Birth Rate: Number of live births per 1,000 people per year.
Death Rate: Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.
Natural Increase Rate (NIR): Birth rate minus death rate; reflects population growth rate
excluding migration.
Fertility Rate: Average number of children a woman is expected to have during her
lifetime.
Infant Mortality Rate: Number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live
births.
Factors affecting fertility and mortality:
Social: Education levels, cultural/relgious beliefs about family size, urbanization.
Economic: Income levels, employment types, cost of raising children.
Environmental: Access to clean water, disease prevalence, climate conditions.
Political: Government population policies, healthcare provision, conflict or stability.
Population structure and age/sex diagrams:
Diagram shows population divided by sex (male/female) and age cohorts.
Shapes vary: Pyramid (high birth/death rates), rectangular (low birth/death, stable
population), inverted pyramid (ageing population).
Concepts:
Dependency ratio: Ratio of dependents (age 0-14 and 65+) to working age
population (15-64).
Young populations have high dependency ratio due to many children.
Ageing populations have increasing older dependents.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

Background:
Model shows how birth and death rates change over time as countries develop.
It has 5 stages with typical birth/death rate patterns for each:
Stages:
1. Stage 1 (High Stationary): High birth and death rates, low population growth (e.g., pre-
industrial societies or LICs in crisis).
2. Stage 2 (Early Expanding): Death rates fall rapidly due to better healthcare; birth rates
remain high; rapid population growth (e.g., many LICs).
 3. Stage 3 (Late Expanding): Birth rates start to fall due to social changes; death rates
low; population growth slows (e.g., MICs like Brazil, India).
4. Stage 4 (Low Stationary): Both birth and death rates are low; population stabilizes
(e.g., many HICs like the UK, USA).
5. Stage 5 (Decline): Birth rate falls below death rate; population decline occurs; ageing
population (e.g., Japan, Germany).
Youthful and Ageing populations:
Youthful populations common in LICs due to high fertility; strain on services like
education and jobs.
Ageing populations typical in HICs with low fertility and high life expectancy; pose
economic challenges like pensions and healthcare.
Link to development:
Infant mortality and life expectancy improve as countries advance.
Reductions in infant mortality motivate families to have fewer children.
Life expectancy increases with better healthcare and living conditions.

Population-Resource Relationships
Food security:
Defined as all people having physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, nutritious
food.
Causes of food shortages: climate hazards (drought, floods), war/conflict, poor
infrastructure, economic barriers.
Consequences: malnutrition, famine, social unrest, economic decline.
Technology and innovation in food production:
Green Revolution technologies (high-yield seeds, fertilizers, irrigation).
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).
Sustainable agriculture and precision farming.
Role differs by country income level; LICs may lack access to technology.
Constraints in sustaining populations:
War disrupts food production and distribution.
Climatic hazards reduce crop yields.
Economic limitations restrict technology adoption.
Carrying capacity and optimum population:
Carrying Capacity: Maximum population size that an environment can sustain
indefinitely given resources.
Optimum Population: Ideal population size where resources are most efficiently used
to maximize welfare.
 Popular debate around overpopulation (resource depletion & environmental
degradation) versus underpopulation (underused resources, economic inefficiency).
Different countries face different challenges (e.g., India debates overpopulation;
Australia debates underpopulation).

These notes are aligned with the Cambridge AS Level Geography 9696 syllabus Paper 2 Core
Human Geography requirements under the Population topic, including LIC, MIC, and HIC
perspectives as requested. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
⁂

1. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Biology_(Kimball)/17:_Ecology/1
7.03:_The_Growth_of_Populations/17.3A:_The_Human_Population
2. https://senecalearning.com/en-GB/revision-notes/igcse/geography/cambridge-international/8-2-2-unev
en-development-patterns
3. https://www.prb.org/resources/human-population/
4. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zckv8p3
5. https://www.internetgeography.net/igcse-geography/population-and-settlement-igcse-geography/natur
al-population-change/
6. https://www.britannica.com/science/population-biology-and-anthropology/Natural-increase-and-popul
ation-growth
7. https://pastpapers.papacambridge.com/directories/CAIE/CAIE-pastpapers/upload/9696_w24_qp_21.pd
f
8. https://www.walthamstow-academy.org/Portals/0/adam/Policies/-
VgWsMAJ70OZAO_xvT3D7A/File/Geography Paper 2.pdf
9. https://www.scribd.com/document/900137585/As-A-Level-Geography-Syllabus-27-29
10. https://www.cienotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/9696_s18_qp_22.pdf