DIRECT APPROACH TO ‘A’ LEVEL

PHYSICS

PHYSICS PAPER ONE (P510/1)

REVISION NOTES, WORKED EXAMPLES
AND SELF TEST EXERCISES.

HEAT AND MODERN PHYSICS

BY

SSENYANGE HERBERT KISUULE

Edited by
Ssekanjakko Baker H.O.D Sc B.S.K

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Dedication
I dedicate this book to my father Mr. Kisuule Edward Kazibwe for endeavoring to
educate me.
Once more, I dedicate this piece of work to my beloved A’ level students offering
Physics who are going to find this book useful.

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Acknowledgment
I am grateful to whoever has sacrificed his /her precious time to make the
completion of this book a success.

I am particularly so thankful to Mr. Ssekanjakko Baker Head of science department

and head of physics department Blessed sacrament s.s Kimaanya Masaka for the
guidance and time dedicated to edit this piece of work.

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Preface
This book is for physics P510/1 containing heat and modern physics; it is intended
to simplify the revision of physics paper 1 at advanced level.

It has been noted that many students do not perform well in this paper partly
because the syllabus is not completed in time, so this book comprises of simple
revision notes, worked examples and self test exercises which will help the learner
to revise by himself even before the teacher comes to class.

The book has been designed in such a way that it discuses most of the topics in
section B of and section C of physics P510/1 according to the current syllabus.

The book has been designed in a simple language that can be easily understood by
learners of all backgrounds.
Finally, I wish all my students success in this paper.

SSENYANGE HERBERT KISUULE

Bsc (hons) educ. KYU2008

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Table of Contents
Dedication......................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgment............................................................................................................................3
Preface............................................................................................................................................4
THERMOMETRY..............................................................................................................................9
1.1 Temperature.......................................................................................................................9
1.13 Thermometric property......................................................................................................9
1.16 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale.................................................................................10
1.18 Celsius scale of temperature.............................................................................................10
1.20 Types of thermometers....................................................................................................10
CALORIMETRY...............................................................................................................................23
2.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity.........................................................................23
2.2 Significance of heat capacity.............................................................................................23
2.3 Measurement of specific heat capacity............................................................................24
2.4 How heat losses are minimized in calorimetry.................................................................30
2.5 Cooling correction.............................................................................................................31
2.52 Estimation of cooling correction.......................................................................................31
2.6 Newton’s Law of Cooling..................................................................................................32
2.62 Rate of temperature fall...................................................................................................32
2.7 Latent Heat.......................................................................................................................33
2.72 Specific latent heat of vaporization..................................................................................34
2.73 experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid.........................34
2.74 Experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid by method of
mixtures........................................................................................................................................35
2.75 Specific latent heat of fusion............................................................................................36
2.76 Experiment to determine of specific latent heat of fusion of ice by electrical method....36
2.77 Determination of specific latent heat of fusion by method of mixtures...........................37
2.8 Explanations using kinetic theory.....................................................................................38
GAS LAWS.....................................................................................................................................40
3.1 Boyle’s law........................................................................................................................40
3.12 Experiment to verify Boyles’ law.......................................................................................40
3.2 Charles’ law.......................................................................................................................41
3.23 Experiment to verify Charles’ law.....................................................................................42
3.3 Pressure law......................................................................................................................43
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3.32 Experiment to verify pressure law....................................................................................44
3.4 Real and ideal gases..........................................................................................................45
3.41 Equation of state for an ideal gas.....................................................................................45
3.43 General gas ideal equation...............................................................................................46
3.44 Avogadro’s Hypothesis.....................................................................................................46
3.5 Connected Gas Containers................................................................................................46
3.6 Dalton’s law of partial pressures (mixture of gases).........................................................48
3.7 Kinetic theory of gases......................................................................................................51
3.71 Assumptions of kinetic theory of gases.............................................................................51
2
3.72 Relationship between density, ρ, gas pressure, P and mean square speed C for a gas51
3.78 Deduction of equation of state for an ideal gas................................................................56
3.8 Vander Waal’s modifications of the ideal gas equation to suit a real gas.........................57
3.81 Modifications of the general ideal gas equation to suit real gases...................................57
THERMODYNAMICS......................................................................................................................62
4.1 Work done by an expanding gas.......................................................................................62
4.2 1st law of thermodynamics................................................................................................62
4.3 Thermodynamic process...................................................................................................64
VAPOURS......................................................................................................................................77
5.1 Evaporation.......................................................................................................................77
5.11 Kinetic theory of evaporation...........................................................................................77
5.2 Vapour Pressure...............................................................................................................77
5.21 Saturated and unsaturated vapour...................................................................................77
5.4 Experiment to show the variation of saturated vapour pressure with temperature and to
determine saturated vapour pressure at any temperature..........................................................83
5.72 Kinetic theory of boiling....................................................................................................84
5.73 Experiment to show that a liquid boils only when its saturated vapour pressure equals
external pressure..........................................................................................................................85
CONDUCTION...............................................................................................................................87
6.1 Mechanism of heat conduction in metals.........................................................................87
6.2 Mechanism of heat conduction in non metals for example glass.....................................87
6.5 Thermal Conductivity (Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity)............................................88
6.52 Temperature distribution along a conductor....................................................................88
5.53 Composite conductors......................................................................................................90

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5.7 The effect of thin layer of a bad conductor.......................................................................93
THERMAL RADIATION.................................................................................................................102
7.1 Properties of infrared radiation......................................................................................102
7.2 Detection of infrared radiations......................................................................................102
7.4 Black body radiation.......................................................................................................103
7.42 Approximating a black body...........................................................................................104
7.43 Black body radiator.........................................................................................................104
7.44 Energy distribution in the spectrum of a black body (intensity against wavelength for a
black body at three different temperatures)..............................................................................105
7.5 Laws of black body radiation..........................................................................................106
7.6 Hot object in an enclosure..............................................................................................109
7.61 Prevost’s theory of heat exchanges................................................................................109
7.7 The Solar constant (solar power)....................................................................................111
7.8 Estimation of the temperature of the earth...................................................................112
7.9 Greenhouse house effect and how it leads to global warming.......................................115
8.6 The Classical Wave Explanation.............................................................129
CATHODE RAYS...........................................................................................................................133
9.1 Production of cathode rays in a cathode ray tube (C.R.T)...............................................133
9.2 Properties of cathode rays..............................................................................................133
9.3 Motion of cathode rays (electrons) in an electric field...................................................134
9.4 Motion of electrons in a magnetic field..........................................................................139
9.41 Motion of an electron in crossed uniform electric & magnetic fields.............................139
9.43 The fine beam experiment to determine specific charge of an electron........................141
9.5 The cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)..............................................................................143
9.6 Millikan’s oil drop experiment........................................................................................145
9.7 Positive rays....................................................................................................................151
9.71 Properties of positive rays..............................................................................................152
9.72 The Bain Bridge mass spectrometer...............................................................................152
X – RAYS......................................................................................................................................155
10.1 Production of x-rays in an x-ray tube..............................................................................155
10.5 Properties of x-rays.........................................................................................................159
10.8 X-ray diffraction and Bragg’s law....................................................................................160
10.84 X – ray spectra in an x-ray tube...................................................................................163
ENERGY LEVELS...........................................................................................................................168
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11.1 Rutherford’s model of an atom......................................................................................170
11.11 Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment.....................................................170
11.12 Distance of closest approach of alpha particles and gold atom..................................170
11.2 Bohr model of hydrogen atom........................................................................................172
11.21 Postulates or assumptions of Bohr’s model of an atom..............................................172
11.22 Derivation of Radius of orbits.................................................................172
Radii of orbits...........................................................................................................172
11.23 Velocity of electron in a stationary orbit..............................................174
Substituting the expression for r in the equation....................................................174
11.24 The total energy (T.E) of the electron in stationary orbit.................175
11.31 Continuum, Emission, and Absorption Spectra...................................177
11.32 Origin of Continuum, Emission, and Absorption Spectra..................177
RADIOACTIVITY...........................................................................................................................179
11.41 Ionization Chamber.....................................................................................................181
11.43 The Geiger Muller Tube..............................................................................................182
11.45 Diffusion cloud chamber.............................................................................................184
11.46 The Wilson Cloud Chamber.........................................................................................185
11.5 The Decay Laws...............................................................................................................185
11.51 Radio Activity Decay Law............................................................................................185
11.6 Atomic Structure.............................................................................................................190
11.7 Binding Energy................................................................................................................191
11.71 Binding energy per nucleolus ( B)................................................................................192
Revision questions......................................................................................................................198

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 1
THERMOMETRY

1.0 Definition
Heat is a form of energy transferred when there is a temperature gradient. The S.I
unit is joules.

1.1 Temperature: this is a number on the chosen scale which expresses the
degree of hotness of a body. A scale of temperature is the one which can be used to
measure temperature.
1.11 Fixed points.
These are temperatures of reference that can accurately be reproduced in the
laboratory (they are temperatures at which particular physical events are expected
with certainty).

1.12 Examples of fixed points.

 Upper fixed point (100oc) - it is a temperature at which pure water co- exist
in equilibrium with its vapour at standard atmospheric pressure.

 Lower fixed point (0oc) - it is a temperature at which pure ice co- exist in
equilibrium with water at standard atmospheric pressure.

 Triple point of water (273.16K) - it is that unique temperature at which

pure ice, pure water and pure water vapour co- exist together in equilibrium.
1.13 Thermometric property.
This is a temperature measuring property whose value changes linearly and
continuously with a changing temperature and remains constant at a constant
temperature.

1.14 Examples of thermometric properties.

 Length of a liquid column.
 Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume.
 Volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure.
 Electrical resistance of a platinum wire.
 Electromotive force of a thermocouple.
 Wavelength of radiation.
1.15 Qualities of a good thermometric property.
 Should vary continuously and linearly with temperature.
 Should be sensitive to temperature change.
 Should change considerably for small change in temperature.
 Should vary over a wide range of temperature.
 Each value of property should respond to one value of temperature.
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  Should be accurately measurable over wide range of temperature with fairly
simple apparatus.
1.16 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale.
On this scale, temperature is denoted by T and is measured in Kelvin (K). The
thermodynamic scale of temperature is defined as:

PT
T= ×273 . 16 K
P tr
Where PT = value of temperature measuring property at un known temperature T
P tr = value of temperature measuring property at the triple point of water.

1.17 The steps involved in setting up a thermodynamic temperature scale.

 Choose a temperature measuring property, P.
 Obtain the value of P at un known temperature T, PT.
 Obtain the value of P at triple point of water, P tr.
 Then obtain the un known temperature T from

PT
T= ×273 . 16 K
P tr

1.18 Celsius scale of temperature

On this scale, temperature is measured in o C. The temperature ϴ is defined on a

Celsius scale as:

P θ−P o
θ= ×100o C
P100 −Po Where Pϴ = value at unknown temperature.
Po = value of property at ice point.
P100 = value of property at steam point
1.19 Steps involved in establishing a Celsius temperature scale.
 Choose a temperature measuring property P.
 Obtain the value of the property at un known temperature Pϴ
 Then obtain the value of the property at ice point Po
 Obtain the value of the property at steam point P100
 Then determine the unknown temperature ϴ from:

P θ−P o
θ= ×100o C
P100 −Po

1.20 Types of thermometers

The types of thermometers include:-
 Liquid in glass thermometers.
 Constant volume gas thermometers.
 Resistance thermometers (electrical thermometer).
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  Thermo couple thermometers.
 Pyrometers

1.21 Liquid in glass thermometers.

These use mercury or alcohol as thermometric substances.

The thermometric property used is length of mercury stem.
On a liquid in glass thermometer Celsius temperature is defined as
lθ −l o
θ= ×100 o C
l 100 −l o , where lϴ is the length of liquid stem when the thermometer is
in un known temperature,l100 is the length of liquid stem when the thermometer is
in steam, l0, is the length of the liquid stem when the thermometer is in ice.
On a liquid in glass thermometer thermodynamic temperature is defined as
l
T = T ×273 . 16 K
l tr
How to measure the temperature of a body on a Celsius scale using a liquid in
glass thermometer.
 The thermometer is placed on the body whose temperature is to be
determined; the length lϴ of liquid stem is measured and recorded.
 Thermometer is transferred into water boiling at 100 oC, the length l100 liquid
stem is measured and recorded.
 The thermometer is placed in ice at 0 oC, the length l0 of the liquid stem is
measured and recorded. The temperature of the body ϴ is determined from;
lθ −l o
θ= ×100 o C
l 100 −l o
How to measure the temperature of a body on a thermodynamic scale using a
liquid in glass thermometer.
 The length, ltr of liquid column is measured at the triple point of water.
 The length ,lT of liquid column is measured at unknown temperature.
l
T = T ×273 . 16 K
 The temperature of the body T is determined from; l tr
Advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric liquid
 Mercury is opaque and easy to be seen whereas alcohol is colorless.
 Mercury has a high boiling point this makes it measure high temperatures
whereas alcohol has low boiling point and cannot measure high temperature.
 Mercury is a good conductor of heat hence it can easily respond to
temperature changes.
Advantages of alcohol over mercury.
 Alcohol expands so much for small temperature changes whereas mercury
has a low expansivity.
 It can measure very low temperature since it has a low freezing point.

Disadvantage of liquid in glass thermometers (sources of errors)

 Non – uniformity of the bore of the capillary tube

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  Gradual change in the due to bulb shrinking for a number of years after
manufacturing.
 Mercury in the stem not being at the same temperature as that in the bulb.

1.22 Constant volume gas thermometer.

It uses a thermometric property of pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant
volume. It works on the principle that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature provided its volume is kept constant.

Celsius temperature is defined on a constant volume gas thermometer as

P θ−P o
θ= ×100o C
P100 −Po
Where Pϴ = pressure of a gas at unknown temperature
PO = Pressure at ice point
P100 = Pressure at steam point.

How to measure the temperature of a body on a Celsius scale using a constant

volume gas thermometer.

 Bulb is immersed in the media whose temperature is required.

 The apparatus is left for some minutes for the gas inside to acquire the
temperature of the media.
 The open limb is adjusted so that mercury in the closed limb is at the
reference mark the difference in mercury levels hϴ is measured and
recorded.

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  The procedure is repeated when the bulb is immersed in pure ice water
mixture and the corresponding height , h o of the mercury surface from the
reference level is measured.
 The procedure is repeated when the bulb is immersed in steam which is in
equilibrium with pure water boiling at a standard atmosphere pressure and
the corresponding height h100 of the mercury surface from the reference level
is also measured.
 The temperature ϴ of the media is calculated from:-
hθ −ho
θ= ×100 o C
h 100−h o

Measurement of temperature of a body on a thermodynamic scale using a

constant volume gas thermometer.

 The bulb of the thermometer is immersed into a mixture of water and pure
ice. The open limb is lowered or raised to bring the mercury in the closed
limb to the reference point. The difference in mercury levels, h tr is measured
and recorded.
 The bulb is then into an environment whose temperature is required and the
above procedure is repeated. The difference in mercury levels, hT is noted.
hT
T= ×273 .16 K
 The unknown temperature is determined from, htr .

 Thermodynamic temperature is defined on a constant volume gas

thermometer as;
PT
T= ×273 . 16 K
P tr
Where PT = pressure at unknown temperature
Ptr = pressure at triple point of water.
hT
T= ×273 .16 K
Or htr , where hT, is the difference in mercury levels at
unknown temperature, htr, is the difference in mercury levels when the
thermometer is in water at triple point.
Sources of errors
 The thermo expansion of the bulb.
 Air in the dead space is not at the same temperature being measure.
 Air is not an ideal gas.

Advantages of a constant volume gas thermometer.

 It is very accurate.
 Can be used to calibrate other thermometers.
 Has a wide range.

Disadvantages of a constant volume gas thermometer.

 Cannot measure temperature at a point.
 Doesn’t give direct readings
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  It is time wasting
 Cannot measure rapidly changing temperature.
NB. A constant volume gas thermometer is used to calibrate other thermometers
this is because the gas used behaves like an ideal gas, and therefore its pressure
varies linearly with temperature at constant volume, making it very accurate.

1.23 Resistance Thermometer.

It uses resistance of platinum wire as its thermometric property. It works on the
principle that the resistance of platinum wire varies with changes in temperature.

On a resistance thermometer Celsius temperature is defined as

R θ −Ro
θ= ×100o C
R100 −Ro

where Rθ is the resistance of platinum at un known temperature, Ro is the

resistance of platinum at ice point and R100 is the resistance of platinum at steam

point.

And thermodynamic temperature is defined on a resistance thermometer as

RT
T= ×273. 16 K
R tr

Where RT is the resistance of platinum at un known temperature, Rtr is the

resistance of platinum at triple point of water.

Resistance thermometer that uses a wheat stone bridge

R1

Copper wires G

R2
S
Dummy leads

Rθ
Platinum resistance wire Silica tube

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How it is used to measure temperature on a Celsius scale.
 The silica tube is immersed in a liquid whose temperature is required. The
rheostat S is adjusted up to when the galvanometer G shows no deflection.

R1 R2
=
 At balance; R θ +r S+r

 In practice R1 is made equal to R2 such that R θ = S where r = resistance of

copper leads and dummy leads.

 The resistance Ro of platinum wire is measured at the ice point, the

resistance R100 is also measured at steam point. The temperature θ of the
R θ −Ro
θ= ×100o C
liquid is calculated from: R100 −Ro

How it is used to measure temperature of a body on a thermodynamic scale.

 The silica tube is immersed in a liquid whose temperature is required.

 The rheostat S is adjusted up to when the galvanometer shows no deflection.

 The resistance Rtr of platinum wire at triple point of water is also measured
when silica tube placed in water at triple point.
 The temperature Q the liquid is calculated from:
RT
T= ×273. 16 K
R tr
The resistance thermometer that uses a meter bridge.

Platinum resistance wire

R

A 1 J 2 B

Silica tube

 A platinum resistance wire placed in a silica tube is connected across the left
hand gap of a meter bridge and a standard resistor of a known resistance R is
connected on the right hand gap.
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  The silica tube is then placed in an enclosure whose temperature is to be
determined.
 The sliding contact J is adjusted along the resistance wire AB until the
galvanometer shows no deflection, the balance lengths l 1 and l 2 are read and
recorded and then the resistance, R θ , at unknown temperature is obtained
from:-
l1
Rθ =R
l2

 The silica tube is then transferred into ice water mixture at 00C and the
resistance of platinum, Ro, at ice point is also determined.

 The silica tube is then transferred into water boiling at 100 0C and the
resistance of platinum, R100 ,at steam point is determined.

R θ −R0
θ= ×1000 C
 The unknown temperature ϴ is calculated from; R100 −R0
Advantages of platinum resistance thermometer.
 More accurate than any other thermo except gas thermometer.
 Have a wide range (-2000C – 11000C).
 Measure small steady temperature differences.
 It is less cumbersome.

Disadvantages of a Resistance Thermometer.

 It cannot measure rapidly changing temperature due to its appreciable heat
capacity.
 It cannot measure temperature at a point

1.24 Thermo Couple Thermometer.

It acts on the principle that if two different metals such as iron and constant are
joined and their junctions placed at different temperature a small electromotive
force in millivolts develops between the junctions.

The electromotive force generated is proportional to the temperature of junction.

How Celsius temperature is defined on a thermocouple.

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 Eθ
θ= ×100o C
E 100
Where E θ =electromotive force at unknown temperature
E 100 = electromotive force at steam point
How to measure the temperature of a body on a Celsius scale using a
thermocouple.
 The temperature measuring point is put in an enclosure whose temperature
us to be determined while the other junction is placed in ice, electromotive
force at unknown temperature E θ is read from the millivolt meter.

 The temperature measuring point is placed in water boiling at 1000C, E100 is

also
 Read from the millivolt meter.
 The unknown temperature is determined from
Eθ
θ= ×100o C
E 100

How the temperature of a body can be measured on a thermodynamic

temperature scale using a thermocouple.
 The temperature measuring point is put in an enclosure whose temperature
is to be determined, electromotive force ET at unknown temperature is read
from the millivolt meter.

 The temperature measuring point is placed in water at triple point; Etr is also
read from the millivolt meter.

 The unknown temperature is determined from:-

ET
T= ×273 .16 K
Etr
Uses of Thermocouple
Used in industries for measuring rapidly changing temperature and temperature at
a point.

Advantages of Thermocouple Thermometer.

 They can measure temperature at a point
 They can measure rapidly varying temperature
 They are robust and compact making them portable
 Have a wide range; this is achieved by using different metal combinations.

 Can give direct reading if connected to a galvanometer which has been

previously calibrated to read directly temperature.

Disadvantages of Thermocouple.

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The electromotive force does not vary linearly with temperature and this makes
them fairly accurate. There are always two values of temperature corresponding to
the same value of electromotive force.

N.B. Two thermometers may give different readings of temperature of the same body
this is because the thermometers use different thermometric properties which do not
keep in step with each other as temperature changes. They agree at fixed points.

Worked Examples

1.In a constant volume gas thermo, the following observations where recorded on a
day when the barometric reading was 760mmHg.

Readings in Reading in open limb

closed limb
Bulb in ice 126 112
Bulb in steam 126 390
Bulb at room 126 157
temperature

(a) What is the thermometric property of the thermometer?

(b) Calculate the room temperature.

Solution
(a) Pressure of a gas at constant volume
(b) h0 = 112 – 126 = 14mm
h100 = 390 – 126 = 264mm
hθ = 157 – 126 = 31mm

hθ −ho
θ= ×100 o C
using h 100−h o

θ= (31−−14
264−−14 )
×100 C 0

45
θ= ×100 0 C
278

θ = 16. 190C

2. The pressure recorded by constant volume gas thermometer at a Kelvin

temperature, T is 4.80x104 Nm-2. Calculate T if the pressure at triple point is
4.20 x104 Nm-2.

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 PT 4 . 80×104
T= ×273 . 16 K T= ×273 .16 K
P tr ⇒ 4 . 20×104 ⇒ T=312.18K

3.The resistance of a pure metal is 50Ω at the triple point and 75Ω at the
temperature of water bath. Determine the temperature of the water bath.

RT
T= ×273. 16 K
R tr
75
T = ×273 .16 K
50

T=409.74K
4.explain the extent to which thermometers based on different properties but
calibrated using the same fixed points are likely to agree when used to measure
temperature.
(i)near one of the fixed points.
(ii)mid way between the fixed points.
Solution
(i)they may agree because for points near the fixed points the values of the
thermometric properties vary almost in step for points close to the fixed points.
(ii)for a temperature mid way between the fixed points they may not agree because
for large deviations from the fixed points the different thermometric properties do
not change in step.
4.The resistance, Rθ of a platinum resistance wire at a temperature θ0c measured on
a gas scale is given by
Rθ =R0 ( 1+aθ+ bθ2 )
Given that
a = 3.8 x 10 -3
b = -5.6 x 10-7.
What temperature will the platinum thermometer indicate when the temperature
on the gas scale is 2000C.

( )
Rθ −R 0
θ= ×100o C
R100 −R 0

Ro = Ro (1+a x o + b x o2) = Ro
R100 = Ro (1+ 3.8 x 10-3 x 100 + -5.6 x 10-7 x 1002)

= 1.3744Ro
R200 = Ro (1+200 x 3.8 x 10-3 + -5.6 x 10-7 x 2002)
= 1.7376Ro

( )
R200 −R0
θ= ×100o C
R100 −R 0

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 ( )
1 .7376 R0 −R 0
θ= ×100o C
1. 3744 R 0−R 0
θ = 1970C
5.the resistance , Rθ of platinum varies with the temperature θoC as measured by the
constant – volume gas thermometer according to the equation
−4 2
Rθ=50.0+0.17 θ+3.0 ×10 θ .
(i)calculate the temperature on the platinum scale corresponding to 60oC on the gas
scale.
(ii)account for the difference between two values and state the temperatures at
which they agree.
−4 2
RO =50.0+0.17 θ+3.0 × 10 θ ,R0=50Ω
Rθ=R60=50.0+0.17×60+30.0×10-4×602=61.28Ω

R100=50.0+0.17×100+30.0×10-4×1002=70.0Ω

( )
Rθ −R 0
θ=
R100 −R 0 (
70 . 0−50 . 0 )
×100o C θ= 61 . 28−50 . 0 ×100 o C

from

θ=56.4oC

1.25 Pyrometers
These are used to measure temperature the inaccessible furnace and distant object
for example the sun and stars. There are two types namely;
 Total radiation pyrometer.
 Optical pyrometer.
Total radiation pyrometer
This responds to both light and heat from the hot body.

B A C

S m1 E
D
Furnace m

The total radiation pyrometer consists of a blacked tube A opened at end B as shown
in the figure. At the end C it carries an eye piece E. D is a thermo couple attached to a
small blackened disc of copper which faces the end c of the tube and it is shielded
from direct radiations M is a gold plated mirror pierced at the center to allow light
reach the eye piece.

 The eye piece E is first focused upon disc D.

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  Using the rack and pinion P the mirror M is adjusted until the furnace s is
focused upon D.

 When the furnace is in focus, the plane mirror m and mI will appear as
shown in (ii) and when not in focus they look as in (i).

 Radiation from the source S heats the junction and sets up an electromotive
force.
 This deflects the galvanometer calibrated to read directly the temperature of
the source.
 If the source is a black body the calibration will give the correct temperature
of the source.
 If the source is not a black body the temperature will below and a correction
has to be made.

Optical Pyrometer.
This responds only to the light from the object. It is also known as disappearing
filament pyrometer. O E

G
s F

A R

 The eye piece E is focused upon the filament F, the hot body whose
temperature is required is then focused by the lens O so that it lies in the
plane of F.
 The light from both the filament and the hot body passes through a red filter
before reaching the eye.
 If the body is brighter than the lamp appears dark on a bright background. If
the lamp is brighter than the body the filament appears bright on a dark
background. The brightness of the lamp is adjusted using the rheostat R until
the light from the lamp and hot body merge.
 At this instant the lamp filament is at the same temperature as the hot body.
 The temperature of the body is read from the ammeter which is calibrated to
read degrees Celsius directly.

 For very high temperature a green filter is used instead of a red one.
 If the hot body is not a black body it radiates less compared to a black body
and thus a correction must be made to the observed temperature.

Revision Questions 1.
Page | 21
1 (a) (i) State the desirable properties a material must have to be used
as a thermometric substance.

(ii) Explain why scales of temperature based on different

thermometric properties may not agree.

(b) (i) Draw a labeled diagram to show the structure of a simple

constant volume gas thermometer.

(ii) Describe how a simple constant volume gas thermometer can

be used to establish a Celsius scale of temperature.

(iii) State the advantage and disadvantages of mercury in glass

thermometer and a constant volume gas thermometer.

(c) The resistance of the element of a platinum resistance thermometer is

4.00Ω at the ice point and 5.46 Ω at the steam point. What
temperature on the platinum resistance scale would correspond to a
resistance of 9.84 Ω.
2. (a) what is meant by the:
(i) Thermometric property.
(ii) Triple point of water?
(b) (i) describe the steps taken to establish a temperature scale.
(ii) Explain why two thermometers may give different values for
the same unknown temperature.
(c) (i) describe with the aid of a diagram, how a constant volume
gas thermometer may be used to measure temperature.
(ii) State and explain three corrections that need to be made when
using a constant volume gas thermometer.
(iii) State and explain the sources of inaccuracies in using mercury
in glass thermometer.
3. (a) (i) define a thermometric property and give two examples.
(ii) With reference to a constant volume gas thermometer, define
temperature on a Celsius scale.
(iii) State two advantages and two disadvantages of the constant
volume gas thermometer.
(iv) a thermometer is constructed with a liquid that expands
according to the relation V θ=V 0 (1+aθ+ bθ 2) where Vo is the
volume at 0oC, V θ is the volume at θ o C on the scale of a gas
a
b=
thermometer and a and b are constants. If 1000 . What will
the liquid thermometer read when the gas thermometer reads
50oC?
(b) Describe how you would measure the temperature of a body on the
thermodynamic scale using a resistance thermometer.

4. (a) Outline the steps necessary in setting up a Celsius scale of

temperature.
Page | 22
 (b) The resistance of platinum wire at the triple point of water is 5.16 Ω.
What will its R be at 1000C?
(c) Describe with aid of a labeled diagram how to measure high
temperature using an optical pyrometer.
5. (a) How is thermodynamic scale of temperature defined on a
thermocouple?
(b) With aid of a labeled diagram, describe how the temperature of a
furnace may be measured.
(c) The Resistance of a platinum thermometer is 5.7, 5.5 and 5.2 Ω at
boiling point of water, unknown temperature and freezing point of
water respectively. Determine unknown temperature.
(d) (i) With reference to an electrical thermometer, describe the
steps involved in setting up a Kelvin scale temperature.
(ii) State two advantage of a thermocouple over an electric
thermometer.
2
CALORIMETRY

2.0 Introduction
This deals with measurement of the quantity of heat. It is concerned with heat
capacities and latent heat capacities.

2.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity.

This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 1 0C 1K.
The SI units are JK-1. Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1Kg mass of a substance by 10C or 1K. SI units are JKg-1K-1.
Heat capacity is denoted by C and specific heat capacity is denoted by c.
heat capacity
specific heat capacity=
mass
C
c=
m

C=mc

To raise the temperature of mass m Kg of a substance by ∆ θ, the quantity of heat

required is given by Q=mc ∆ θ .

2.2 Significance of heat capacity.

Substances with low heat capacities take little time and a small quantity of heat to
get heated and when heated they lose their heat quickly whereas those with high
heat capacities take long to get heated but once heated they take long to lose their
heat.

2.21 Land breeze and Sea breeze.

Page | 23
At night air flows from land towards sea because land cools faster than sea due to its
smaller heat capacity. Hot less dense air above sea rises and is replaced by cool
denser air from land.
During day air plows from sea towards land because land heats faster and air above
it which is warmer rises and is replaced by cooler dense air from sea.
2.22 Why water is used in car radiator than any other liquid.
It has a very high heat capacity hence a small amount of water can absorb a lot of
heat energy. Other liquids have low specific heat capacity therefore large amounts of
liquids are required to carry away the heat.

2.3 Measurement of specific heat capacity

2.31 Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid by

electrical method

 Weigh the calorimeter of known specific heat capacity c c and determine its
mass, mc.
 Pour the liquid whose specific heat capacity c L is to be determined, weigh the
calorimeter and the liquid, and determine the mass of the liquid m L.

 Read and record the initial temperature, θ1 of the calorimeter and liquid from
the thermometer.
 Pass a steady current through the heater by closing the switch, S a measured
time t seconds.
Page | 24
  While stirring, record the voltmeter reading V and ammeter reading, I record
the new temperature attained θ2.
 Determine the specific heat capacity of the liquid from:-

IVt−mC CC ( θ 2−θ 1 )
c L=
m L ( θ2 −θ1 )

Theory of the experiment

Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings, heat supplied by heater = heat
absorbed by calorimeter + liquid.
IVt−mC c C ( θ2 −θ1 )
c L=
IVt=mc CC ( θ2 −θ ) +mL C L ( θ 2−θ1 ) ⇒ m L ( θ2 −θ1 )

2.32 Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid by

electrical method.

 Two holes are drilled in a metal block one for the thermometer and the other
for the heater, the metal block is weighed to determine its mass m s. For good
thermal contact the holes are filled with mercury; its initial temperature θ1 is
recorded.

 A suitable steady current is passed through the electrical heater by closing

the switch, S as the stop clock is started immediately. The voltmeter reading,
V and ammeter reading, I are then recorded.

 When the temperature of the metal block has risen by about 10kelvin the
current is stopped, the time t is noted the highest reading, θ1 on the
thermometer is noted.
 The specific heat capacity of metal block is determined from:-

Page | 25
 IVt
C=
M ( θ 2−θ 1 )

2.33 Continuous Flow Method for Measuring the Specific Heat Capacity of a
Liquid e.g. water

 The liquid whose specific heat capacity is required is continuously passed

through the apparatus at a constant rate.
 The switch is closed and the liquid is heated by heater, R until steady states
are reached.
 At that moment heat is taken in to heat the apparatus and therefore all the
heat supplied raises the temperature of the liquid.

 Read and record the inflow temperature ϴ1 and the outflow temperature ϴ2
from the resistance thermometers T1 and T2 respectively the mass flow rate
m1 is obtained.
 The voltmeter reading V1 and ammeter reading I1 are recorded.
⇒ I1V1= m1 (ϴ2 - ϴ1) + h……………………………………… (1)

 Where h is the heat loss to the surroundings per second.

Page | 26
  The experiment is repeated for a different flow rate m2 and the rheostat P is
adjusted for new values I2 and V2 to give the same values of ϴ1and ϴ2 as
before.
⇒ I2V2= m2 (ϴ2 - ϴ1) + h……………………………………… (2)

 From (1) and (2), the specific heat capacity of the liquid is calculated from,
( I 2 V 2 −I 1 V 1 )
C L=
( M 2−M 1 ) ( θ2 −θ1 )

Advantages of continuous flow method.

 Heat capacity of the apparatus is not required.
 Heat losses are counted for quantitatively by repeating the experiment.
 Temperature can be read at leisure when steady.
 No cooling correction is required.

Disadvantages of continuous flow method.

 It requires large amounts of the liquid.
 Time taken to attain steady state is long.
 It cannot be used to determine the specific heat capacity of solid substances.

Worked examples.
1.The rate of flow of a liquid through a continuous flow calorimeter is
15 x 10-3Kgs-1. If the electric heating element dissipates 200W, a steady different in
temperature of 30C being maintained to maintain the same temperature different;
80W is necessary when the inflow is reduced to 5.0x10 -1kgs-1 assuming the
temperature of the surrounding to be same in the two cases calculate:-
(i) Specific heat capacity of the liquid (Answer 4000Jkg-1K-1)
(ii) Rate of heat loss to be surrounding (20Js-1)
Solution
(i) m1 = 15 x 10-3Kgs-1 = 0.015Kgs-1
I1v1 = 200W
I2v2 = 80W
m2 = 5 x 10-3= 0.005Kgs-1
∆θ = 30C

I 1 V 1=m1 c l ( θ 2−θ1 ) +h … … … … … … … … … … ..(1)

I 2 V 2=m2 c l ( θ2−θ1 ) + h … … … … … … … … … … ..(2)

V 2−¿ I 80−200
Using ,c l=I 2
1 V1
¿ ⇒ c l= ⇒ c l= +120
( m2 −m1) ( θ 2−θ1 ) ( 0.005−0.015 ) ( 3 ) +0.03

Cl = 4,000Jkg -1k-1

(ii) Substituting in:-

Page | 27
 I 1 V 1=m1 Cl ( θ2−θ 1 ) +h
200=0.015 ×3+h
200 = 180 + H
H = 200 -180
h = 20JS-1

2.When water flows at rate of 0.1500kgmin-1 through a tube and the heater
dissipating 25.2W maintaining the in-flow temperature at 15.2 0C and out-flow
temperature 17.40C. When the rate of flow is increased to 0.2318Kgmin -1 and the
rate of heating 37.8W the inflow and outflow temperature are unaltered. Find
(i) Specific heat capacity if water.
(ii) Rate of heat loss from the tube.
(i) I1VI = 25.2w
m1 = 0.1500Kgmin-1 =0.0025Kgs-1
θ = (17.4 – 15.2)=2.2oC
M2 = 0.2318kgmin-1 =0.003863333Kgs-1
I2v2 = 37.8W
( I 2 V 2 −I 1 V 1 )
C w=
( M 2−M 1 ) ( θ2 −θ1 )
(37. 8−25 .2 )
C w=
(0 . 003863333−0 . 0025 ) ( 2 .2 )

CW = 4200Jkg-1k-1

(ii)Substituting in
I2V2 = m2 CL (θ2 – θ1) + h
37.8 = 0.003863333 x 4200 (2.2) + h
37.8 = 35. 6972+h
h = 37.8 – 35.6972
h= 2.1Js-1

Revision questions 2.
1 (a) Define specific heat capacity.
(b) The continuous flow method is used in the determination of specific
heat capacity of liquids.
(i) What are the principle advantages of continuous flow method?
(ii) In such a method, 50g of water is collected in min. The
voltmeter and ammeter readings are 12V and 2.5A respectively
while the out flow and in flow temperatures are 20oc and 28oc
respectively. When the flow rate is reduced 2 25gm -1 the
voltmeter and ammeter readings are 8.8V and 1.85A
respectively while the temperature remains constant. Calculate
the specific heat capacity of water.

2 (a) How is heat capacity related to specific Heat Capacity.

(b) Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of
water by electrical method.
Page | 28
 (c) Calculate the quantity of heat absorbed by a body 0.5kg and specific
heat capacity 400JKJg-1K-1. If its temperature rises from 15oC to 20oC.
(d) Explain why water is used in a car radiator than any other liquid
using.
3 (a) Define specific heat capacity of a substance.
(b) Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a
liquid by a continuous flow method
(c) In the continuous flow experiment the liquid flows past an electric
heating coil and at a steady state the inlet and outlet temperature are
10.4oC and 13.5oC respectively. When the rate of flow of the liquid is
3.2 x 10-3 Kgs-1 the power supplied to the coil is 27.4W. The rate of
flow is then changed to 2.2 x10 -3 kgs-1 and in order to maintain the
same in let and outlet temperature the power supplied is adjusted to
19.3W
(i) Explain why two sets of data are obtained.
(ii) Why temperature are made the same in both sets of data
(iii) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid
(iv) Calculate the rate of heat loss to the surrounding
(v) State the limitations of the above experiment

4 (a) Explain in terms of heat capacity the occurrence of land and sea
breeze
(b) (i) Describe how specific heat capacity of cooking oil can be
determined using continuous flow method.
(ii) A student used a continuous flow to determine S.H.C. of oil
using water which enters at 18oC and leaves at 22oc, the rate of
flow 20gmin-1, the current in the heat oil is 2.3A and potential
difference across it is 3.3V. Using oil which flows in and out at
the same temperature as water the rate of flow is 70gmin-1 the
current is 2.7A and potential difference is 3.9V taking specific
heat capacity of water to be 4200Jkg-1K-1. Calculate the rate of
heat lost to the surrounding and the Specific heat capacity of
oil.
(c) A continuous flow calorimeter being used for measuring the specific
heat capacity of the liquid, a potential difference of 4.0V was applied
to the heating coil rate of flow was now doubled and by adjusting the
applied potential difference the same in let and outlet temperature
were obtained. Assuming heat losses to be negligible, calculate the
new value of applied potential difference.
5 (a) Define specific heat capacity of a substance.
(b) Describe the continuous flow method of determining specific heat
capacity of water.
(c) In a continuous flow calorimeter with liquid flowing through a rate of
0.30Kgmin-1, a potential difference of 100V across the heating wire
and current of 0.75A, there is a steady temperature difference of 3k
between the inflow and outflow temperature, the same steady
temperature rise is obtained when the rate of flow is reduced to
0.10Kgmin-1 and current to 0.50A. Calculate:-
Page | 29
 (i) Specific heat capacity of the liquid
` (ii) Power loss to the surroundings

2.34 Method of Mixtures for Determining Specific Heat Capacity of a solid.

 Pour water of mass Mw and specific heat capacity, C w into a well tagged
calorimeter of mass, M c and specific heat capacity, Cc. record the
thermometer reading ϴ1
 Weigh the solid whose specific heat capacity is to be determined and
determine its mass Ms. Heat the solid to a temperature ϴ3 greater than ϴ1.
 Quickly deep the solid into the calorimeter.
 Stir until a steady temperature is reached. Record the steady temperature of
the mixture ϴ2.
 Determine the S.H.C of the solid from:

( M C C C + M W C W )( θ2 −θ1 )
C s=
M S ( θ3 −θ 2 )

Theory of the experiment

Assuming there are no heat losses to the surroundings.
Heat lost by solid = heat gained by the calorimeter + water.

M s C s (θ3 –θ2) = M c C c (θ2 –θ1) + M w C w (θ2 –θ1)

( M C C C + M W C W )( θ2 −θ1 )
C s=
M S ( θ3 −θ 2 )

2.35 Method of Mixtures for Determining Specific Heat Capacity of a Liquid.

 Weigh a calorimeter of specific heat capacity, Cc to determine its mass.
 Pour a liquid whose specific heat capacity is to be determined into the
calorimeter.
 Weigh the calorimeter plus the liquid, determine the mass of the liquid M l
read and record the reading of the thermometer ϴ1.
 Heat a solid of mass Ms and known specific heat capacity Cs to a temperature
ϴ3. Dip the solid into the calorimeter stir until the mixture reaches a steady
temperature. Read and record the steady temperature from the thermometer
ϴ2.
 Determine the specific heat capacity of the liquid from:
M S C S ( θ3 −θ2 ) −M C C C ( θ2 −θ1 )
CL=
M L ( θ2 −θ1 )

Theory of the experiment

Assuming no heat losses to the surroundings.
Heat supplied by solid = heat absorbed by the calorimeter and liquid
MSCS (ϴ3 –ϴ2) = MCCC (ϴ2 –ϴ1) + MLCL (ϴ2 –ϴ1)

Page | 30
 M S C S ( θ3 −θ2 ) −M C C C ( θ2 −θ1 )
CL=
M L ( θ2 −θ1 )
Sources of errors.
 Heat loss by conduction and convection
 Heat absorbed by insulating material
 Heat loss during the transfer of the solid
 Inaccurate reading of the temperature.

2.4 How heat losses are minimized in calorimetry.

 Lagging using insulating material to reduce conduction heat loss.
 Surrounding the calorimeter with a vacuum.
 Using highly polished surfaces.
 Supporting the calorimeter with an insulating stand.
 Surrounding the apparatus with a layer of still layer.

2.5 Cooling correction.

Because of heat losses to the surrounding the observed final temperature ϴ2 of the
mixture is less than what should have been if there were no heat losses. Therefore a
small temperature ∆ϴ is added to the experimentally observed maximum
temperature to compensate for heat loss.

2.51 Definition of cooling correction ∆ϴ.

This is the number of degrees added to the observed maximum temperature in
compensation to the heat lost to the surrounding during heating.
2.52 Estimation of cooling correction.
 Record the initial temperature ϴ1 of the calorimeter with its contents before
mixing.
 Record the temperature of half minute intervals after mixing.
 Plot a graph of temperature against time.

E
F

A1 A2

Time (minutes)

 Draw line AB parallel to time axis and passing through ϴ1.

 Draw vertical line CB through the maximum point C parallel to the
temperature axis.
Page | 31
 1
BD= AB
 Draw a line to ED through D such that that line 2 and are parallel.
 Mark points F and E on the line ED and find the value of FE =y.
 By method of counting squares, estimate the areas A1 and A2.
A1
Δθ= y
 Estimate the cooling correction from: A2

2.6 Newton’s Law of Cooling.

It states that the rate of cooling is proportional to the excess temperature over that
of the surrounding. This law is true under conditions of forced convection for
example drought.

2.61 Experiment to verify Newton’s law of cooling.

 Hot water is put in the calorimeter and placed in a drought.
 The room temperature ϴR is measured and recorded. The temperature of
water is recorded after every half minute interval.
 The cooling curve of the water is plotted.
temperature(oC)

ϴ1

B C

t1 Time (s)

 Tangents are drawn at various temperatures ϴ and their slopes obtained. A

graph of these slopes against excess temperature ϴ –ϴR is plotted.
 A straight line obtained shows that the rate of heat loss is proportional to
excess temperature.

2.62 Rate of temperature fall.

Temperature fall rate also depends on the surface area exposed and the nature of
the surface.
Considering Newton’s law of cooling,
dθ
=KA ( θ−θ R ) ................................ ( 1 )
dt

Page | 32
Where A = surface area of body
K = constant depending on the nature of the surface.
ϴ – ϴR = excess temperature over that of the surroundings. As a body losses
heat, its temperature also falls if m is the body’s mass, c is it’s specific heat capacity,
then (since ∆ϴ = m C ∆ϴ)
dQ dθ
=−mC
dt dt
dθ dQ 1
=− .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. ( 2 )
dt dt mC

From (1), the rate of temperature fall is directly proportional to the surface area
exposed.
From (2); rate of temperature fall is inversely proportional to the volume of the
dθ A
⇒
body since mass, m is proportional to Volume, V dt is directly proportional to V
(surface area to volume (ratio).

N.B
 small body cools faster than a large one of the same material
Because;
A small body has a large surface area to volume ratio while for a larger body; it has
a small surface area to volume ratio. Therefore since rate of heat loss is proportional
dθ A
⇒
to surface area to volume ratio dt is directly proportional to V
Hence a small body cools faster than a larger one of the same material.

 a baby has to be wrapped on a cold day this is because;

A baby has a larger surface area to volume ratio and heat loss is proportional to
surface area to volume ratio therefore the baby losses heat faster and has to be well
wrapped on a cold day.

2.7 Latent Heat.

Latent heat is defined as the amount of heat required to change the state of a
substance at constant temperature.
From kinetic theory view, latent heat weakens the intermolecular forces of
attraction thereby increasing molecular separation.

2.71 Heating curve of water from a temperature say – 100C.

Temp (oC)
F

D E

B C Time (s) Page | 33

-10 A
When ice at -100C or below is heated its temperature increases up to freezing point
(00C) that is along AB.

At this temperature any added heat gets into increasing the amplitude of vibration
of atoms which become so large that the regular arrangement of the atoms collapse
until this process is complete the temperature remains constant. The heat required
to do this is specific latent heat of fusion i. e along BC

As heat is added further all the ice melts into liquid and temperature

At this temperature; any additional heat goes into increasing amplitude of vibration
of liquid molecules which become so large that the regular arrangement collapses
until this process is complete temperature remains constant (1000C).

The heat required to do this is specific latent heat of vaporization along DE Beyond
this water changes to vapour sate.

2.72 Specific latent heat of vaporization

Specific latent heat of vaporization the amount of heat required to change a 1kg
mass of a substance from liquid state to vapour state at constant

Specific latent heat weakens the molecular attraction and helps vapour to expand
against atmospheric pressure.

2.73 Experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization

of a liquid by electrical method

Page | 34
  The switch is closed and the liquid is heated to boiling point.
 Current I1 and voltage V1 are noted from ammeter and voltmeter
respectively.
m1
I 1 V 1= L +h
 Mass of liquid m1 condensed in time t is determined, then t V ,
where h = rate of loss of heat to surrounding.
 To eliminate h the experiment is repeated for different values of I 2 and V2,
m2
I 2 V 2= LV +h
mass of liquid condensed m2 in time is determined then t .
 The specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid is determined from
( I 2 V 2 −I 1 V 1 )
LV = t
( m2 −m1 )
2.74 Experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization
of a liquid by method of mixtures.
Steam trap

Thermometer

Flask Stirrer
Lagged calorimeter

Water
Liquid
Page | 35

Heat shield
Heat
  The initial temperature of water and calorimeter is taken, mass of water M 1
in calorimeter is determined.

 The liquid in the flask is heated to its boiling point of θ3 ,steam is passed into
calorimeter with water until there is a measurable change in temperature.

 The temperature θ2 of the water in the calorimeter is recorded.

 The mass m of condensed steam is found by weighing.
Heat lost by condensing steam + heat lost by condensed liquid = Heat gained by
water + calorimeter.
mL V +mc L ( θ3 −θ2 )=m w c w ( θ2 −θ1 ) +C ( θ 2−θ 1 )
( mw c w + C )( θ 2 −θ1 ) −mc L ( θ3 −θ2 )
LV =
m
Where C = SHC of calorimeter
cw = specific heat capacity of water.
cL = specific heat capacity of the liquid
mw = mass of water in calorimeter

2.75 Specific latent heat of fusion

This is the amount of heat required to change a 1kg mass of a substance from solid
to liquid state at constant temperature. Latent heat of fusion weakens the molecular
attraction hence increasing the molecular separation of solid molecules.

2.76 Experiment to determine of specific latent heat of fusion of

ice by electrical method.

Dry ice
Heater
Filter funnel

Page | 36
 Lumps of dry ice are placed in a filter funnel.
 A steady current is passed through the heater and ice starts to melt.
 The value of I and V are noted from ammeter and voltmeter respectively,
determine the mass of molten ice per second m.
 The procedure is repeated for different values of I and V tabulate your results
including values of IV.

 Plot a graph of IV against m.

S=lf

mo
-h

mo = mass per second that would be melted if the heater was off.
h = power absorbed from surrounding
Determine the slope S of the graph.
Theory of experiment
Heat supplied by heater = Heat absorbed by ice to melt +Heat absorbed from
surrounding

IVt+ h=m l f
But IV =power , p
pt=ml f −h
m h
p= l f −
t t
m h
Let =M , =H
t t
p=M l f −H

Page | 37
2.77 Determination of specific latent heat of fusion by method of
mixtures.
 Determine the mass M c of empty calorimeter of known specific heat capacity
Cc by weighing.
 Pour water of known specific heat capacity c w into the calorimeter weight
the colorimeter plus water.
 Determine mass of water Mw.
 Warm the water in the calorimeter to a temperature θ 1 above room
temperature.

 Add lumps of ice dried by blotting paper into the calorimeter one at ago
while stirring.

 When all the ice has melted, record the steady temperature of mixture θ2.
 Weigh the mixture, determine the mass mi; of ice melt.

M w C w (θ ¿ ¿ 1−θ 2)+ M c C c ( θ 1−θ2 )=M i l f + M i Ci (θ 2−0)¿

 Heat lost by water and calorimeter = heat absorbed by ice + heat absorbed by
molten ice
 Determine specific latent heat of fusion of ice from;

(θ ¿ ¿ 1−θ2)+ M c Cc ( θ1−θ 2) −M i C i θ 2
l f =M w C w ¿
Mi
2.8 Explanations using kinetic theory.
2.81 Why temperature remains constant during change of phase.
Heat energy supplied goes into increasing the amplitude of oscillation/ vibration of
atoms which become so large that the regular arrangement of the atoms collapses,
until this process is complete the temperature remains constant.

2.82 The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is significantly different

from its specific latent heat of vaporization at the same pressure. Explain how
the different a rises.

During vaporization more energy is needed to break the intermolecular attraction

and form a gas and work is done against atmospheric pressure by the expanding
gas. During fusion energy is supplied to weaken the bonds in the solid and
accompanied by a small increase in volume. There is a negligible work done against
atmospheric pressure.

2.83 Explain why latent heat of vaporization is always greater than that of
fusion.

In vaporization, heat is required to break intermolecular attractions and for vapour

to expand against atmospheric pressure. Pressure while in fusion energy is needed
to weaken molecular attraction only.

Page | 38
2.84 Explain the significance of latent heat in regulation of body
temperature.

On a hot day, the body sweats, evaporation occurs at the surface of the body, the
temperature of the sweat falls. To maintain evaporation latent heat is constantly
drawn from the body.

2.85 Use kinetic theory of matter to explain why the specific latent heat of
vaporization of water is higher at 200C than it is at its boiling point.

At 200C the intermolecular force of attraction of water molecules are stronger while
at boiling point the molecules have a higher mean speed and they overcome the
forces attraction between themselves. Therefore the intermolecular forces of
attraction are weak.

2.86 Explain latent heat of vaporization using kinetic theory.

When a liquid is heated vaporization occurs the vapour occupies a much large
volume than the liquid.
Energy is required to separate the molecules against their natural attraction. Also an
extra energy is required to enable vapour expand against the atmospheric pressure.
The heat energy at constant temperature is the latent heat of vaporization.

Revision question
When electrical power is supplied at a rate of 12W to boiling liquid a mass of liquid
of 8.6 x 10-3Kg evaporates in 30mm on reducing the power to 7W,
5x10-3Kg of the liquid evaporates in the same time. Calculate:-
(i)Specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid. Ans:2500,000JKg-1K-1
(ii)Power loss to the surrounding.Ans:0.0575W

Page | 39
 3
GAS LAWS

3.0 Introduction
One of the most amazing things about gases is that despite wide difference in their
chemical properties all the gases more or less obey the gas laws.

The gas laws deal with how gases behave with respect to pressure, volume
temperature and amount when one is kept constant for a fixed mass of the gas.

3.1 Boyle’s law

It states that pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is inversely
proportional to the volume.
1 1
Pα ⇒ P=K
V V
PV =K =cons tan t

3.11 Kinetic theory of Boyle’s law.

Compressing a gas makes the volume smaller but doesn’t alter the average kinetic
energy of the molecules since temperature is constant.

Page | 40
Though the speed molecules remains constant the frequency of collision increase
because the container is smaller ⇒ greater force ⇒ bigger pressure or the walls
of the container.

Therefore P increases as V decreases

When the volume of container is increased, a few molecules collide with the walls of
the container thus a smaller force on the walls ⇒ smaller pressure thus an increase
in volume leads to a reduction in the pressure.

3.12 Experiment to verify Boyles’ law.

Trapped air

Mercury

Flexible rubber tubing

PV = constant (Boyle’s law)

 Measure and record the atmospheric pressure H using a barometer.
 Adjust the flexible tube by raising or lowering the open end.
 Measure and record the difference in mercury levels h and record the length l
of air column trapped in the closed limb.
 Obtain the air pressure P=H ±h .
 Repeat the procedure and obtain a series of values of P and l
1
 Tabulate your results including values of l .
 l is directly proportional to Volume, V.
1
 Plot a graph of P against l

 A straight line through the origin is obtained.

 The slope S =constant⇒ Pl = constant⇒ PV =K =cons tan t

Question The Volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is 150cm 3,

Where the P is 76cmHg. Calculate the volume when the Pressure is 36cmHg. Ans:V2
= 300cm3

3.2 Charles’ law

It states that volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant Pressure is directly
proportional to absolute temperature.
Page | 41
 V
VαT ⇒ V =KT ⇒ =cons tan t
T

V 1 V 2 at constant Pressure.
=
T1 T2
3.21 Kinetic theory of Charles’ law.
The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is proportional to temperature.

Since mass is constant, the average velocity of particles increase kinetic energy
(kinetic energy = ½ mu2).
At higher velocity, the particles exert greater force which increases pressure.

If the walls of the gas container are flexible they will expand to balance atmospheric
pressure outside to maintain the Pressure. The volume of the gas therefore becomes
larger as temperature of the gas increases.

3.22 Illustration of Charles’ law using kinetic theory.

Suppose you have a fixed mass of a gas in a container with a movable piston
(barrier).

Something like a gas syringe for example

The barrier piston can move without any sort of resistance.

The piston will settle so that pressure inside and outside is identical.

Now suppose you heat the gas, but not the air outside the gas molecules will be
moving faster and so will hit the piston more frequently and harder.

Meanwhile the air molecules on the outside are hitting it exactly as before. The
barrier piston will be force to the right and the volume of the gas will increase. That
will go on until the pressure inside and outside is the same. In other words the
pressure of the gas will be back to the same as the air again.

3.23 Experiment to verify Charles’ law

Thermometer

Steam in
Stirrer

Trapped air

Mercury

Bath
Page | 42
  Temperature of the bath is increased by passing steam through a tube from
above.
 After stirring the steady temperature, ϴ is noted.
 The levels of mercury are equalized by adding or removing some mercury.
The length l of the column is noted.
 The procedure is repeated for different values of temperature, ϴ
 A graph of l against ϴ is plotted and a linear graph indicates that l is directly
proportional to ϴ
⇒ V is directly proportional to ϴ hence Charles’ law.

3.24 Theory of the experiment.

When a graph of V against ϴ is plotted

V (m3)

-273o C ϴ (o C)

When the graph is produced back wards. It meets the temperature axis at -273 0C.
This temperature is called the absolute zero

Absolute zero is the temperature at which the volume of the gas is theoretically
zero. It is -2730C or OK.

3.25 When is OK attained?

0 K is attained when molecules of a substance slow down and attain their minimum
possible energy.

Page | 43
3.26 Why the volume against temperature graph is theoretical at low
temperatures.
As the gas is cooled molecular speeds reduce hence their kinetic energy reduces too.
A point is reached when kinetic energy of molecules becomes zero; molecules come
to rest at -2730C or OK. A gas liquefies before reaching OK therefore the volume of
the gas doesn’t actually go in zero as it appears in the graph therefore the graph is
theoretical at low temperatures.

3.27 What happens to an ideal gas compressed at constant pressure from

room temperature to 0 Kelvin?

As the gas is cooled from room temperature, molecular speeds reduce hence their
kinetic energy reduces too. A point is reached when kinetic energy of molecules
becomes zero; molecules come to rest at -2730C or OK. The gas liquefies before
reaching OK.

3.3 Pressure law

It states that pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.

P
PαT ⇒ P=KT ⇒ =cons tan t
T
P1 P2
=
T1 T2

3.31 Kinetic theory of pressure law.

When the temperature of the gas increases, the molecules move faster, they collide
more frequently with the container walls. This implies greater pressure of the gas.
In addition, pressure increases as a result of higher force at each collision.

When temperature of the gas is reduced molecular speed is reduced. Collisions, with
walls of the container are minimal. Less force of impact on the walls therefore less
pressure.

3.32 Experiment to verify pressure law.

Stirrer
Thermometer

H-atmospheric pressure
h
D
Mercury
Page | 44
A
Rubber tubing
  Measure the atmospheric pressure H using a barometer.
 Heat the gas in bulb A by heating the water bath. Record temperature T
 Maintain the volume of the gas by maintaining the mercury levels at D.
 The difference in mercury levels in the limbs is noted.
 Determine the pressure P=H ±h
 The experiment is repeated for various values of temperature T and
corresponding pressure, P.
 Plot a graph of pressure against temperature.
 A straight line graph indicates that P is proportional to T.

3.33 Theory of the experiment.

When a graph of pressure verses temperature is plotted.

P (Nm-2)

-273o C Temperature (o C)

It is a straight line indicating a direct relationship between pressure and absolute

temperature.
It cuts the temperature axis -273oC or 0K; the absolute zero can also be defined as:
The temperature at which an ideal gas would exert no pressure.
Temperature at which the pressure of a truly ideal gas would vanish.

Page | 45
3.4 Real and ideal gases.
An ideal gas is one whose molecules occupy negligible space and have no
interactions and that obey gas laws exactly.
An ideal gas obeys gas laws perfectly at all temperatures and pressure.
Real gases are gases that do not obey the ideal gas equation at all temperatures.

3.41 Equation of state for an ideal gas.

The general gas equation is formed by combining the three laws, and shows the
relationship between pressure, volume and temperature for a fixed mass of a gas.
From PV =cons tan t (Boyles ' law )
P
=cons tan t(Pr essurelaw )
T
V PV
=cons tan t(Charles ' law )⇒ =cons tan t
T T

P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T 2 Equation of state

PV
=cons tant
From, T . Let the constant = R
PV =RT , R is called ideal gas constant.
At standard temperature and pressure, P= 760mmHg = 1.013 x 105 Pa
V = 22.4 litres =22.4 x 10-3m3.
T = 273K
1 . 013×105 ×22 . 4×10−3
R=
273

R=8.31JK-1mol-1.

For one mole of a gas R = 8.315JK-1mol-1.

3.42 Definition:
A mole is the quantity of a pure substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules.
OR
A mole is the amount of a pure substance that contains the same number of
molecules as they are in carbon – 12.
The gas constant depends on,
 Nature of the gas.
 Mass of the gas.

Page | 46
3.43 General gas ideal equation.
For n molecules of a gas
PV =nRT
If the mass of a gas is m and M the mass of 1 mole of the gas.

m
n=
Then M
mRT
PV =
⇒ M
m m RT RT
ρ= P= ⇒ P=ρ
If ρ, is the density of the gas, then, V V M M

3.44 Avogadro’s Hypothesis.

It states that equal volume of all gases at the same temperature and pressure
contains equal number of molecules.

3.5 Connected Gas Containers.

In a closed system of connected gas containers no matter what changes take place in
individual containers, the total number of moles in all containers remains constant.

Worked examples
1.initially cylinder M contains 3m3 of an ideal gas at a temperature of -23 oC and a
pressure of 5 x 104 Pa whilst N contains 7.20m3 of the same gas at 127oC and
2 x 104Pa. Find the pressure after the connecting tap has been opened and the
system has reached equilibrium, assuming that M is kept at -23oC and N at 127oC.
Solution
P1 = 5 x104pa, V = 3m3
T1 = -23 + 273 = 250K P2 = 2 x104, V = 7.2m3
T2= 127 + 273 = 400K

PV
n=
From, PV =nRT ⇒ RT

PM 1 V M
nM=
The number of moles in cylinder M are, RT M 1 and those in cylinder N are
PN 1 V N
nN=
RT N 1

total number of moles before oppening the tap=the total number of moles after oppening the tap
total number of moles before opening the tap=¿.When the gases mix they attain a
common pressure
total number of moles after oppening thetap=¿

Page | 47
Where P is the common pressure.
5×10 4 ×3 2×104 ×7 . 2
250 R
+
400 R
=P
3
( +
7.2
250 R 400 R )
P = 32000Pa.

2. Two bulbs A of volume of volume 100cm 3 and B of volume 50cm3are connected to

three way tap which enables the bulbs to be filled with a gas or evacuated. The
volume of the tubes may be neglected initially bulb A is filled with an ideal gas at
100C to a pressure of 3.0x105Pa. Bulb B is filled with an ideal gas at 100 0 to a
pressure of 1.0 x 105Pa. The two bulbs are connected with A maintained at 10 0C and
B at 1000C. Calculate the pressure at equilibrium.

Solution.
Given VA = 100cm3 VB = 500cm3
PA = 3.0 x 105pa PB = 1.0 x 105pa
TA = 10+273 = 283K TB = 100 + 273 = 373K

No of moles before mixing = number of moles after mixing

PV n = P A 1 V A
n= A
From RT RT A 1

PB1 V B
n B=
RT B 1

⇒
3×105 ×100 1×10 5×50
283 R
+
373 R
=P
100
+ (
50
283 R 373 R )
P = 2.46744 x 105Pa

3.6 Dalton’s law of partial pressures (mixture of gases)

It states that the pressure of the mixture of gases which do not interact chemically is
equal to the sum of partial pressures of the components of the mixtures at the same
temperature.
Partial pressure is the pressure that the gas would exert if it occupied the whole
container alone.

3.61 Kinetic theory explanation of Dalton’s law

A gas contains molecules with negligible intermolecular forces and are free to move
in all directions. In a non reacting gas mixture, molecules of each gas collide with
each other or with the walls of the container independently⇒ each exerts its own
pressure on the walls (partial pressure) ⇒ total pressure = sum of collisions of
individual gas molecules, hence Dalton’s law.

3.62 Experiment to verify Dalton’s law. Evacuating tap

T Page | 48
A B
H
In let tap
Bulb A of volume VA is filled with a gas at atmospheric pressure P A1. Bulb B of
volume VB is filled with another gas determine the difference in mercury level h in
the manometer and determine pressure of gas in B P B1 = H± h, where H is
atmospheric pressure determined using barometer.

Open tap T so that gas in A mixes with gas in B isothermally until mercury levels in
manometer are steady. Determine h hence determine the common pressure
P A1V A PB1 V B
P= +
P = H± h . The common pressure P is found to be V A +V B V A +V B

P A 1V A P B 1V B
=P A =P B
Where V A +V B , V A +V B are partial pressures of individual gases.

⇒ P=P A + PB hence Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

3.63 Theory of the experiment.

When gases mix isothermally total volume = VA + VB
PV
n=
The total number of moles n=n A + nB but RT
PV A PV B P A 1 V A P B 1 V B
+ = + ⇒ P V +P V =P V +V
RT RT RT RT A1 A B1 B ( A B)

P A1V A PB1 V B
P= +
V A +V B V A +V B
P A 1V A P B 1V B
=P A =P B
Where V A +V B , V A +V B are partial pressures of individual gases.

⇒ P=P A + PB (Dalton’s law of partial pressures).

3.64 Assumptions of Dalton’s law

 Gases do not react chemically
 Gases are mixed under isothermal conditions.

Page | 49
Worked examples
1Two containers A and B of Volume V and 3V respectively are separately filled with
gas. They cylinders are connected as shown in the figure below with tap closed.

A B

The pressures of the gas in A and B are P and 4P respectively when the tap is opened
the common pressure becomes 60Pa, assuming isothermal conditions, find the value
of P.

Solution.
P A1V A
n A=
Number of moles in A are, RT
P V
n B= B 1 B
Numbers of moles in B are, RT
Total number of moles n=n A + nB
( V A+ V B ) ( V +3 V ) 60×4 V 240 V
n=P =60 = =
RT RT RT RT
240 V PV 4 P×3V
= +
RT RT RT
⇒ 240=PV +12 PV
13 PV =240 V
240V
P=
13V
P=18. 46 Pa

2.Two containers A and B of volume 3 x 10 3cm3 and 6 x 103cm3 respectively contain

he gas at a pressure of 1x103Pa and a temperature of 300K. Container A is heated to
373K while container B is cooled to 273K. Find the final pressure of the gas.
Solution
VA = 3 x 10-3cm3 VB = 6 x 103 cm3
TA1 = 373K TB1 = 273K

Before mixing both containers have same pressure and temperature no of moles in
A are:
P A 1 V A 1×103 ×3×103
n A= =
RT 300 R
3×10 1×10 4
6
¿ =
300 R R

The numbers of moles in B are:

Page | 50
 P B1 V B 1×103 ×6×103
n B= =
RT 300 R
3×10 2×10 4
6
¿ =
300 R R

n=n A + nB
After mixing

( ) ( )
VA V P 3×103 6×103 30 .021 P
n=P + B = + =
RT A 2 RT B 2 R 373 273 R
30 . 021 P 1×10 4 2×10 4 3×10 4
= + ⇒ P=
R R R 30 .021
∴ P=999 . 3 Pa

Revision question
a cylinder of a gas has a mass of 10Kg and a pressure of 8 atmospheres. At 27 0C
when some gas used in a cold room at -3 0C, the gas remaining in the cylinder at this
temperature has a pressure of 6.4atm. Calculate the mass of the gas used.
Ans:1.11kg.

3.7 Kinetic theory of gases

It states that:
Gases are composed of molecules which are in continuous random motion. The
molecules continuously collide elastically with one another and with the walls of the
container. When temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases.

3.71 Assumptions of kinetic theory of gases

The attractive or repulsive forces between gas molecules are negligible.
Molecules in a gas occupy negligible volume compared to the volume of the
container.
Collisions between gas molecules or with the container are perfectly elastic none of
the energy is lost during collision.(gaseous molecules are like perfectly elastic
spheres).
The time for each collision is negligible that is the duration of a collision is
negligible.

3.72 Relationship between density, ρ, gas pressure, P and mean

2
square speed C for a gas
Z

u
A Page | 51
m
X
Consider a cube of length;l containing N molecules of gas each of mass m. suppose a
molecule moves towards face A with velocityu. On hitting A it bounces with the
same velocity in opposite direction.
change ∈momentum=mu−−mu=2 mu .
The time taken¿ move across tube¿ opposite face∧back =¿

rate of change of momentum=¿

¿ force ¿ 2 nd law of motion .

pressure on A=¿

For N molecules withvelocities u1 , u2 , … … … … uN

Total pressure on A=¿
but the mean square speed ∈the x direction ,

thus P=¿
mN
=ρ 2
l3 , the density of the gas ⇒ P= ρ ū

If C is resultant velocity with components u , v ∧w∈ X , Y ,∧Z directions then

C =u + v 2 +w 2
2 2

⇒ C̄ 2 =ū2 + v̄ 2 + w̄2
ū2 = v̄ 2= w̄2
1
⇒ ū 2= C̄ 2
3
1
∴ P= ρ C̄ 2
But 3
3.73 Root mean square speed (r. m .s) ( C̄ ) √ 2

From
1 2
P= ρ C̄
3
3P
⇒ =C̄ 2
ρ

√
√ C̄ 2= 3ρ P

Page | 52
√ C̄2 is the root mean square speed (in ms ) -1

Definition: √ C̄ is the square root of the mean value of squares of the molecular
2

speeds.

√
3.74 Relationship between C̄ and temperature T
2

1
P= ρ C̄ 2 density of all molecules where V isthe molecular volume .
From 3
1 Nm { C̄ 2 1
⇒ P= ⇒ PV = Nm { C̄ ¿2 ........................(1)¿
3 V 3
But for one mole of a gas , PV =RT ...............................(2)
Also M =Nm (total mass of the gas)

1
⇒ RT = M C̄2
From (1) and (2) 3
2 RT
⇒ C̄ =3
M
⇒ √C̄ 2 =
√√
3 RT
M
........................................(3)

⇒ √ C̄ α T The root mean square speed of the gas of uniform mass is directly
2

proportional to the temperature.

Also from (3) if temperature is constant.

1
√ C̄2 α
√M
∴ Gases of higher molecular mass have smaller root mean square speed.

Worked examples.
1. Calculate the root mean square of the molecules of hydrogen at 27 0C given that
the density of hydrogen at a pressure of 1 x 105Nm-2 and a temperature of 00C is
0.09Kgm-3.

Solution
√ C̄2 at 0 C, let it be√ C̄1
2
Lets first find 0

1 2
P= ρ C̄
3

√
√
⇒ C̄ 2 =
1 √ 3×1 . 0×105
0 .09
C̄ 2 =1825. 7 ms−1
From 1

√ C̄2 at 27 C, let it be√ C̄2

2
Let’s first find 0

Page | 53
 √ √
but C̄ α √ T ⇒ C̄ =k √ T .
2 2

√ C̄22 =√(27+273 ) ⇒ √ C̄2 = √300

√ C̄12 √(0+273 ) 1825 .7 √273
√ C̄22=1825. 7× 273 √ 300

√ C̄22=1913. 9 ms−1
The root mean square speed of hydrogen molecules at 270C is 1913.9ms-1.

2. Hydrogen of relative molecular mass of about 2 has a root mean square speed at
standard temperature and pressure of roughly 1840ms-1. At 1000C and same
pressure calculate the r. m. s speed at 1000C.

√ C̄21=1840 ms−1
At s. t. p, T1 = 273K; P1 = 1 x 105 Pa;

At 100 C, T = 100+273 = 373K, P = 1 x 10 Pa, √ 1

0 5 C̄2 =?
2

√ C̄2 α √ T ⇒ √C̄ 2=k √T

√ C̄22 =√T 2
√ C̄12 √T 1
√ C̄22=1840× 273 √ 373

√ C̄22=2150. 8 ms−1
3. The masses of hydrogen and oxygen atoms are 1.66 x 10-27Kg and
2.66 x 10-26Kg respectively. What is the ratio of the root mean square speed of
hydrogen to that of oxygen molecules at the same temperature?
Solution
Mo = 2.66 x 10-26Kg, M1 = 1.66 x 10-27Kg
1
√ C̄2 α
But √M
1
√ C̄ o2=k √ M o
For oxygen

Page | 54
 1
√ C̄ H 2=k √ M H
For hydrogen,

√
⇒ H =
C̄ 2 √ M
o

√C̄ o2 √ M H
√ C̄ H 2 2. 66×10−26
√ C̄ o
√
2
√√
=
1 . 66×10
C̄ 2 : C̄ 2 =4 :1
−27
=
4
1

H o

4. Calculate the r.m.s speed of Nitrogen molecules at 270C. (Rmm of Nitrogen is 28, R
= 8.31Jk-1 mol-1)

from, √ C̄2 =
3 RT
M √
⇒ √C̄ 2 =
2
28×10−3
∴ √ C̄ =516 . 8 ms
√
3×8 . 31×300

−1

3.75 Deduction of Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

Suppose a volume V contains N1 molecules of gas 1 exerting pressure P1 and N2
molecular of gas 2 exerting pressure P2. From the mixture
2
1 1 1
PV = Nm { C̄ = N 1 m1 C̄ 2 + N 2 m2 C̄ 2 ¿
3 3 1 3 2
For isothermal conditions molecular kinetic energy is constant
⇒ m1 C̄ 2 =m 2 C̄ 2 =m C̄ 2
1 2 .
1 1
PV = N 1 m1 C̄ 2 + N 2 m2 C̄ 2=P1 V +P 2 V =( P1 +P 2 )V
3 1 3 2

Hence P=P1 + P2

3.76 Deduction of Avogadro’s law.

1
P= ρ C̄ 2
From 3
2
Nm 1
ρ= ⇒ PV = Nm { C̄ ¿
But V 3
1 1
P1 V 1 = N 1 m1 C̄ 2 P2 V 2 = N 2 m2 C̄ 2
For gas 1 3 1 for gas 2 3 2
For equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure
P1 =P2 andV 1 =V 2 ⇒ P 1 V 1=P2 V 2

Page | 55
 1 1
⇒ N 1 m1 C̄ 2 = N 2 m2 C̄ 2 .... .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. ..(1)
3 1 3 2

If gases are at the same temperature kinetic energy is constant

1 1
⇒ m1 C̄ 2 = m2 C̄ 2 ⇒ m1 C̄ 2 =m2 C̄ 2 .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..(2 )
2 1 2 2 1 2

From (1) and (2)

N 1 =N 2 , thus equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal number of molecules.

3.77 Relation between molecular kinetic energy and temperature.

1 Nm 1 2
P= ρ C̄ 2 ρ= ⇒ PV = Nm { C̄ ¿
From 3 But V 3
3 PV 2
⇒ =m C̄
N
1 3 PV
⇒ m C̄ 2=
2 2N
For n moles of an ideal gas PV =nRT
1 3 nRT
⇒ m C̄ 2=
2 2 N
1 3 RT
⇒ m C̄ 2=
For one mole of a gas, 2 2 N

R
=K B
N
The constant A , is the Boltzmann constant, NA is the Avogadro’s number.

Where KB = 1.38 x 10-23JK-1.

1 3
∴ m C̄ 2= K B T
2 2 ⇒ Kinetic is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

Worked examples
1. Calculate the kinetic energy of 1 mole of nitrogen molecules at 300K.
(R=8.3145Jmol-1)
Solution
Assume nitrogen behaves as an ideal gas, then
3
E K = RT
2
3
E K = ×8 . 3145×300
2
¿ 3742 J
Page | 56
2. The mean kinetic energy of one mole of helium gas at standard temperature and
pressure is 3.74x103J. Calculate the temperature.

Solution
1 3
m C̄ 2 = KT
2 2
3
3 .74×10 3= ×8 . 3145×T
2
T =2×3 . 74×103
T =300 K

3.78 Deduction of equation of state for an ideal gas.

1
P= ρ C̄ 2
From 3
2
Nm 1
ρ= ⇒ PV = Nm { C̄ ¿
But V 3
2
1 2 3 1 1
m C̄ = K B T ⇒ Nm { C̄ = (3 NK B T ) ¿ ¿¿
Also 2 2 3 3
1 2
PV= Nm { C̄ ¿⇒PV=NK B T=constant.¿¿
But 3

3.8 Vander Waal’s modifications of the ideal gas equation to suit

a real gas.
Vander waal modified the ideal gas equation PV = n R T by modifying two of the
assumptions made in kinetic theory of gases.

The attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecular and negligible.

Molecules in a gas occupy negligible volume compared to the volume of the

container.

3.81 Modifications of the general ideal gas equation to suit real

gases.
In real gases the attractive forces between the molecules are not negligible. The
molecules approaching the container are attracted by molecules behind them.
This reduces the momentum of the banding molecules hence reducing the pressure
P at the walls of the container.
Page | 57
The bulk gas pressure is not P but P+P1 where P1 is the pressure defect.
but P1 is proportional to square of density ⇒ P 1 αρ 2
1 1 1 a
ρα ⇒ ρ2α 2 P1 α 2 ⇒ P1 = 2
but V V thus V V
where a is a constant for a particular gas

a
=P+
hence bulk gas pressure V2

Molecules in a real gas can’t be compressed indefinitely.

Surrounding each molecule there is a definite volume called co-volume which can
not be occupied by any molecule. The volume of the space inside of container
occupied by the molecules is thus not V but V −b, whereb is a factor or constant
depending on the actual volume of the molecules.
a
P+ V −b
In the equation of state PV =nRT , P is replaced by V 2 , V is replaced by ,

( a
)
P+ 2 ( V −b )=nRT
V This is Van da Waal’s equation.
For 1 mole of a gas

( P+ Va )( V −b )=RT
2

a
2 b
3.82 The physical significance of the terms V and in the equation of state

for one mole of an ideal gas

( P+
a
V2)( V −b )=nRT
.

a
 V 2 is the pressure defect, for real gases the molecules exert attractive
forces on each other. This reduces the force on the walls of the container so
a
2
that the observed pressure is less than that in the interior of the gas V
accounts for the pressure defect.

 Because the volumes of molecules is not negligible for a real gas and
therefore have finite size, the volume in which they are free to move is less
than that of their container. It follows that the volume isV −b, where b is a
factor which is proportional to volume occupied by the molecules and V is
volume of the container.

Page | 58
 a
2
N.B V intermolecular attractions lead to loss of pressure at the wall.

The factor b account for the finite volume of molecules themselves.

3.83 Kinetic theory explanation of the fact that a gas fills any container in
which it is placed and exerts a pressure on its walls

A gas contains molecules with negligible intermolecular forces and are free to move
in all directions. As they move they collide with each other and with the walls of the
container. The movements make them to fill the available space and the collisions
with the walls constitute the pressure exerted on the walls.

3.84 Conditions under which a real gas behaves an ideal gas

 At low pressure, the molecules become few for the volume of the container
and are relatively further apart this volume of molecules themselves become
negligible compared with the volume of the container.
 At very high temperature intermolecular forces of attraction become
negligible.

NB: Thus real gases only obey gas laws at high temperature and low pressure.

3.85 Different states of a real gas under compression at different

temperature P-V curves for a real gas.

Liquid Gas

T2
Liquid and saturated vapour
TC
Un saturated vapour
T1
V
Features.
Above critical temperature TC, the gas obeys Boyle’s law.
Below TC the gas exists as an unsaturated vapour at low pressures. At higher
pressure some of the vapour condenses we have liquid + saturated vapour.
At higher pressure still, all the vapour condenses into liquid.

Page | 59
3.86 Definition. Critical temperature is the temperature above which a gas can’t
be liquefied no matter how much pressure is applied.

3.87 Differences between real and ideal gases.

Ideal gas Real gas

-Intermolecular forces of attraction - Intermolecular forces of attraction and
and repulsion are negligible repulsion are appreciable.
- Volume of the molecules is -Volume of molecules is appreciable.
negligible compared to volume of the
container.
- obeys gas laws at all conditions of - obeys gas law only at conditions of high
temperature and pressure. temperature and low pressure.

Revision exercise 3
1. (a) (i) State Charles’ law.
(ii) Describe an experiment to verify Charles’ law.
(b) The volume of a given mass of a gas at a constant pressure at a
temperature of 1270C is 60cm3. Calculate the volume if the
temperature falls to 270C.

(c) (i) When is OK attained?

(ii) Explain using a volume against temperature sketch a graph
what happens when a gas is cooled at a constant pressure.

2. (a) State Boyle ‘s law.

(b) Describe an experiment to verify Boyle’s law
(c) Explain the allowing using kinetic theory.
(i) Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas increases as volume is
reduced at a constant temperature.
(ii) Volume of a fixed mass of a gas varies directly with absolute
temperature at constant pressure.

3. (a) State the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases.

1
P= ρ C̄ 2
(b) Derive the expression 3 for the pressure of an ideal gas.
(c) Use the expression in (b) to derive the relationship between kinetic
energy of molecules of a gas and temperature.
(d) The root mean square speed of the molecules of a gas is
44.72ms-1. Find the temperature of the gas if its density is
9 x10-2Kgm-3 and volume= 42m3.

1
P= ρ C̄ 2
4. (a) Derive the expression 3 for the pressure P of an ideal gas,
state any assumptions made.

(b) A gas confined in a container on V = 0.1m3 at a pressure of

Page | 60
 1.0 x 105Nm-2 and T= 300K. If the gas is assumed to be ideal calculate
the density of the gas. (Rmm of the gas = 32).
(c) Using kinetic theory of a gas derive Avogadro’s hypothesis.
(d) A beam of 2 x 1022 nitrogen atoms each of mass 2.32 x 10 -26Kg is
incident normally on a wall of a cube of edge 10cm. the beam is
reflected along 1800. If the root mean square speed of atoms is 480ms -
1
find the pressure exerted by the nitrogen gas.

5. (a) (i) Differentiate between real and ideal gases.

(b) State Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
(c) Two metallic bulbs of volume 3m3 and 8m3 respectively are joined
together by a narrow tube of negligible volume. The bulbs contain air
at a temperature 230C and pressure of1.01 x 105Pa. Calculate the
resulting pressure in the bulbs when the temperature of the smaller
bulb is raised to 1000C and that of the larger bulb lowered to 00C. State
any assumptions made.

(d) In an experiment to determine SHC of a metal of mass 500g electric

heater rated 42W was used to heat the metal. The temperature of the
metal was recorded at diff. times as allows:-

Time 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
(min)
Temp. 25.0 30.0 35.0 39.0 43.0 46.5 48.0 46.5 45.5 44.0 43.0 41.7
(0C)

(i) Plot a suitable graph and use it to estimate the cooling

correction.

(ii) Determine the specific heat capacity of the metal.

Page | 61
 4
THERMODYNAMICS

4.0 Introduction
This deals with the relationship and conversions between heat and other forms of
energy.

4.1 Work done by an expanding gas.

When the gas expands it does some work and the work is being done by the gas. When
the gas is compressed the gas contracts, the work is being done on the gas and the
work done is negative hence there is work if there is a change in volume of the gas.

Consider a fixed mass of a gas confined in a cylinder by a frictionless piston of cross

sectional area A. The piston is kept in equilibrium under the action of force F.

Page | 62
Suppose the gas expands by δx so that the piston moves out through a small
distance δx
Work done by the gas is δW =Fδx
But F=PA ⇒ δW =PA δx also Aδx=δV ⇒ δW =PδV
V
W =∫V 2 PdV
Work done during expansion from V1 to V2 is 1 (this is the work done by
an expanding gas at constant pressure)
W =P ( V 2 −V 1 )
Thus v1

4.2 1st law of thermodynamics

It states that δQ=δU +δW
Where δQ = amount of heat supplied to gas.
δU = internal energy
δW = work done by the gas.
Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules and the
potential energy due to mutual interactions of these atoms.

4.21 The principle molar heat capacities of a gas

Molar heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to produce a 1K
rise in 1 mole of a substance.
The heat required to raise the temperature of n moles of the gas by δT is given by
δQ=nc δT
Where c is the molar heat capacity of the gas.
The value of molar heat capacity of a gas depends on how the volume and the
pressure changes as the gas is heated. In particular there are two principle molar
heat capacities one at constant pressure C p and one at constant volume Cv.

Principle molar heat capacity at a constant pressure C p is the amount of heat

required to produce a 1K rise in temperature when 1 mole of a gas is heated at
constant pressure. p δQ=c δT
For n moles
δQ=nc p δT
4.22 Relationship between C v and Cp.
For a fixed mass of an ideal gas PV =nRT ..............................(1)
If only volume V and absolute temperature T are varied at a constant pressure, then;
PδV =nR δT .................................(2)
but δW =δU +δW ...........................(3)
At constant volume, there is no work done by the gas
⇒δU=nc V δT ....................................( 4)

At constant pressure δW =PδV

Substituting (4) in (3)

Page | 63
⇒ nc P δT =nc V δT + nR δT
nc V δT =nδT ( c V + R )
c P =c V + R
∴ c P −c V =R
4.23 Why c p is significantly greater than cv for ideal gases.
When heat is applied to a gas at a constant pressure work done by the expanding
gas isδW =PδV , the internal energyδU of the gas molecules increases.at constant
volume work done by the gas δW =0 but the internal energy of the gas molecules
c ≥c
increase. Hence P V since at constant pressure the heat is used by the gas to do
work and increase internal energy and at constant volume the heat only increases
the internal; energy.
4.24 Why the difference between molar heat capacities is not significant for
solids.
When heat is applied to a solid at constant pressure the is a negligible change in
volume⇒ the work done δW ≈0
From first law of thermal dynamics δQ=δU +δW ⇒ δQ≈δU
δQ=nc P δT
But
δU =ncV δT
nc P δT ≈nc V δT
⇒ c P≈c V
Thus
Hence
c P −c V is negligible for solids.

4.3 Thermodynamic process.

A system under goes a thermodynamic process when there is energy change within
the system, generally associated with pressure, volume, and internal energy and
temperature or any sort of heat transfer.
4.31 Isovolumetric change
This is the change in pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume.
Since there is no change in volume no work done, δW =0 fromδQ=δU +δW . All the
heat entering the system of gas becomes its internal energy.
δQ=cV δT
But
⇒ δU =c V δT

For n moles of a gas

⇒ δU =nc V δT
P1 P2
=
From the general gas equation T 1 T2
4.32 Isobaric change.
This is the change in volume and temperature of a gas at constant pressure.
δW =PδV ⇒ W =P ( V 2 −V 1 )
Work done in Isobaric change

Page | 64
 V1 V2
=
For isobaric change T 1 T 2
4.33 Isothermal change
This is the change in pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature.
P1V1 =P2V2 PV =constant
4.44 Work done during Isothermal process.
Suppose a gas expands isothermally from a volume of V1 to V2.

P1

P2

V1 V2 V

V
W =∫V 2 PdV
Work done, δW =PδV 1

but PV =nRT for n moles of the gas.

nRT
P=
V
V
nRT
V2
2
W =∫V dV =nRT ln V |V
1V
1

()
V2
W =nRT ln
V1

( )
V2
W =RT ln
V1
For one mole of a gas n=1⇒

4.45 Conditions required to effect Isothermal change.

It requires that:
 The gas is in a thin walled container which is highly conducting.
 The gas container should be enclosed in a constant temperature reservoir to
keep the gas at constant temperature.
 The process should occur slowly.
 Large frictionless piston must be used.

Page | 65
4.46 Reversible Isothermal change.
A reversible change (process) is one that can take place in the reverse direction
through the same values of pressure, volume and temperature in small changes
(steps).

A reversible isothermal process is a change in pressure and volume that takes place
at a constant temperature and can be taken back from final to initial states through
an infinitesimal changes in pressure and volume.

4.47 Adiabatic change.

This is the change in volume pressure and temperature of a gas at constant heat.

A reversible adiabatic process is a change in pressure, volume and temperature that

takes place at constant heat and can be taken back from final to initial states through
an infinitesimal change in pressure, volume and temperature.

4.48 Conditions to effect adiabatic change.

Requires that:
 The gas is in a thick walled vessel with poor conducting walls.
 The process occurs rapidly so that heat doesn’t leave or enter the system.

4.49 `Equation for an adiabatic change.

γ
For adiabatic change the equation is PV =cons tan t
cp
γ=
γ γ
Therefore P1 V 1 =P2 V 2 where cv

Relationship between P and T

From the equation of state PV =RT for 1 mole.
RT
V=
P
γ
Substitute in PV =cons tan t
P
P ( )
RT γ
=cons tant

Rγ T γ
P =cons tan t
Pγ
P1−γ T γ =cons tant
⇒ P 1−
1
γ γ
T 1 =P1−γ
2 T γ
2

Relationship between T and V.

From PV =RT for 1mole of a gas.
RT
P=
V
γ
From PV =cons tan t
Page | 66
RTV γ
=cons tan t ⇒TV γ−1 =cons tan t
V
∴ T 1 V γ −1=T 2 V γ2 −1
1

Work done during adiabatic expansion from V1 to V2

V
W =∫V 2 PdV
1
γ
but PV =k
V2 k
W =∫V dV
1
Vγ
V2 1 V 1−γ V 2
⇒W =k ∫V dV = k |
1
V
γ 1−γ V 1
k
⇒W =
1−γ
( 2 −V 1 )
V 1− γ 1− γ

( )
1 kV 2 kV 1
⇒W = −
1−γ V γ V γ
2 1
k k
=P1 =P2
γ γ
But V 1 and V 2
1
∴W= ( P V −P V )
1−γ 2 2 1 1

Question1. State the first law of thermodynamics and use it to distinguish between

isothermal and adiabatic changes in a gas.

δQ=δU +δW
Where δQ = amount of heat supplied to gas.
δU =nc v δT = internal energy
δW = work done by the gas.
During isothermal expansion δT =0 ⇒ all the heat energy supplied reappears as
work done by the gas during the expansion.
During adiabatic process no heat is allowed to enter or leave the gas.
⇒ δQ=0 δU =−δW
in adiabatic expansion work is done at the expense of its
and
internal energy therefore the gas cools.

Page | 67
Question 2. Explain why the gas heats up when compressed adiabatically.
In an adiabatic process no heat transfer occurs and according to the first law of
thermodynamics
δQ=δU +δW δQ=0 so
δU =−δW when the gas is
, but
compressed the external work done by the gas is negative so the work done on the
gas is converted into increase in internal energy hence the gas heats up.

Worked examples.
1.At a temperature of 1000C and pressure of 1.01 x 10 5Pa, 1.00Kg of steam occupies
1.67m3 but the same mass of water occupies only 1.04 x 10-3m3 specific latent heat of
vaporization of water at 1000C is 2.26 x 106Jkg-1. For a system of 5Kg of water
changing to steam at 1000C at a pressure of 1.01 x 105Pa. Find:-
(i)The heat supplied to the system.
(ii)The work done by the system.
(iii)The increase in internal energy of the system.

Solution.

At 100oC
δQ=mL V

Water Steam

P1 = 1.01 x 105Pa P2 = 1.01x 105Pa

V1 = 5 x 1.04 x 10-3m3 V2 = 5 x1.67m3
Heat supplied
δQ=mLV
= 5 x 2.26 x 106
=11.3 x 106J

V
W =∫V 2 PdV
Work done, 1

= P (V2 – V1)
=1.01 x 105 (5 x 1.67 – 5.2 x 10-3)
= 8.23 x 105J

Increase in internal energy

From δQ=δU +δW
δU =δQ−δW
=11.3 x 105 – 8.23 x 105
= 104.8 x 105J

2. A vessel containing 1.5 x 10 -3m3 of a gas at a pressure of 8.7 x 10 4Nm-2 at a

temperature of 25oC. The gas is compressed isothermally to a volume of
9 x 10-4m3. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically to the original state. Find the
final temperature and the work done during the isothermal change (γ=1.41 ).
Solution.
Page | 68
P1 = 8.7x104Nm-2 isothermal P2 =?
V1 = 1.5x10-3m-3 changes V2 = 9x10-4m3
T1 = 25+ 273 = 298K T 2 = 25+ 273 = 298K this is because temperature is
constant.

P2 Isothermal
compressio
n
P1
Adia
batic
P3 expa
nsio
n

V2 V1 V

For isothermal change

P1 V 1 8 . 7×104 ×1 .5×10−3
P1 V 1 =P2 V 2 ⇒ P 2= =
V2 9×10−4
⇒ P 2=1 . 45×10 5 Nm− 2

( )
V2
W =nRT ln
V1

PV
n=
RT
But

( ) ( ) ( )
PV V V 9×10−4
⇒W = RT ln 2 =PV ln 2 =8 .7×10 4 ×1. 5×10−3 ln
RT V1 V1 1. 5×10−3
W =−67 J

For a adiabatic change

V2 = 9x10-4m3 to original V1 = 1.5x10-3m-3

T2 = 298K T3 =?

Page | 69
T 2 V γ−1=T 3 V 1γ−1
2
T 2 V γ−1
⇒T 3 =
2

V 1γ−1
=T 2
V 2 γ−1
V1 ( )
T =298
(
9×10−4 1. 41−1
1. 5×10−3 )
T =242 K
3. A gas with specific heat ratio 1.67 is made to expand adiabatically from a volume
of 1.2x104cm-3 and a pressure of 2.5x105Nm-2. If the final pressure is
1.9x105Nm-2. Find the volume of the gas.
Solution:
γ=1.67
V1 = 1.2x104cm3 V2 =?
P1= 2.5x105Nm-2 P2 = 1.9x105Nm-2

γ γ
For adiabatic change P1 V 1 =P1 V 1
γ
γ P1 V 1
V 2=
P2
1 .67
5
1. 67 2 .5×10 × ( 1 .2×104 )
⇒V 2 = 5
1 .9×10
1
⇒V 2=( 8. 54×10 ) 6 1. 67

V 2 =1 . 41×10 4 ×10−6
V 2 =1 . 41×10−2 m3

4. Air in a cylinder has a volume of 1000cm3 at an initial pressure

P1 = 1.10x105Pa and temperature T1 = 300K. A sequence of changes are imposed on
the air assumed to behave as an ideal gas as shown below.

P2 C
Pressure

P1 A B

V1 V2 Volume
Page | 70
(i)AB the air is heated to 370K at constant pressure. Calculate the new volume V2
(ii) BC the air is compressed isothermally to V1, calculate the new pressure P2.
(iii) CA the air is cooled at constant volume to pressure P1. Calculate the work done
on the gas during the cycle.
Solution
(I) at constant pressure

V1 = V2 V1 = 1000cm3 V2 =?
T1 T2 T1 = 300K T2 = 370K

V2 = V1T2 = 1000x370
T1 300

V2 = 1233cm3 or V2 = 1.233x103x10-6m3
= 1.233x10-3m3

(ii) BC
For isothermal change
P1V2 = P2V1
P2 = P1V2 = 1.10x105x1.233x10-3
V1 1000x10-6
P2 = 1.3563x105Pa.

(iii)CA- constant volume (iso- volumetric change)

δW CA =0
Work done along cycle
=δW AB +δW BC +δW CA

δW AB =PδV =P (V 2−V 1 )=1. 10×105 (1 .233×10−3 −1000×10−6 )

¿ 25 . 63 J

( )
V
δW BC=nRT ln 1
V2
PV
n=
RT

δW BC=P1 V 2 ln
( )
V1
V2
=1. 10×105 ×1. 233×10−3 ln
(
1000×10−6
1. 233×10
−3 )
= -28.4J
δW BA =0
W =25 .63+0+−28 . 4
= -2.78J

5. A vessel contains 2.5x10-3m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 8.5x104Nm-2 and

temperature of 350C. The gas is compressed isothermally to a volume of
Page | 71
1.0x103m3. it is then allowed to expand adiabatically to the original volume, taking
γ=1.40 , calculate.
(i) The final temperature of the gas.
(ii) Work done during the isothermal compression of the gas.

Solution
V1 = 2.5 x 10-3m3 Isothermally V2 = 1.0 x 10-3m3
P1 = 8.5 x 104Nm-2 P2 =?
T1 = 35 + 273 = 308k T2 = 308K.
P1V1 = P2V2

P1 V 1 8. 5×10 4 ×2 .5×10−3
P2 = =
V2 1. 0×10−3
P2 = 2.125 x 105Nm-2.

( ) ( )
V2 V2
W =nRT ln ⇒W =P1 V 1 ln
V1 V1

⇒W =8 . 5×10 ×2 .5×10 ×ln

4 −3
( 1. 0×10−3
2. 5×10−3 )
W =−194 . 7 J

For adiabatic change

V2 = 1.0 x 10-3m3 adiabatic V1 = 2.5 x 10-3m3.
P2 = 2.125 x 105Nm-2 T3=? , γ=1.40
T2 = 308K
T 2 V γ2 −1
γ −1
T 2 V 2 =T 3 V 1 ⇒T 3 = γ −1
V 1γ −1
=T 2
( )
V 2 γ −1
V1

( )
( 1. 40−1 )
1. 0×10−3
T 3=308×
2. 5×10−3
T 3=213. 5 K
6. A gas having a temperature of 270C and volume of 300cm3 at a P = 80cm Hg
expands isothermally to double its volume. The gas is then compressed adiabatically
to half its original volume represent these changes on a p-v sketch. Calculate the
final pressure and temperature of the gas use γ = 1.40
Solution
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K Isothermal T2 =
V1 = 300cm3 V2 = 2x300 = 600cm3 V3 = ½ .300 = 1500.
P1 = 80cmHg P2 =?

P3
Pressure

Adiab
at i c c
P1 om pr
essio
n
P2
Page | 72
Isoth
erma
l expa
nsion
Isothermal stage 1
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V 1 80×300
P2 = = =40 cmHg
V 600
Stage 2
Adiabatic stage

( )
γ γ V2 γ
P2 V 2 =P3 V 3 ⇒ P3 =P2
V3

P3 =40 (600
150 )
=278 . 6 cmHg

γ −1
T 2 V 2 =T 3 V 3 γ −1
⇒ T 3 =T 2
( )
V 2 γ −1
V3

( )
1 . 40−1
600
T 3=300
150
Also T 3=522 K
7. The Kilo moles of a gas at S.T.P expands isobaric ally to twice its volume.
Determine.
(i) Final temperature of gas.
(ii) Work done by the gas
(iii) Change in internal energy of gas.
(iv) Heat absorbed by gas (relative molecular mass of the gas is 2,
C V = 20Jmol-1k-1)

Solution
At S.T.P
P1 = 1.01 x 105Nm-2 for Isobaric change P2 = P1 = 1.01 x 105Nm-2
T1 = 273K T2 =?
V1 = V V2 = 2V

V1 V2 V 2T1 2V ×273
= ⇒ T 2= =
T1 T2 V1 V
(i)T 2=546 K

Page | 73
 W =PδV =P ( V 2 −V 1 )
W =1. 01×10 5 ( 2V −V )
5
(ii)W =1. 01×10 VJ
1 mole=22. 4×10−3 m3
3000 moles=22 . 4×10−3 ×3000
V =67 .2 m3
W =1. 01×10 5×67 .2
∴W=6.7872×10 6 J

(iii) From
δQ=δU +δW
δQ=c P δT
δU =c P δT−δW
c P=R+c V ,
c V =20 Jmol−1 K−1
δU =( R+c V )(T 2 −T 1 )−δW
δU = ( 8. 31+20 ) ( 546−273 )−6 . 7872×106
δU =−6 .77947×106 J

(iv)
δQ=c P δT=( cV +R )(T 2−T 1 )
¿(8 . 31+20 )(546−273 )
¿ 7728 .63 J

Revision exercise

1. (a) (i) What is meant by an adiabatic change?

(ii) Show that work done during adiabatic expansion of a gas from
V1 to V2 is given by
1
1−γ ( 2 2 1 1 )
W= P V −P V

Where
cp
γ=
cv
(b) One kilo mole of an ideal gas is initially at a pressure of 1.0 x 105 Nm-2
and temperature of 250C. It undergoes a reversible adiabatic
expansion to twice its volume.

(i) Sketch a P-V diagram to show the two processes.

Page | 74
 (ii) Calculate the final temperature of the gas.
(iii) Find work done by the gas during isothermal compression (R =
8.31Jmol-1K-1, Cv = 3/2R).

2. (a) Show that the work done by an ideal gas in expanding from a volume
V
W =∫V 2 PdV
of V1 to V2 is equal to 1 .

(b) State the conditions required to effect the following processes.

(i) Isothermal process
(ii) Adiabatic process

(c) A fire extinguisher is filled with 10Kg of a compressed nitrogen gas at

a pressure of 1.2x106Pa and temperature of 200C. If the gas escapes by
expanding adiabatically to pressure 1.0 x 10 5Pa. When the nozzle of
the fire extinguisher is opened. Find the
(i) Original value
cp
γ= =1. 4
(ii) Temperature of the expanded gas take cv
(d) Explain why a gas heats when compressed adiabatically.

3. (a) What is meant by:-

(i) Isothermal change
(ii) Is volumetric change.

(b) An ideal gas of volume 100cm3 at S.T.P expands adiabatically until its
pressure drops to a quarter its original value. Find the new volume
and temperature if the ratio of principle molar heat capacities is 1.4.

(c) A gas is confined in a container of volume 0.1m 3 at a pressure

1.0x105Nm-2 and temperature = 300k. If the gas is assumed to be ideal,
calculate the density of the gas. (Relative molecular mass of gas is 32).

(d) A gas at a pressure of 1.0 x 10 6Pa is compressed adiabatically to half

its volume calculate the final temperature of the gas.
(Assume the ratio of the principle molar heat capacities to be 1.40)

4. (a) (i) What is meant by a reversible process?

(ii) State the conditions necessary for Isothermal and adiabatic
process to occur.

(b) A mass of an ideal gas of volume 200cm3 at 144K expands

adiabatically to a temperature of 137K. Calculate the new volume
(Takeγ=1.40 ).

Page | 75
5. (a) Starting from the same point (P1 ,V1), sketch P-V curves for the
process.
(i) Adiabatic change.
(ii) Isothermal change
(iii) Is volumetric change

(b) If cv is molar heat capacity at constant volume, c p is the molar heat

capacity at constant pressure and R is molar gas constant show that c
p – cv = R.

(c) Show that the work done in expanding one mole of a gas from a
volume V1 to V2 at constant temperature T is given by

( )
V2
W =RT log e
V1
, where R is the molar

gas constant.

(d) A gas with molar heat ratio of 1.67 is made to undergo an adiabatic
expansion from a state (P1V1T1) (2.5 x 10 5Nm-2, 1.2 x 10-2m3, 270C).
If the final pressure of the gas is 1.9x105Nm-2. Find the:-
(i) Final volume of the gas.
(ii) Final temperature of the gas.

(e) One litre of a gas at a pressure of 1.0 x 105Pa and a temperature of

170C is compressed isothermally to half its original value. It is then
allowed to expand adiabatically to its original volume.
(i) Sketch a P-V graph to show the above process.
(ii) Calculate the final temperature.

6. Nitrogen gas is trapped in a container. If the temperature of the gas is raised

from 00C to 500C at constant pressure of 4x105Pa and the total heat added is
3 x104J. Calculate the work done by the gas. (The molar heat capacity of
nitrogen at constant pressure is 29.1Jmol-1k-1, andγ=1.40

Page | 76
Page | 77
 5
VAPOURS

5.0 Introduction
A vapour is a state of a substance existing just below its critical temperature.

Critical temperature is the temperature above which a gas cannot liquefy no matter
how much pressure is applied.

5.1 Evaporation
This is the process by which a liquid changes into vapour.

5.11 Kinetic theory of evaporation.

A liquid is made up of molecules which are in a constant random motion. Molecules
collide with each other to gain or lose kinetic energy to other molecules at the liquid
surface that posses enough kinetic energy are able to escape from the attraction of
neighboring molecules and form a vapour. The process leads to a decrease in
average kinetic energy of a liquid molecules⇒ decrease in liquid temperature.

5.12 Why evaporation causes cooling.

Evaporation causes more energetic molecules in liquid surface to escape. Molecules
that remain have low kinetic energy, since kinetic energy of molecules is directly
proportional to temperature, the liquid cools.

5.2 Vapour Pressure.

When a liquid is heated the molecules gain kinetic energy and they break
intermolecular bonds to escape from the liquid surface to form a vapour above.
These escaping molecules are in random motion so they collide with the walls of the
container exerting a pressure there called vapour pressure.

Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the escaping molecules from liquid on to
the walls of the container.

5.21 Saturated and unsaturated vapour.

A saturated vapour is a vapour which is in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.
Saturated vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour which is in a
dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid.

Unsaturated vapour is a vapour which is not in contact with its own liquid.

Page | 78
5.22 Kinetic theory explanation of the occurrence of saturated vapour
pressure

Liquid

When a liquid is confined half way in a closed container, molecules with sufficient
kinetic energy are able to overcome the attraction by other molecules and escape
through the surface, forming vapour. The vapour molecules bombard the walls of
the container exerting pressure there called vapour pressure, they strike liquid
surface and re-enter the liquid, condensation occurs, eventually equilibrium occurs
when the number of molecules escaping is equal to that of those re-entering, the
space is saturated with vapour exerting a pressure called saturated vapour pressure.

5.23 Effect of volume change on saturated vapour pressure at constant

temperature.
When volume of a saturated vapour is reduced, number of collisions per second
increases since molecules have limited region of travel ⇒ increase in saturated
vapour pressure eventually the saturated vapour pressure reduces to original value.
When volume of saturated vapour is increased, the number of collisions per second
reduces since few molecules are able to reach the walls ⇒ reduction in saturated
vapour pressure eventually saturated vapour pressure increases to the original
value.
Saturated vapour pressure is independent of volume at constant temperature.

Question. Explain using kinetic theory the fact that saturated vapour pressure is
not affected by a decrease in volume at constant temperature.
solution
A decrease in volume leads to a momentary increase in the density of the vapour the
rate of condensation becomes greater than that of evaporation. As the density of
vapour falls, the rate of condensation also falls. Dynamic equilibrium is re-
established to the original values of density and pressure of vapour.

5.24 Effect of temperature on saturated vapour pressure at constant volume.

Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the liquid molecules and the
rate of evaporation increases, therefore the pressure of the vapour rises. As the rate
at which molecules bombard the liquid increases dynamic equilibrium is restored
at a higher saturated vapour pressure value.

An increase in temperature lowers the kinetic energy of the liquid molecules and the
rate of evaporation reduces therefore, the pressure of vapour decreases. As the
rate at which molecules bombard the liquid reduces, dynamic equilibrium is
Page | 79
restored at a lower saturated vapour value ie no change in saturated vapour
pressure.

N.B: Unlike gases and unsaturated vapours, saturated vapours don’t obey Boyle’s law.
Therefore, Boyles’ law should not be applied to saturated vapours. However, Boyle’s
law can be applied to unsaturated vapours.

5.25 P-V graph for saturated vapours at constant temperature.

P

V
5.26 P-V graph for unsaturated vapours at constant temperature.

When two graphs are combined.

P

Saturated vapour
Un
s at u
rat
e dv
ap
ou
r
V

5.27 P – T graph for a vapour confined in a vessel (constant volume)

P

C
B

V
Page | 80
Along AB – The vapour is saturated. When liquid is heated the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases and therefore more liquid evaporates. The density of the
vapour above the liquid increases and therefore saturated vapour pressure
increases rapidly up to B. as soon as all the liquid has evaporated the vapour
becomes un saturated and since unsaturated vapours obey gas laws.
P is directly proportional to T along BC.

5.3 Solving problems involving saturated and un saturated vapours.

When attempting such problems, the following are important;

 Check whether the problem involves a mixture of a gas and an unsaturated

vapour or a mixture of a gas and a saturated vapour.

 If the mixture contains a gas and an unsaturated vapour then we apply the
equation of state to both.

 If the mixture contains a gas and saturated vapour apply the equation of state
to the gas but not to the saturated vapour because saturated vapours do not
obey equation of state. Apply Dalton’s law of partial pressures to separate the
pressure of gas Pa from saturated vapour pressure Ps.
Worked examples
1. A closed vessel contains a mixture of air and water vapour at 27 0C at a total
pressure of 1.07x105Nm-2. Water vapour is just saturated at this temperature.
Calculate the pressure exerted by the air a lone lowered to 17 0C. What will be
the total pressure in the vessel; contraction and expansion of vessel are
negligible. Saturated vapour pressure of water at 170C is 19 x 102Pa,
saturated vapour pressure of H2O at 270C is 37 x 102Pa.

solution
Air + water vapour at 270C PT = Pa + Ps
PT= 1.07 x 105 Pa = PT - Ps
Pa = (1.07 x 105 – 37 x 102) = 1.033 x 105Pa
At 400c Pa =? T= 400C = 313K.
Applying equation of state
P1V1 = P2 V2, but P1 = 1.03 x 105Pa, T1 = 27+273 = 300K,
T1 T2 P2 =? T2 = 313K, V1 = V2 = V.

1.03 x 105 V1 = P2V1 P2 = 1.033 x 105 x 313

300 313 300

P2 = 1.078 x 105 Pa.

N.B: Since the water vapour is just saturated at 27 0C, beyond 270C the vapour is
unsaturated and below 270C the vessel contains a mixture of air and saturated
vapour.
Page | 81
170C = 17+273 = 290K
Pa40 = 1.078 x 105Pa, T40 = 313K

Total pressure=Air pressure+ saturated vapour pressure

PT = Pa + Ps
PT = Pa17 + 19 x 102
Pa 40 V P a17 V P T 1 . 078×10 5×290
= ⇒ Pa 17= a 17 17 =
T 40 T 17 T 40 313
Pa 17=9 . 99×104 Pa
PT =9 .99×10 4 +19×102
PT =1. 018×105 Pa

2. Air saturated with water vapour is confined in a container at a temperature of

270C and pressure of 1x105Nm-2. At a temperature of 770C the pressure of 1.6 x
105Pa the air remains saturated. Find the saturated vapour pressure of water at
770c. Saturated vapour pressure of water at 270C = 3.6 x 103Pa:

Solution
At 270C, PT = 1.0 x 105Pa, S.V.P = 3.6 x 103Pa
PT = Pa + Ps Pa27 = 1x105 – 3.6 x 103 = 9.6 x 104pa
At 770C, PT = 1.6 x 105Pa.
Pa 27 V Pa 77 V 9 . 6×10 4 ×350
= ⇒ Pa 77= ⇒ P a77=1 . 1247×10 5 Pa
T 27 T 77 300
Pa 77=1 .6×105 −P S ⇒ P S =1 .6×105 −1 .1247×105
PS =1. 488×106 Pa

3. A column of air is trapped in a capillary tube of cross – sectional area closed at

one end by a water index length of the air column is 10cm at 15 0C and 12.6cm at
500C is 1.70 x 103Nm-2. Neglect the weight of the water thread and assume that the
Atmospheric pressure is 101 x 105Nm-2calculate saturated vapour pressure of water
at 500C, if its value at 150C is 1.70 x 103Pa.

Water index

PT
Air column (air +S.V)

At any temperature PT = Pa + Ps = H (atmospheric Pressure)

At 150C
Ps = 1.7x103Pa, PT = H = 1.01 x 105Nm-2
Pa = PT – Ps = 1.01 x 105 – 1.70 x 103
Page | 82
 = 9.93 x 104P a.
From equation of state
P a1 V 1 P a2 V 2
=
T1 T2
T1 = 15 C = 288K, T2 = 500C = 323K V 1= A l 1 and V 2= A l 2
0

P a1 Al 1 P a 2 Al 2 P lT
⇒ = ⇒ Pa 2 = a 1 1 2
T1 T2 T 1 l2
9 . 93×10 4 ×10×323
Pa 2 =
288×12 . 6
Pa 2 =8 .839×10 4 Pa
Using PT = Pa + Ps
⇒ Ps = 1.01 x 105 – 8.839 x 104
PS= 1.26 x 104Pa

4. A horizontal tube of uniform bore, closed at one end has some air rapped by a
small quantity of water. If the length of the enclosed air column is 20cm at 14 0C,
what will it be if the temperature is raised to 40 0C and atmospheric pressure
remains constant at 760mmHg? S.V.P of water at 14 0C and 400C is 10.5mmHg and
49.5mmHg respectively.

Solution

Pa+PS H=760mmHg

At 140C, Pa, = PT – Ps, PT = 76mmHg

Ps = 10.5mmHg, Pa, = 760-10.5 = 749.5mmHg
V1 = Al1, l1 = 20cm.
At 400C, Pa2 = PT – Ps = 760 – 49.5 = 710.5mmHg, V2 = Al2
Pa 1 V 1 Pa 2 V 2 749 . 5 A×20 710 .5× Al 2
= ⇒ =
T1 T2 287 313
749. 5×20×313
l2=
287×710 . 5
l 2 =22. 98 cm

Revision Questions

1. A horizontal tube of uniform bore, closed at one end, has some air trapped by a
small quantity of water. The length of the enclosed air column is 20cm at 12 0C, find
stating any assumptions made the length of air column when temperature is raised
to 350C. (S.V.P of water at 120C and 350C are 10.5mmHg and 49.5mmHg respectively,
atmospheric Pressure = 750mHg) (Answer 23cm)

Page | 83
2. A column of Nitrogen is trapped in a capillary tube of uniform cross sectional area
and closed at one end by a thread of water. The length of the nitrogen column is
22.8cm at 280C and 27.8cm at 84.30C. Calculate the S.V.P of water at 84.30C if its
value at 280C is 16.4x102Nm-2,H= 1.01 x 105Nm-2 and it remains constant also state
any assumptions made.(answer 4268.44Pa).

5.4 Experiment to show the variation of saturated vapour

pressure with temperature and to determine saturated vapour
pressure at any temperature.
thermometer
Water out Tap
To pump

Cold water in h
Manometer

Liquid
Air reservoir

Heat

A vacuum pump is used to withdraw air from the reservoir to a pressure lower than
atmospheric Pressure. The tap is closed and the liquid heated gently until it boils.
The temperature T of liquid and difference in mercury levels h are read and
recorded. The pressure of vapour P = H-h where H is atmospheric pressure is
determined and recorded. The tap is opened and apparatus allowed to cool for a few
minutes. The experiment is repeated for different values of h and temperature T.
A graph of S.V.P against temperature is plotted
S.V.P

Pure water

760mmHg

100oC
Temperature
S.V.P at any temperature can be read from the graph.
Question
Two similar cylinders P and Q contain different gases at the same pressure. When
the gas is released from P the pressure remains constant for some time before it
starts dropping. When the gas is released from Q the pressure continuously drops.
Explain this observation.

Page | 84
Solution
The gas in P is saturated and therefore it is in dynamic equilibrium with its own
liquid. As the gas is released more gas turns to liquid but since pressure is saturated
Pressure remains constant; pressure reduces when all the liquid has turned into gas.
The gas in Q is unsaturated ⇒ obeys gas laws so the temperature reduces leading to
a decrease in pressure.
5.6 Differences between saturated and un saturated vapours.

Saturated vapour Unsaturated vapour

- In dynamic equilibrium with its own - Not in dynamic equilibrium with
liquid. its own liquid.

- does not obey gas laws. - Approximately obey gas laws.

-independent of volume. - Dependent on volume.

-pressure rise more rapidly with - Pressure rises less rapidly with
temperature temperature.

Factors on which evaporation depend;

 Surface area; when the surface area is large more energetic molecules are
exposed hence higher rate of evaporation and when the surface area is small,
fewer energetic molecules are exposed to surface leading to lower rate of
evaporation.

 Temperature; increase in temperature increases kinetic energy of liquid

molecules hence more will escape, decrease in temperature reduces kinetic
energy of molecules hence rate of evaporation is low.

 Drought effect; Occurs when wind blows over the surface removing the
vapour molecules before they have a chance of returning to the liquid leading
to increase in evaporation.

 Reduction in air pressure above the liquid; this reduces chance of

molecules rebounding into liquid leading to increase in evaporation.

5.7 Boiling.
A liquid boils when its temperature is boiling point, bubbles of vapour form
throughout its volume. The pressure inside the bubble is saturated vapour pressure
of the liquid.
5.71 Definition. Boiling point is the temperature at which the saturated vapour
pressure of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

5.72 Kinetic theory of boiling.

Molecules of liquid though moving randomly have attractive forces between them.
When a liquid is heated molecules move faster and forces of attraction are
weakened until they are overcome at the boiling point. At this temperature
Page | 85
saturated vapour pressure of liquid is equal to the external pressure. Liquid
molecules with enough energy escape from the bulk to the atmosphere.

5.73 Experiment to show that a liquid boils only when its

saturated vapour pressure equals external pressure.

Water (liquid)
Beaker

Heat

Air is trapped in the closed limb of a J-tube by water column; the tube is heated in a
water bath. When the water in the beaker begins boiling the water in the J- tube
comes to some level in each limb. This shows that the vapour pressure in the closed
limb is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

5.74 How cooking at a pressure of 76cmHg and at a temperature 100 0c may

be achieved at the top of high mountains.

Cooking pots are with clamped lids and safety valves. As the water boils steam
accumulates inside the pot. The saturated vapour pressure may rise above
atmospheric pressure at that altitude as the density of steam increases. By design
the safety valve opens at 76cmHg so that the pressure inside the pot doesn’t rise
above 76cmHg. This ensures no explosion and cooking is done at 1000C.

Question. Water vapour and liquid water are confined in an air tight vessel. The
temperature of the water is raised until all the water has evaporated. Draw a sketch
graph to show how the pressure of water vapour changes with temperature and
account for its main features.

Solution
P

C
B

V
Page | 86
Water vapour is saturated up to B. The increase in temperature increases kinetic
energy of liquid molecules. Therefore molecules with a higher energy have their
energy increased and escape from the attraction of their neighboring molecules so
they leave the liquid and the liquid evaporates. The density of the vapour increases
therefore saturated vapour increases and vapour becomes unsaturated at point B.
Unsaturated vapour obeys gas laws and hence the linear increase in pressure with
increase in temperature along line BC in accordance with Charles law.

5.8 Differences between evaporation and boiling.

Evaporation Boiling
- Takes place at any - takes place at specific temperature for
temperature a substance i.e. boiling point.

- Takes place at surface of - takes place throughout the liquid.

liquid
- Only molecules with the - takes energy in to occur.
highest kinetic energy escape
living the rest of the liquid.

Page | 87
 6
CONDUCTION

6.0 Introduction
This is the transfer of heat from places of high temperature to places of low
temperature though a substance without the movement of the substance as a whole.

Substances that allow easy flow of heat are good conductors of heat for example
metals.

Substances that do not allow easy flow of heat are poor conductors of heat for
example non-metallic solids such as wood, rubber, plastic, glass etc.

6.1 Mechanism of heat conduction in metals

In metals heat transfer is by two means i.e. by free moving electrons and vibration of
atoms about their mean positions.
When one end of a metal is heated the atoms gain energy and their vibrations
increase thus heat energy is transferred from atom to atom through collisions.
Metals contain free electrons and when one end is heated electrons gain kinetic
energy and collide with other electrons and atoms thus passing on heat energy.

6.2 Mechanism of heat conduction in non metals for example

glass.
In a solid the atoms are closely packed and have strong intermolecular forces as
they vibrate within a fixed lattice. When one end is heated, the molecules (atoms)
vibrate with bigger amplitudes collide with neighboring atoms and lose some of
their vibratory energy a then these in turn also vibrate more vigorously, collide with
other atoms and lose energy to them, in this way heat is propagated throughout the
solid.

6.3 Why metals are better thermo conductions that non-metals.

In metals there are free electrons which gain kinetic energy when heated faster over
long distances and then pass on energy by colliding with other electrons and atoms.

6.4 Effect of touching a metal.

When a metal is touched on the cold day it feels cold this is because it easily
conducts heat from the human body making if feeling colder.

When a metal is heated to a temperature higher than body temperature, when

touched it feels hotter since the body will conduct heat from the metal.

Page | 88
6.5 Thermal Conductivity (Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity)
Consider a slab of thickness l and cross sectional area A having temperature θ1 and
θ2 at the extreme ends such that θ2>θ1.

A
𝛉2 𝛉1
l

dQ
The rate of heat flow dt through the slab depends on;
 The cross sectional area A of the conductor.

 Temperature difference θ2-θ1

 The distance between the faces (lengthl )
 Nature of the material.
dQ ( θ 2−θ 1 )
αA
dt l
dQ KA ( θ2 −θ1 )
=
dt l
dQ
dt
K=
( θ2 −θ1 )
A
l
The constant K is called thermal conductivity or coefficient thermal conductivity.
( θ2 −θ1 )
l , is called the temperature gradient.

6.51 Definition. Temperature gradient is the increase in temperature per meter of

a conductor.
Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat flow normal to 1m2 of a material when the
temperature gradient is 1 K m-1.
The units of K are Wm-1K-1

6.52 Temperature distribution along a conductor

- Un lagged conductor
Divergent lines of heat flow

The quantity of heat passing through the successive cross section of the bar
increases from the hot end to the cold end. Heat is lost from the sides as shown by
the divergent lines of the heat flow. Heat flow faster near the hotter end. When

Page | 89
 A graph of temperature, θ against length , l .

Temperature

Length
The graph shows a non-uniform rate of temperature fall or non- uniform gradient.
The slope at any point on the graph is the temperature gradient at that point.

- lagged bar

Lagging material

Conductor Parallel lines of heat flow

Heat loss on the sides of the bar is negligible. The lines of heat flow are parallel
indicating that the heat flow is the same along the bar hence in steady state the
temperature falls at constant rate resulting into a constant temperature gradient.
A graph of temperature against length.

Temperature

Length

The graph shows a uniform rate of temperature fall and constant temperature
gradient since no heat is lost to the surrounding.

Question
1. With the aid of suitable sketch graphs, explain the temperature distribution along
a lagged and un lagged metal rods heated at one end.

2. Two ends of a metal bar of length 1m are perfectly lagged up to 20cm from either
end. The ends of the bar are maintained at 1000C and 00C respectively
(i) Sketch the graph of temperature against length along the bar.
Page | 90
(ii) Explain the features of the graph.

5.53 Composite conductors

Consider conductors P and Q with thermal conductivities K2 and K1 joined in series

if θ1 is the temperature at the interface, θ2 is the temperature at the extreme of A, θ0
is the temperature at the extreme of Q such that θ2 > Q1>Q0
P Q

A A

𝛉2 𝛉1 𝛉0
20×10-22m

Rate of heat flow a cross P

dQ K 2 A ( θ2 −θ1 )
=
dt l2
Across Q
dQ K 1 A ( θ1 −θ0 )
=
dt l1
Assuming that the rate of heat flow is uniform, lines of heat flow are parallel then
K 2 A ( θ2 −θ1 ) K 1 A ( θ1 −θ0 )
=
l2 l1
Worked examples.

1. A closed metal vessel contains water at 30 0C. The vessel has a surface area of
0.5m2 and uniform thickness of 4mm. if the outer temperature is 15 0C. Calculate the
heat lost per second.
θ2 = 300C, θ1 = 150C
A = 0.5m2, l = 4x10-3m K = 400Wm-1k-1
dQ KA ( θ2 −θ1 )
=
dt l
dQ 0 . 5×400×( 30−15 )
=
dt 4×10−3
dQ
⇒ =7 . 50×10 5 Js−1
dt

2. An iron bar 0.10m long and a copper bar 1.2m long are joined together. The hot
end of the bar is kept at 600C while the cold end of the bar is kept at 0 0C. The
apparatus is lagged at equilibrium the temperature of the junction of the metals is
θo. Both bars at diameter of 0.16m.
(i) Write down the expressions for the temperature gradients across each of the
bars

Page | 91
(ii) Using these expressions write down the equation for power transfer through
each of the bars.
(iii) Explain why it is reasonable to assume that power transfer through each
conductor is the same
(iv) Using the above assumption, calculate θo and the rate of heat flow.

(Thermal conductivity of copper is 390Wm-1K-1, and that of iron is 75Wm-1K-1)

Solution
60−θ o
=
(i)Temperature gradient of iron 0.1
θ o−0 θo
= =
Temperature gradient 1.2 1.2

dQ K Fe A ( 60−θo )
=
dt 0 .1
dQ 75 A ( 60−θo )
=
(ii)dt 0 .1

dQ K Cu A ( θ o −0 )
=
dt 1. 2
dQ 390 A ( θo −0 ) 390 Aθo
= =
dt 1. 2 1. 2

(iii) The bars are all lagged; the rate of heat loss is the same in both bars
(iv)
75 A ( 60−θo ) 390 Aθo
=
0.1 1. 2
750 ( 60−θo ) =325θ o
45000−750 θo =325 θ o
45000
θ o=
1075
θ o=41 .9 o C
dQ 75 A ( 60−θo )
=
dt 0 .1
πd 2 3 . 142×0 . 162
but , A= = =0 . 02011m2
4 4
dQ 75×0. 02011×( 60−41 . 9 )
=
dt 0 .1
dQ
=273 Js−1
dt

Page | 92
3. A copper rod 2m long and diameter 3cm is lagged, one end is maintained at 300 oC.
The other end is pressed against a 2cm cardboard disk of the same diameter as the
rod. The free end of the disk is maintained at 40oC. If the thermal conductivities of
copper and cardboard are 380Wm-1K-1and 0.2Wm-1K-1 respectively. Calculate:
(i)The steady state temperature at the copper-cardboard junction.
(ii)The quantity of heat flowing across the junction in 10 minutes.

Solution.

θoCE
300oC K1 K2 40oC

2mF 2cm
Let θ be the temperature at the junction.

2
πd 2 ( 3×10−2 )
A= =3 . 142× =0 .00070695 m2
4 4

dQ K 1 A ( 300−θ )
=
Across copper rod; dt 2

dQ K 2 A ( θ−40 )
=
Across cardboard dt 0. 02
K 1 A ( 300−θ ) K 2 A ( θ−40 )
=
2 0 .02
380 ( 300−θ ) 0 . 02 ( θ−40 )
=
2 0 . 02
57000−190θ=θ−40
5740 o
θ= =287 C
20

K 2 A (θ−40 )×t
Q=
l2
0. 2×0. 00070695×( 287−40 ) ×10×60
Q=
0. 02
Q=1048 J
∴ Heat flows faster through the brick than the air.
5. Metal rods of copper, brass, and steel are welded together to form a Y shaped
figure. The cross sectional area of each rod is 2cm 2. The free end of the copper rod is
maintained at 100oC, while the free ends of the brass and steel rods are maintained
at 0oC. If there is no heat loss from the surfaces of the rods and the lengths of the
rods are 0.46m, 0.13m and 0.12m respectively,
(i) Calculate the temperature of the junction.
Page | 93
(ii) Find the heat current in the copper rod (thermal conductivities of copper, brass
and steel are 385Wm-1K-1,109Wm-1K-1 and 50.2Wm-1K-1 respectively)
Solution
0oC
0oC
Steel
Brass

Copper

100oC

(i)
Q kA ( θ2 −θ1 )
=
t l
k C A ( 100−θ ) k b A (θ−0 ) k S A ( θ−o )
⇒ = +
lC lb lS
385 ( 100−θ ) 109θ 50 . 2θ
⇒ −2
= −2
+
46×10 13×10 12×10−2
⇒θ=40o C

Q k C A ( 100−θ ) 385×2×10 ( 100−40 )

−4
= = −2
=1. 0×101 Js−1
(ii) t l C 46×10

5.7 The effect of thin layer of a bad conductor.

Question
A lagged copper bar AB whose ends are pressed against metal tanks 0 oC and 100oC
but separated from them by a layer of dirt. The length of the bar is 10cm, and the
dirt layers are 0.1mm thick. Thermal conductivity of dirt is 1/1000 that of copper.
(a) Find the temperature at each of the ends of the bar.
(b) Sketch the temperature distribution on the same graph when
(i) Tanks are pressed directly against the ends of the bar without the
dirt.
(ii) When tanks are separated by the dirt from the ends of the bar.
Solution.
(a)
dQ k 100−θ 2 θ −θ k θ1 −0
= A −3
=kA 2 1 = A
dt 1000 0. 1×10 0 .1 1000 0. 1×10−3

Page | 94
 100−θ2 θ2 −θ1 θ1
⇒ = =
0 .1 0. 1 0.1
⇒100−θ2 =θ2 −θ1 =θ1
θ 2=66 . 7o C , θ1 =33 .3 o C

(b)A graph of temperature against length

100oC

Temperature

66.7oC θ2

33.3oC θ1

100oC Dirt A 0oC

B Dirt
Lagged copper bar

10cm
0.1mm Length 0.1mm

From above,
The continuous lines in the graph show temperature distribution in presence of the
thin layer of dirt at both ends of the lagged copper bar. The broken line shows what
it would be if there were no dirt.
The dirt prevents a good thermal contact i.e. dirt layer has a thermal resistance
hence causes a greater temperature drop.
The scale and soot in boilers and source pans are bad thermal conductors so if not
removed much fuel is needed to boil the water. The boilers and source pans must be
cleaned to a void high consumption of fuel.

5.71 Application of the effect of a thin layer of a bad conductor.

Since air is poor conductor of heat, some buildings are constructed with double
walls and with windows having double glasses separated by a thin layer of air in
order to minimize the amount of heat entering and leaving the building.

Page | 95
Worked examples.
1.A window of height 1.0m and width 1.5m contains a double glass unit consisting of
two single glass planes each of thickness 4mm separated by an air gap of 2mm.
calculate the rate of which heat is conducted through the window if the temperature
of the external surface of glass are 200C and 300C respectively. (Thermal
conductivity of glass is 0.7Wm-1k-1, and that of air is 0.025Wm-1k-1).
θ2 θ1
Solution

Air gap
1m

30oC 20oC

1.5
m
4mm
4mm
2mm

dQ KA ( θ2 −θ1 )
=
dt l
dQ K 2 A ( 30−θ2 ) K 1 A ( θ2 −θ1 ) K 2 A ( θ1 −20 )
= = =
dt 4×10−3 2×10−3 4×10−3
0. 7×A×( 30−θ 2 ) 0 . 025× A×( θ 2−θ 1 ) 0 .7× A×( θ1 −20 )
⇒ = =
4×10−3 2×10−3 4×10−3
0 . 7 A ( 30−θ 2 ) 0 . 025 A ( θ2 −θ1 )
−3
= −3
⇒ 175 ( 30−θ2 ) =12 .5 ( θ 2−θ 1 )
4×10 2×10
⇒187 . 5 θ2 −12. 5 θ1 =5250 .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..(1 )
0 . 7 A ( 30−θ2 ) 0 . 7 A ( θ1 −20 )
Also = ⇒ 30−θ2 =θ1 −20
4×10−3 4×10−3
⇒θ 1 +θ2 =50 .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..(2 )

Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously,

187 . 5θ 2−12 . 5 ( 50−θ 2 ) =5250
5875
200 θ2 =5875 ⇒θ2 =
200
o
θ2 =29 . 4 C
θ1 =50−29. 4
θ1 =20 . 6o C
dQ 0. 7×1×1×1 . 5×( 30−29 . 4 )
= =162 W
dt 4×10−3
2.Two brick walls each of thickness 10cm are separated by an air gap of thickness
10cm. The outer faces of the brick walls are maintained at 20oC and 5oC respectively.
Page | 96
(i)Calculate the temperature of the inner surfaces of the walls.
(ii)Compare the rate of heat loss through the layer of air with that through a single
brick. (Thermal conductivity of the brick is 0.6Wm-1K-1, and that of air is 0.02Wm-1K-
1
)

Solution.
θ2 θ1

Brick AirTemperature (o C)
Brick y 5oC
20oC

10cm 10cm 10cm

dQ KA ( θ2 −θ1 )
=
dt l
dQ K b A ( 20−θ 2 ) K a A ( θ2 −θ1 ) K b A ( θ1 −5 )
= = =
dt 10×10−2 10×10−2 10×10−2
0. 6 A ( 20−θ2 ) 0. 02 A ( θ2 −θ1 )
⇒ =
10×10−2 10×10−2
⇒ 0. 6 ( 20−θ2 )=0. 02 ( θ2 −θ1 )
⇒31 θ2 −θ1 =600 . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. (1 )
0 . 6 A ( 20−θ2 ) 0 . 6 A ( θ1 −5 )
Also =
10×10−2 10×10−2
20−θ2 =θ1 −5 .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. (2)

Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously

31 θ2 −θ1 =600
+
θ 2 +θ1 =25
32 θ2 =625
625
θ 2=
32
θ 2=19 . 5o C
from(2)θ 1=25−θ2
θ1 =25−19. 5
θ1 =5 .5 o C
(ii) If the wall has one layer of brick then the outer surface would be at 20 oC and
0 . 6 A ( 20−5 )
= −2
=90 AW
inner at 5 C. The rate of heat flow through a single brick
o 10×10
0 . 02 A ( 14 . 5−5. 5 )
= −2
=2 . 8 AW
Through air 10×10 heat flows faster through a brick than
through air.

Page | 97
3. A cooking saucepan made of iron has a base area of 0.05m 2 and thickness of
2.5mm. It has a thin layer of soot of average thickness 0.5mm on its bottom surface.
Water boils away at a rate of 0.6Kg per min and the side of the soot nearest to the
heat sauce is at 1500C. Find the thermal conductivity of the soot (Thermal
conductivity of iron = 66Wm-1K-1 and lv = 2200000JKg-1)
100oC
Solution
l1
θoC

l2
150oC
A = 0.05m2 l 1 = 0.5mm = 0.5 x 10-3
l 2 = 0.5 x 10-3, l v = 2.2 x 106Jkg-1
m = 0.6Kgmin-1
Heat that vaporizes the water per time t is
Q mlV 0 . 6×2 . 2×106
= = =2. 2×10 4 Js−1
t t 60

The heat conducted through the source pan per time t is

Q KA ( θ−100 )
=
t l
Heat conducted through the source pan per second = heat that vaporize the water
per second thus;

66×0 . 05 ( θ−100 )
2 .2×104 =
2. 5×10−3
2 . 2×10 4 ×2. 5×10−3
θ−100= ⇒θ−100=16 .7
66×0 . 05
⇒θ=116. 7 o C
The heat conduced through the soot per time t is
dQ K Soot A ( 150−θ )
=
dt 0 . 5×10−3
4 K Soot ×0. 05×( 150−116 .7 )
⇒ 2. 2×10 =
0 .5×10−3
2. 2×10 4 ×0 . 5×10−3
K Soot =
0 . 05×33 . 3
K Soot =6 . 61Wm−1 K −1

Revision questions.
1. A classed metal vessel contains water at 700C; it has a surface area of 7.08m2 and
uniform thickness of 5m. If the outside temperature is 200C, calculate the heat loss
by conduction (K= 400Wm-1K-1)
Page | 98
2.A wall consists of two layers of thickness L 1 and L2 thermal conductivities K1 and
K2 respectively. If the surfaces of the wall are maintained at temperature T1

A ( T 2−T 1 )
L1 L2
+
and T2. Show that the rate of heat transfer through the wall is K 1 K 2 , where
A, is the surface area of the wall.
State any assumptions made.

3.A cooking utensil of thickness 3mm is to be made from layers. One of aluminium
and the other of brass. If one layer is to be 2mm thick and the other 1mm.
Determine which combination allows a higher rate of flow of heat (Thermal
conductivities aluminium and brass are 240Wm-1K-1 and 112Wm-1K-1 respectively.

5.8 Measurement of thermal conductivity

dQ KA ( T 2 −T 1 )
=
In measuring thermal conductivity the expression dt l is used under

Conditions;
 The specimen under test should be in a steady state when measurements are
taken.

 The specimen should be lagged to ensure that the lines of heat flow are
parallel so as the temperature gradient is measurably steep.

 The heat must flow through the specimen at a measurable rate.

Page | 99
5.81 Experiment to determine thermal conductivity of a good conductor
(Searle’s method).

Lagging
material Conductor

Thermometers are placed in the holes filled with mercury at a known distance d
apart.
The conductor of known cross-sectional area A is heated from end B by passing
steam from side B. The conductor is lagged to minimize heat losses.

The whole apparatus is left running with a steady flow of water until a steady state
is achieved.

Temperatures T2 and T1 in the metal bar and T 4 and T3 of the water leaving and
entering respectively are read and recorded.

The steady rate of flow m/t of cooling water is measured with a measuring cylinder
and a stop clock.

Q KA ( T 2 −T 1 )
=
The rate of heat flow across cross section A is t d ,

The heat is carried away by cooling water and the heat carried a way by running
Q m
= cW ( T 4 −T 3 )
water in t seconds is t t .
The heat conducted by a length d of the conductor in a time t = the heat carried a
way by running water in the time t. thermal conductivity, K of the conductor is
determined from,

Page | 100
KA ( T 2 −T 1 ) m
t W( 4
= c T −T 3 )
d
m/t dc W ( T 4 −T 3 )
⇒K=
A ( T 2 −T 1 )
Sources of errors.
Bad thermal contact of thermometers in the holes.
Inaccurate reading of thermometer

N.B: the method is suitable for good conductors because:-

- The rate of heat flow is measureable.
It provides a steep temperature gradient

5.82 Experiment to determine thermal conductivity of a poor conductor e.g.

glass, rubber, plastic.

l
B

 The specimen is made into a thin circular disc of known thickness.

 The specimen is made to rest on brass disk B which contains a thermometer.
The specimen is heated from top by steam chest C whose base is thick and
carries a thermometer. The experiment is left to run until steady is reached.
 At steady state no heat is absorbed by the apparatus.
 Take the steady temperature readings T1 and T2,

T 2−T 1
=
Then temperature gradient l , and the rate of heat flow
Q KA ( T 2 −T 1 )
=
t l , where A is cross sectional area of the specimen.
 The disc is removed and B is heated directly till its temperature is about 10 0C
above T1. C is then removed and specimen placed back on B.
Allow specimen to cool.
 Record its temperature at equal intervals of time.
 Plot a graph temperature against time.
a
 Determine the slope, b of the curve at T1.
Q a
=mc
The rate of heat flow t b where m = mass of B, K is determined from

Page | 101
 a KA ( T 2−T 1 )
mc =
b l
NB.
 Lines of heat flow along the specimen are parallel i.e. almost no heat is lost to
the surrounding.

The large value of surface area and the small thickness lead to measurable

rate of heat flow through the specimen.
These factors lead to a temperature gradient that is steep enough to be
measurable.
Worked example

A circular glass disc of thickness 3mm and diameter 110mm is placed between two
metal discs A and B. The temperature of the lower disc B becomes constant at 93 0C
and the temperature of A at 96.50C when steam is passed. When B is warmed above
930C with the glass disc on it and a cooling curve obtained the rate of cooling at 93 0C
is found to be 0.042Ks-1. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the glass if the mass of
B is 0.94kg and specific heat capacity is 400JKg-1K-1.

Solution
d2
=π
Area of the disc 4
( 110×10−3 ) 2
A=3. 142×
4
A=9 .50455×10−3 m2
kA ( θ2 −θ1 )
=mcs
l
mcsl
k=
A ( θ 2 −θ 1 )
0 . 94×400×3×10−3×0. 042
k=
9 .50455×10−3 ×( 96 . 5−93 )
k =1. 42Wm−1 K −1

From
Trial Question
A square disc of glass of length 12cm thick is placed between two brass disc m and
N. the temperature of the lower disc N becomes constant at 93 0C and that of M
96.50C with the glass disc on it and a cooling curve obtained the rate of cooling at
930C is found to be 0.043ks-1. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the glass if the
mass of N is 0.85kg and its specific heat capacity is 410Jkg-1k-1.
Answer K = 0.595Wm-1k-1

Page | 102
 7
THERMAL RADIATION

7.0 Introduction
Thermal radiation is the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body on account of
its temperature. At low temperature, a body emits mainly infra-red and at high
temperature it emits visible and ultraviolet.

Infrared is the radiant energy beyond the red and it is less refracted than the red.

7.1 Properties of infrared radiation.

- Moves at speed of light in a vacuum (3x108ms-1).
- It is reflected and refracted just like light
- Cause se in temperature when absorbed by matter.
- Cause photoelectric effect when it falls on surfaces like cesium.
- Affect photographic plates.

7.2 Detection of infrared radiations

Infrared detectors are detectors that react to infra red radiation.
7.21 Thermopile

Highly polished surface.

A
Radiation B
A mV
A B

Shield (to shield B from the radiation)

A – Hot junctions
B – Cold junctions
- Radiation is incident on the exposed junction A of the thermocouples.
- An electromotive force is generated which depends on the temperature
between junctions.
- The electromotive force is measured using a millivolt meter. The magnitude
of this radiation depends on intensity of the incident radiation.

Page | 103
 7.22 Thermoscope
Blackened bulb B Un blackened bulb

Ether

- A is blackened, B is not
- Radiation is shone onto the bulbs.
- Heat is absorbed and as a result temperature increases in the blackened
bulb and the liquid evaporates. The vapour or gas acts on the surface of ether
and rises in the limb which is un blackened ⇒ presence of infrared
radiation.

7.3 Experiment to compare the energy radiated by two different surfaces.

Th
erm
opi
le

B A
Polished surface

Dull black surface

A cube painted with one of the faces having a black surface and the other having
a polished surface is filled with hot water and placed near the thermopile.

The cube is turned such that the black surface faces the thermopile. A deflection
is observed on the galvanometer.

The cube is then turned such that the polished surface faces the thermopile and
also a deflection is observed. The deflection caused by the black surface is larger
than that caused by the polished surface. Therefore, black (dull) surfaces radiate
more than polished surfaces.

Page | 104
7.4 Black body radiation.
Black body radiation is the type of radiation within or surrounding a body in a
thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, or emitted by a black body.
When radiation falls on the surface, some of it will be reflect, some absorbed and
some transmitted.

Reflected
Incident radiation radiation

Absorbed
radiation

Transmitted radiation

Incident radiation=reflected + Absorbed +transmitted

7.41 Definition. A prefect black body is the one that absorbs radiation of all ware
lengths incident on it and reflects and transmits none

7.42 Approximating a black body

Incident radiation

Small hole

Radiation incident through a small hole suffers multiple reflections inside the
container. A big percentage of radiation is absorbed at each reflection, eventually
radiation is retained inside the container.

7.43 Black body radiator

The amount of radiation emitted by a body depends on:-
- surface area of the body
- the nature of the surface
- temperature of the body
A black body radiator is one which emits radiation which x-tic of its temperature and
doesn’t depend on the nature of its surface.
Black body radiation is radiation whose ware length depends only on temperature of
the body.

Page | 105
7.44 Energy distribution in the spectrum of a black body (intensity
against wavelength for a black body at three different
temperatures).

Relative intensity E λ T3>T2>T1

T2
Violet

Invisible

Red

Wavelength λ

Features
- Relative intensity increases with temperature for different values of but increases
more for short ware lengths.
- The curve has a maximum at definite wavelength for different temperature.
- The maximum shift to the left for shorter wavelengths.
From the above curves the following conclusions can be made;

 The appearance of the body depends on the position of λ max – The body
changes from its colour when cold to red hot to yellow hot to white hot and
eventually to blue hot.
 A black body at room temperature appears black, because most of the energy
it radiates is infrared and cannot be perceived by human eye.
 At higher temperatures black bodies glow with increasing intensity and
colours that range from dull red to bright blue white as the temperature
increases.

 Stars which are hotter than the sun look blue but not white because the
peaks of their radiation curves lie further towards the visible blue than the
peaks of sunlight.

 The Centre of fire appears white because the temperature is highest at the
Centre⇒ It’s hottest. All wavelength radiation is at that temperature thus
combination of all colours results into white. Also the maximum intensity
corresponds to the visible range or maximum Intensity corresponds to all
wavelengths being emitted.

Page | 106
 The area under any particular curve is the total energy radiated per unit time

per unit surface area at the corresponding temperature.
Definition: Relative intensity E λ is the energy radiated per m2 per second per metre
wavelength interval.

Intensity E is the energy per second per m2 or power emitted per m2.

7.45 Variation of relative intensity with wavelength for a black body and
non-black body at the same temperature.
Relative intensity

Black body radiation

Black body radiator

Non black body radiator

0 Wavelength

7.5 Laws of black body radiation

The bulk properties of electromagnetic radiation interacting with matter are
summarized in set of rules called radiation laws; these include Stefan’s law and
Wien’s displacement law.
7.51 Wien’s displacement law
λ T =cons tan t
It states that max , where λ max is the maximum wavelength of radiation
at a given temperature T.
The value of the constant = 2.9x10-3mK.
7.52 Stefan’s law
It states that power radiated per m2 of a black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
P 4 P
αT ⇒ =σT 4 ⇒ P=σ AT 4
A A , where σ is a constant of proportionality called
Stefan’s constant.
σ = 5.67 x 10-8 wm-2K-4 and A is the radiating area. In case of non-black body the
4 4
equation P=σ AT can be expressed as P=εσ AT where ε is the emissivity of the
body and its value depends on the nature of the surface. O ≤ ε ≤ 1.

Worked examples

1. A tungsten filament of an electric lamp has a length of 0.5m and diameter of 6 x

10-5m. The power rating of the lamp is 60W. Assuming the radiation from the
Page | 107
filament is equal to 80% that of a perfect black body radiator at the same
temperature; estimate of temperature of the filament (σ = 5.7 x 10-8 wm-2k-4),
Solution
ε = 80% = 0.8,l = 0.5m, d = 6 x 10-5m, P=60W.
4
The wire is cylindrical ⇒ A=2 πrl P=εσ AT ,

( ) (
P 14 60
)
1
T= = 4
εAσ 0. 8×2×3 . 142×3×10−5 ×5. 7×10−8 ×0 .5
T =1933 K

2. A 100W electric lamp has a filament which is 0.6m long and has a diameter of 8 x
10-5m. Estimate the working temperature of the filament if its total emissivity is
0.70. (σ= 5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4)

Solution

l = 0.6m, d= 8x10-5m, ε = 0.70, P = 100W.

A=2 πrl ⇒ A = 2x3.142 x 4 x 10-5 x 0.60
A = 1.50816 x 10-4m2

( ) ( )
1 1
P 4 100
T= = 4
εAσ 0. 70×1 . 50816×10−4 ×5 .7×10−8
P=εσ AT 4 ⇒ T =2018 K

3. A tungsten filament of 40W lamp is at a temperature of 2170 0C and has an

effective surface area of 0.64cm2. Assuming that the energy radiated is 31% of that
of a black body in similar conditions and that any effect due to the radiation from
the glass envelope is negligible.
(i) Estimate the value of Stefan’s constant.
(ii) Calculate the frequency emitted with maximum intensity.
(Wien’s constant = 2.9x10-3mK)
Solution.
P = 40W, T = (273+2170) = 2443K, A = 0.64 x 10-4m2
ε = 0.31.

σ=
( PεAT )=(040. 31×0 . 64×10
4 −4
×2443 4 )
4 −8 −2 −4
(i) P=εσ AT ⇒ σ =5 .66×10 Wm K

(ii) Using Weirs displacement law.

cons tant 2. 9×10−3
λ max T =constan t ⇒ λ max = = =1 .187×10−6 m
T 2443

Page | 108
 C=fλ
C 3×108
f min= =
λmax 1. 187×10−6
14
But f min =2 . 527×10 Hz

4. A wire AB of length 1.3m and diameter 0.3mm is placed in an evacuated glass

tube. The wire is coated black. The current through reads 20A and a potential
difference of 30V and wire is about to melt. Assuming that the wire radiates as a
black body.
(i) Estimate the melting point of the metal.
(ii) Calculate the wavelength which is emitted with maximum intensity from the
wire.
Solution.
surface area=2 πrl, r= 1.5x10-4m, l = 1.3m, I = 20A, V = 30V,
A = 2x3.142x 1.5 x 10-4 x 1.3 = 1.225x10-3m2.

4
P = IV=power radiated P=σ AT (since it radiates like a black body).

IV =σ AT ⇒T =4 IV 14
σA ( )
( )
1
20×30
T= 4
5.7×10−8 ×1.225×10−3
T =1712 K
λ T =cons tan t
(ii)using max
2. 9×10−3
λ max = =1 . 694×10−6 m
1712
5. The element of an electric fire has a temperature of 1150K. Calculate the
frequency at which the intensity of the radiation by the element is maximum.
(Wien’s displacement constant is 2.9x10-3mK)
Solution.
λ max T =cons tan t
From Wien’s displacement law

cons tan t 2 . 9×10−3

⇒ λmax = = =2 .52×10−6 m
T 1150

C=fλ
C 3×108
f min= =
λmax 2. 52×10−6
f min=1 . 1897×1014 Hz

Page | 109
7.6 Hot object in an enclosure
Consider a black body at a temperature T placed in an enclosure at a temperature To,
since the body is in temperature equilibrium the energy per second it radiates must
be equal to the energy per second it absorbs.
There fore, energy radiated per second = energy absorbed from the surrounding per
second.
σ AT 4 =σ AT 4
o
If the black body is heated electrically by the heater to a constant temperature T.
then energy per second = energy from the heater per second.
But since T is greater than To, there will be net power radiated
¿ power radiated by body – power absorbed by surroundings .

netpower =σ AT 4 −σ AT 4o
⇒ P=σA ( T −T o )
4 4

7.61 Prevost’s theory of heat exchanges.

It states that a body at constant temperature is in a state of thermal equilibrium with
its surroundings. The rate of radiation is equal to the rate of a absorption.

When the temperature of a body is constant the body is losing heat by radiation and
gaining it by absorption at equal rates and the body is said to be in a dynamic
equilibrium.

Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the temperature of a body is constant and the
body is loosing heat by radiation and gaining it by absorption at equal rates.

Worked examples
1. A solid copper sphere of diameter 20mm is cooled to a temperature of 500K and
is then placed in an enclosure maintained at 300K. Assuming that all the exchange of
heat is by radiation, calculate then initial rate of temperature loss of the sphere
assumed as a black body. (σ is 5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4, specific heat capacity of copper is
370JKg-1k-1, density of copper is 8.95x103Kgm-3)

Solution
d= 20x10-3m, T = 500K, To = 300K,

( )
2
20×10−3
2
A=4 πr =4×3 . 142× =1. 257×10−3 m2
2

Net power radiated =power radiated by sphere – power absorbed by the sphere sphere .

Page | 110
netpower=σ AT 4 −σ AT 4o
⇒ P=σA ( T −T o )
4 4

Δθ
mc =σA ( T 4 −T 4o )
Δt
Δθ σA 4 4
⇒ = ( T −T o )
Δt mc

( )
3
4 4 20×10−3
m=ρV ⇒m= πr 3 ρ= ×3 . 142× ×8 . 93×10 3
3 3 2
But m=0 . 0374 Kg
Δθ 5 . 7×10 ×1. 257×10 ×( 500 −300 )
−8 −3 4 4
−1
= =0 . 28 Ks
Δt 0 .0374×370

2. A metal sphere with a black surface and diameter 30 mm is cooled to -70 0C

(200K) and placed inside an enclosure at a temperature of 270C (300K). Calculate
the initial rate of temperature rise of the sphere assuming the sphere is a black body
(density of the metal sphere is 800Kgm-3, specific heat capacity of metal is
400JKg-1K-1 and σ is 5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4).
Solution
d = 3.0 x 103m, To = -730C =-73+273= 200K, T = 27 = 300K, ρ = 800Kg m-3 C = 400Jkg-
k , σ = 5.7x10-8wm-2k-4.
1 -1

netpower=σ AT 4 −σ AT 4o
⇒ P=σA ( T −T o )
4 4

Δθ
mc =σA ( T 4 −T 4o )
Δt
Δθ σA 4 4
⇒ = ( T −T o )
Δt mc

( )
2
30×10−3
2
A=4 πr =4×3 . 142× =2. 83×10−3 m2
2

( )
3
4 3 4 30×10−3
m=ρV ⇒m= πr ρ= ×3 . 142× ×800
3 3 2
m=0 . 0113 Kg

Δθ 5 . 7×10 ×2. 83×10 ×( 300 −200 )

−8 −3 4 4
= =0 . 23 Ks−1
Δt 0 . 0113×400

Page | 111
7.7 The Solar constant (solar power)

Solar constant is the energy per second a riving at the earth’s surface per m 2. Units
are Wm-2.

If distance between the surface of the sun of radius rs and the earth is R.

R Earth
Sun
rS

from the sun per second (power radiated from the sun) is give
The energy radiated
4
by =σA S T S where TS is the temperature of the sun, AS is the area of the sun assume
2 2 4
to be a sphere such that, A S =4 πr S ⇒ P S =4 πr S σT S

solar constant = power radiated ¿ the sun ¿

surface area of the sphere o f radius R

4 πr 2S σT 4S
Solar constant = 4 π R+ r 2 , but R≫r S ,thus R+r S ≈ R
( S)

4 πr 2S σT 4S
Solar constant =
4 πR 2
r 2S σT 4S
Solar constant =
R2

Worked example.
1.The solar constant from of sun is 1400Wm -2 estimate the sun’s temperature if its
radius is 7x108m (the distance of earth from the sun is 1.5x1011m)
Solution
r 2S σT 4S
Solar constant = 2
=1400 Wmm−2
R

But R = 1.5x1011 + r s = 1.5x1011 + 7x108 = 1.507 x 1011m

Page | 112
 ( 7×108 ) 2×5 . 7×10−8 T 4S
1400= 2
( 1. 507×1011)
2
1400×( 1 . 507×1011 )
⇒T S =
( 7×108 ) 2×5 . 7×10−8
T S =5808 . 6 K

2. Consider sun to be a sphere of radius 7x108 whose surface temperature is 5900K.

(i) Find the solar power incident on the area of 1m 2 at the top of the earth’s surface
if this is a distance of 1.5x1011m from the sun.

(ii) Explain why the solar incident at 1m2 of the earth’s surface is less than the value
calculated above.
Solution
r 2S σT 4S
Solar constant =
R2
= 5.7x10-8x59004 x (7x108)2
(1.507 x 1011)2
= 1490Wm-2
(ii) Solar radiation incident on the atmosphere is partially absorbed by the
atmospheric gases and partly scattered. This accounts for the difference.

7.8 Estimation of the temperature of the earth

s
n ray
Su R Earth
Sun
rS

Suppose rs and rE are radii of the sun and earth respectively.

2 4
Power radiated by the sun, PS =4 πr S σT S
The sun radiates in all directions but the area that receives the radiations on earth is
a circle of radius rE

A E =πr
Area of the circle that receives the radiation on the earth’s surface = E2

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 Power received by the earth=solar constant ×area on the earth receiving theradiation .

Power received by the earth

¿ Stefan’ s law power radiated by the earth=¿ , the earth radiates as a sphere to its
sorrroundings.

At equilibrium, power received by the earth is equal to the power radiated by the
earth.
Thus,

( )
1
r
T E =T S S 2
2R
Worked examples.
1.Estimate the temperature of the earth TE, assuming it is in a radioactive
equilibrium with the sun (Radius of the sun = 7x108m, surface temperature of sun =
6000K distance from the earth to the sun = 1.5x1011m, σ = 5.7x108Wm-2k-4)

Solution
r 2S σT 4S
Solar constant =
R2
Power received by the earth
¿ Stefan’ s law power radiated by the earth=¿

At equilibrium, power received by the earth = power radiated by the earth.

Thus,

( )
r S 12
( )
1
7×10 8
T E =T S =6000 2
2R 2×1 .5×1011
T E =289. 8 K

2. The average distance of Pluto from the sun is about 40 times that of the earth
from the sun. If the sun radiates as a black body at 6000K and is 1.5x10 11m from the
earth. Calculate the surface temperature of the Pluto.
Solution.
R=40x1.5x1011=60x1011m
TS=6000K.

r 2S σT 4S
Solar constant =
R2

Power received by the Pluto

¿ Stefan’ s law power radiated by the Pluto=¿

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At equilibrium, power received by the Pluto = power radiated by the Pluto.
Thus,

( )
r S 12
( )
1
7×10 8
T P=T S =6000 2
2R 2×60×1011
T P=45 .8 K
3. The energy intensity received by a spherical planet from a star is 1.4x103Wm-2.
The star is of radius 7x105Km and is 14x107Km from the planet.
(i) Calculate the surface temperature of the star.
(ii) State any assumption you have made.
Solution.
r 2S σT 4S
Solar constant = =1 . 4×103
R2

(7×105 ×103 )×5 . 67×10−8 T 4S 3

=1 . 4×10
32
( 14×10 ×10 )
7

T S =5605. 9 K
4. A radiation from the sun falls normally on the metal foil of area 100cm 2 placed on
the ground to give a certain temperature rise. When the radiation is shielded off, a
current of 0.7A maintained through the foil under a potential difference of 8.0V
gives the same temperature rise in the same time. Assuming that the earth’s
atmosphere absorbs 60% of the solar intensity incident on it, estimate the surface
temperature of the sun.(radius of the sun, r S=7x108m,Stefan’s constant,
σ=5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4, distance of the sun from the earth =1.5x1011m)
Solution.
2 4
Power radiated by the sun , PS =4 πr S σT S

r 2S σT 4S
=
intensity (solar constant) R2
Solar

If the earth’s atmosphere absorbs 60% of the solar intensity then the earth absorbs
⇒ Power absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere
40% of the solar flux
At radiating equilibrium, power absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere =power
radiated by earth = IV

0 . 4 σr 2 T 4S
S
×100×10−4 =IV
R2

Page | 115
 ( )
2 1
0 .7×8×( 1 .5×1011 ) 4
T S= 2
0 . 4×5 .7×10−8 ×( 7×108 ) ×100×10−4
T S =5 . 8×10 3 K

7.9 Greenhouse house effect and how it leads to global warming.

Short wave length radiation from the sun passes through glass of the green house.
This is absorbed by plants and soil leading to increase in temperature. Plants and
soil re-radiate long wavelength radiations which cannot penetrate the glass and is
trapped in the green house leading to higher temperature inside the green house.
Water vapour, carbon dioxide and other green house gases exhibit the same
selective absorption effect in the atmosphere; making the earth to have high
temperature by absorbing short wavelength radiation. The earth re-radiates long
wavelength radiation which is absorbed by the layers of the green house gases. This
leads to increased temperature over the earth and after a long time may lead to
global warming.

Revision exercise.

1. (a) state Stefan’s law of black body radiation.

(b) Briefly describe how a thermopile can be used to detect thermal
radiation.
(c) The tungsten filament of an electric lamp has a length 0.5m and
diameter
6x10-5m.the power rating of the lamp is 60W.assuming the radiation
from the filament is equivalent to 80% that of a black body radiator at
the same temperature, estimate the steady temperature of the
filament. (5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4). (Answer: 1933K).
(d) A radiant wall heater is a silica cylinder 25m long and radius 0.75mm.
it is rated 3KW. If the room temperature is 25oC, estimate the
working temperature of the heater. (Answer: T=298.0K)
2. (a) state Prevost’s theory of heat exchanges.
(b) Describe briefly how a perfect black body can be realized in the school
laboratory.
(c) A metal sphere with a black surface and radius 0.03m is cooled to
200K and placed inside an enclosure at a temperature of 300K.
Calculate the initial rate of temperature rise of the sphere, assuming
the sphere is a black body.(assume density of the metal is 8000Kgm-
3
,specific heat capacity of the metal is
400JKg-1K-1, and Stefan’s constant is 5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4)
(answer0.012Ks-1)
(d) The intensity of the sun’s radiation falling normally on the earth’s
surface is about 1.6KWm-2.this radiation falls normally onto a lake of
area 2.3Km2 and average depth 12m. If the lake surface reflects 40%
of the radiation. Calculate the initial rate of temperature rise of the
lake. (answer:1.9x10-5Ks-1)

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3. (a) what is meant by solar constant.
(b) Derive the expression for the solar constant defining all the symbols
used.
(c) The solar intensity is about 1400Wm -2.estimate the surface
temperature of the sun, given that the sun’s radius is 7x10 5Km, the
distance of the sun from the earth is 1.5x10 8Km and the Stefan’s
constant is 5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4.(answer 5800K.)
4. (a) sketch the spheral distribution of black body radiation for three
different temperatures and describe their main features.
(b) Explain why a body at 1000K is red hot whereas 2000K it is white hot.
(c) A strip of a metal foil coated black, is placed on the ground. The area
of the strip exposed to solar radiation is 100cm2.the solar radiation
falls normally on the strip and a certain temperature rise is obtained.
The strip is then shielded from the radiation and a current of 2.8A is
maintained through the foil under a potential difference of 2V for the
same duration as in the first case. The same temperature rise is
obtained. If 0nly 0.4 of the solar intensity incident on the earth’s
atmosphere reaches the earth’s surface, estimate the surface
temperature of the sun. (Distance of the earth’s surface from the sun
is 1.5x1011m, radius of the sun is 7x108m, Stefan’s constant is
5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4). (answer: 5789K).
(d) Explain green house effect and indicate why it leads to global
warming.
5. (a) state Stefan’s law of black body radiation.
(b) State Wien’s displacement law and explain how the law is used to
explain the colour changes in a hot metal object as its temperature
rises.
(c)
Water tank

Solar energy collector

An aluminium reflecting sheet 50m by 20m is made into a semi

cylindrical shaped solar energy collector as shown above. A copper
pipe a long its focal axis has water circulating through it. Assuming
that 75% of the solar energy reaches the collector and the rate of flow
is 0.5Kgs-1and the initial temperature of the water is 90 oC and only
70% of the energy from the reflector is absorbed by the water.
Calculate:
(i) The energy received per second by the collector.
( Ans:1.2x106W)

Page | 117
 (ii) The temperature of the out flowing water.(surface
temperature of the sun = 6000K) (ans:490oC)

5. (a) (i) state Stefan’s law of black body radiation.

(ii) A strip of metal foil coated black is placed on the ground. The
area of the strip exposed to the radiation from the sun is
0.01m2. The radiation from the sun falls normally on the strip
to obtain a certain temperature rise. The strip is then shielded
from the radiation and a current of 1.4A is maintained through
the foil at a potential difference of 4.0V to obtain the same
temperature rise. If only 40% of the intensity of radiation
incident on the earth’s atmosphere reaches the earth’s surface,
estimate the surface temperature of the sun.
(Answer:Ts=5803K)
(iii) If the foil above was not painted black but was 80% black, what
potential difference would have to be applied across it to
maintain a constant temperature?(Answer:V=3.58V)
(c) A solid metal sphere is placed in an enclosure at 27 oC. When its
temperature is 227oC, it cools at a rate of 3.2oC per minute. What is
rate of cooling when a solid sphere of the same material but twice the
radius, at 127oC is placed in the same enclosure?

8
MODERN AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Production and properties of free electrons
Page | 118
8.0 Introduction.
An electron is a negatively charged particle moving around a nucleus of an atom.

Electrons are usually bound to the atoms but it’s possible to free them from those
atoms if a sufficient energy is applied.

Methods of freeing electrons.

These include:
 discharge through a gas
 thermionic emission
 photo electric emission
 field emission
 Secondary emission.

8.1 Discharge through a gas

Gas discharge is the passage of electricity through a gas gases are bad conductors of
electricity, however, under reduced pressure at very high potential difference gases
conduct electric current, this takes place in a discharge tube.

8.11 Discharge tube

a discharge tube is a glass tube filled with two electrodes placed apposite to each
other. The function of the pump is to reduce or change pressure inside the tube.
Cathode
Anode

To the vacuum pump

E.H.T

8.12 How discharge takes place in the tube (mechanism)

At a low pressure and high energy potential different between cathode and anode of
a discharge tube, the existing free electrons produced from cathode due to outer
radiation falling on it are accelerated towards the anode, on their way they collide
with unilateral gas atoms and remove some electrons from them, the atoms them
become gaseous which accelerate towards the cathode (ionization); the continuous
ionization and drift of electrons and gaseous ions to their opposite sign terminals
leads to flow of current in the tube hence production of electricity.
8.13 Current against voltage x-tics for a gas discharge tube.

Current C

Page | 119

B
A
 Features of the graph.
OA – very weak current detected attributed to released electrons by the cathode
because of the external radiation.
AB – As voltage increases the anode begins to attract electrons increasing current
slightly.
BC- electrons accelerated by the anode collide with gas atoms releasing more
electrons. There is rapid and uncontrollable increase in current.

8.14 Discharge tube at high potential difference and varying pressures.

At different pressure different observations are noted.
 At a pressure of about 10mmHg
- A
+ discharge of blue steamers observed.
C A

 At a pressure of about 2mmHg.

- Long luminous column appears from anode to
+
Cathode (the positive column)

 At a pressure of 1mmHg.
Negative glow
Positive column

- +

Faraday’s dark space

 At a pressure of about 0.5mmHg.

Faraday’s dark space

- +

Page | 120
Negative glow Croke’s dark space
  At a pressure of about 0.05mmHg.
Croke’s dark space

- +

Striations column

Cathode glow
Faraday’s dark space

 At a pressure of about 0.01mmHg the positive column, striations, negative

glow, and cathode glow all disappear, croke’s dark region fills the tube. A
steam of visible particles is emitted from the cathode. The entire tube
fluorescences.
8.15 Applications of discharge tubes.
 Making mercury lamps, sodium lamps.
 Neon signs.
 Fluorescent tubes.
 Street lights/ flood lights.
Question.
Give an account of the stages observed when an electric discharge passes through a
gas at pressures varying when 50m atmosphere pressure to about 0.01mmHg as air is
pumped out when the potential difference across the tube maintained at extra high
tension.

8.2 Thermionic emission.

Thermionic emission is a process by which electrons are produced from a metal
surface when heated.

8.21 Mechanism of thermionic emission

Metals contain free electrons in the lattice, when the temperature of the metal is
raised, velocities of the electrons increase, and some electrons acquire sufficient
energy to escape from the metal surface.

8.3 Photo-electric effect.

Photo electric effect is a process by which electrons are emitted from a metal
surface when a radiation of a particular frequency falls on it.

8.31 An experiment to demonstrate photo electric effect using a gold leaf

electroscope

Page | 121
8.32 Mechanism of photoelectric effort.
Metals contain free electrons in their lattice, when radiation with sufficient energy
falls on the metal surface, electrons acquire the energy to enable them escape from
the attractive forces of positive ions in nucleus. These electrons are called
photoelectrons which then give rise to photo current.

8.33 Photoelectric effect in photocell.

This is a circuit that is used to study photoelectric effect

Radiation
Cathode
Anode

Monochromatic light is directed on to a photosensitive surface of the cathode.

Electrons are emitted from the cathode and accelerated towards the anode A which
is kept at a high positive potential with respect to the cathode. (These are
photoelectrons).

As a result the galvanometer shows a deflection indicating a flow of current due to

the continuous drift of electrons from cathode to anode.

Page | 122
If the anode is kept at a high negative potential with respect to the cathode, the
emitted electrons will experience a retarding potential and will crowd around the
cathode and the galvanometer will show a zero deflection.

8.34 Application of a photocell.

 Automatic operation of street lights. These lights turn on when surrounding
environment is dark and turn off when it becomes bright light again.

 Exposure meters in photographs. The photoelectric cell produces a current

proportional to light falling on it, this current operates a galvanometer which
is calibrated to read the time of exposure.

 It is used to detect intruders.

 Used in robotics, where they direct robots to hide in the dark or to follow a
line or beacon.

 Used as timers to measure the speed of runners during a race.

Terms used;

 work function (WO)

This is the minimum amount of energy of the incident radiation required to set
electrons free from the attractive forces of positive ions in the nucleus.
 Threshold frequency (fo)

This is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which no

photoelectrons are emitted.

 stopping potential: (Vo)

This is the potential difference that just stops photoelectrons with maximum kinetic
energy from reaching the anode
 Threshold wavelength.
This is the maximum wavelength of incident radiation above which no electrons
are emitted.
1 2
mu =eV O
2 max
hc
C=f O λO ⇒ f O=
Work function,W O =hf O but λO
C
W O =h
λO

8.35 Characteristics / features/ laws of photoelectric effect.

Page | 123
  For every metal surface there is a minimum frequency of radiation called
threshold f bellow which no photoelectrons are emitted.

 The number of photoelectrons emitted S-1 (photocurrent is proportional to

the intensity of the radiation).

 The kinetic energy of photoelectrons ranges from zero to a maximum which

increases with increasing frequency but independent of the intensity of
incident radiation.

 There is no time lag between irradiation and emission of electrons i.e.

photoelectric emission is an instantaneous.

8.4 Quantum theory explanation of photoelectric effect.

The theory postulates that light is emitted and absorbed in discrete packets called
quanta or photons.

The energy of each quanta or photon is hf where

f =frequency of radiation.
−34
h=plank ’ s constant =(6.625 × 10 Js)
When light / radiation are incident on a metal surface each quantum or photon of
light it interacts with one and only one electron in metal surface giving it either all
its energy or not at all.

If the photon energy hf is greater than the work function,W o, the electron is
dislodged from the surface.

The remaining portion of the energy is available kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons.
hf −W =K . E
o . If the photon energy is equal to the work function
electrons will be emitted but with zero kinetic energy and the electrons will crowd
around the surface of the metal.
If photon energy hf is less than work function no photo emission occurs.

The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given by Einstein’s equation.

K . E max =hf −W O
1 2
hf =W O + mumax
2
Where umax is the maximum speed of the electrons.
8.41 Definition. A photon or quantum is a packet of energy carried by an
electromagnetic radiation.
8.42 Explanation of the laws using quantum theory.
Photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
- Photocurrent is proportional to intensity of incident radiation.
- Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of
the incident radiation and is independent of the intensity.

Page | 124
- For any metal, there is a minimum f below which no photoelectron emission can
occur.

According to quantum theory, radiation is emitted and absorbed in quanta. When a

single quantum (photon) interacts with an electron in the metal surface it gives all
or none of its energy ⇒ only one electron absorbs the energy of one photon,
number of photoelectron is proportional to the number of incident photons
(intensity of radiation) of the photon energy, part is used to overcome attraction of
the electron by the metal surface and the rest appear as kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons.
Minimum energy required to emit an electron W O =hf O
W
⇒ f O= O
h , below fO, no photo emission occurs.
Question. Explain using quantum theory, the experimental observation on
photoelectric effect.

The different forms of Einstein’s equation are:

1 1 2
hf =hf O + mu2max mumax =eV O=max imumK . E
2 but 2

Where VO is the stopping potential, e is the electron charge.

hf =hf O +eV O
The equation can also be expressed in terms of wavelength since C=fλ where c=
C C
f= andf O=
speed of light in a vacuum λ λO
C C
⇒h =h + eV O
λ λO

8.43 Experimental evidence in support of the quantum theory.

Quantum theory states that energy exists in discrete packets of energy each of
magnitudehf , where f is frequency; h = plank’s constant.
Evidence;

 to liberate an electron from a metal surface a quantum

Photoelectric effect:
(packet) of energy called work function which is a characteristic of a metal
has to be supplied i.e.
hf −W =K . E
o max
 Optical spectra: A line in the spectrum indicates the presence of a particular
frequency of light and is considered to rise from loss of energy which occurs
in an excited atom where an electron jumps directly or in steps from higher
energy E2 level to lower energy E1 level. The frequency of the packets of
energy emitted is given by hf = E1 – E2. x-ray line spectra electron transitions
from one shell to another lead to liberation of energy in packets
characteristic of the target atom.
Page | 125
8.5 Experiments on photoelectric effect.
8.51 Experiment To Verity Einstein’s Equation

 The anode A is made negative with respect to cathode. The cathode is

illuminated by monochromatic light of a known frequency, f and emitted
electrons experience a retarding potential.
 The potential difference is varied until millimeter just reads zero. The
voltmeter reading is noted Vo. (stopping potential).

 The procedure is repeated using different filters to alter f and corresponding

voltmeter reading Vo recorded.
 A graph of Vo against f is plotted.
vo

fo f

hf o
e
h h
V o= f − f o
 The graph is a straight line verifying Einstein’s equation e e

Page | 126
8.52 Experiment to determine stopping potential Vo

 The anode is made negative with respect to the cathode.

 The cathode is illuminated with monochromatic light so that the
photoelectrons experience a retarding potential.
 The potential difference is varied until the millivolt meter just reads zero.
 The voltmeter reading Vo is noted this is of stopping potential.

8.53 Experiment to determine plank’s constant.

 The anode is made negative with respect to the cathode.

 The cathode is illuminated with monochromatic light of a known f so that
electrons experience a retarding potential.
 The potential difference is varied until the milliameter just read zero.
 The voltmeter reading Vo is noted.

 The experiment is repeated using different filters to vary f and corresponding

voltmeter readings noted.

 Determine the slope of the graph, s .

h
h =s
 Determine the Plank’s constant from e .

Page | 127
8.54 Experiment to determine threshold frequency of a metal surface.

 The anode is made negative with respect to the cathode.

 The cathode is illuminated with monochromatic light of known frequency, f
so that electrons experience a retarding potential.
 The potential difference is varied until the milliammeter just reads zero.
 The voltmeter reading Vo is noted.

 The procedure is repeated by using different filters to vary f in each case V o

noted.

 A graph of Vo against f is plotted.

 Determine intercept on the f – axis. This is the threshold frequency.

Worked examples

1. If a photo emissive surface has a threshold wavelength of 0.65μm. Calculate:-

(i) Its threshold frequency.
(ii) Work function.
(iii) Maximum speed of the electrons emitted by violet light of wavelength 0.4um.

Solution

(i) λ o = 0.65µm = 6.5x10-7m

C 3×10 8
f O= = −7
=4 . 6×1014 Hz
From, λO 6 .5×10

−34
(ii)W O =hf O=6. 63×10 ×4 . 6×1014=3 . 05×10−19 J

(iii)

Page | 128
1 2 C
mu Max=hf −W O =h −W O
2 λ

u Max =
√ (
2 C
h −W O
m λ )
u Max =
2
√
9. 11×10−31 (
6 . 63×10−34×3×108
6 . 5×10
u Max =4 . 685×104 ms−1
−7
−3 . 05×10
−19
)

2. Cesium has a work function of 1.9eV. Find

(i) Threshold wavelength.
(ii) Maximum energy of the liberated electrons when the metal is illuminated by
light of X 4.5x10-7m.
(iii) Stopping potential.

Solution
(i) W o = 1.9x1.6x10-19 J e V = 1.6x10-19J
= 3.04x10-19J
C hC 6 . 63×10−34×3×108
W O =h
⇒ λO = =
λO W O 3 . 04×10−19
λ =6 . 54×10−7 m
From, O

From
C
hf =W O +K . E Max ⇒ h =W O +K . E Max
λ
C
K . E Max =h −W O
λ
3×108
K . E Max =6 . 63×10−34× −7
−3 . 04×10−19
4 .5×10
−19
K . E Max =1 .38×10 J

K . E Max 1 .38×10−19
K . E Max =eV O ⇒ V O= = =0 . 8620V
(ii) From e 1. 6×10−19

3. (a) Write down the Einstein is equation photoelectric effect.

(b) Explain how the equation above accounts for the emission of electrons from the
metal surface illuminated by radiation.

Solution.
1
hf =hf O + mu2max hf
3 (a) 2 . Where is energy of each incident photon.
hf O = Work function, ½ mu2max = maximum kinetic energy.

Page | 129
h = plank’s constant, f = frequency.
(b)
 The incident light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons.
 Each photon is of energy hf where f = frequency.
 A free electron absorbs either the whole energy of single photon or none.
 If the energy of the photon is sufficient, part of it is used in dislodging or
overcoming the nuclear attraction.
 The rest becomes the kinetic energy of the electrons thus the electric can
escape from the metal surface.

8.6 The Classical Wave Explanation

In classical wave theory, the energy of electromagnetic radiation is carried within

the wave itself. As the electromagnetic wave (of intensity I) collides with the surface,
the electron absorbs the energy from the wave until it exceeds the binding energy,
releasing the electron from the metal. The minimum energy needed to remove the
electron is the work function w o of the material. (w o is in the range of a few electron-
volts for most common photoelectric materials.)

Three main predictions come from this classical explanation:

1. The intensity of the radiation should have a proportional relationship with

the resulting maximum kinetic energy.
2. The photoelectric effect should occur for any light, regardless of frequency or
wavelength.
3. There should be a delay on the order of seconds between the radiation’s
contact with the metal and the initial release of photoelectrons.

8.61 Failures of classical/ wave theory of photoelectric effect.

 According to wave theory, radiant energy is uniformly distributed/ spread
over the whole wave front which is not in line with the fact that electrons
absorb only a fraction of the total energy.

 It also states that there should be time lag between time of irradiation and
emission of electrons which time lag cannot be observed.

 According to the wave theory, increasing intensity would mean more energy
and hence greater valve of maximum kinetic energy however maximum
kinetic energy depends on the frequency of incident radiation and not
intensity.

 Existence of threshold frequency cannot be explained/ accounted for by the

wave theory.

Revision exercise.

1. (a) What is meant by photoelectric effect.

Page | 130
 (b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate photoelectric effect.

(c) Cesium has a work function of 1.9eV, find:-

(i) The threshold
(ii) Minimum energy of the liberated electrons when the metal is
illuminated by light of wavelength 4.58x10-7m.
(iii) Stopping potential.

2. (a) Define the allowing terms as applied to photoelectric emission.

(i) Work function. (ii) Threshold frequency
(iii) stopping potential.

(b) Describe an experiment to determine stopping potential.

(c) A photoelectric surface has a work function of 4eV. What is the

maximum velocity of the photoelectrons emitted by light of frequency
1015Hz incident on the surface?

3. (a) (i) Write down Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect.

(ii) Explain how quantum theory explains photoelectric effect.

(b) Describe an experiment to verify Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

(c) Violet light of wavelength 0.4μm is incident on a metal surface of

threshold wave length 0.65μm. Find the maximum speed of the
emitted electrons.

4. (a) (i) Define a photon.

(ii) State the laws of photoelectric effect.

(b) Describe an experiment to determine threshold frequency.

(c) The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons ejected from a

tungsten surface by monochromatic light of wavelength 248μm was
found to be
8.6x10-20J. Find the work function of the Tungsten.

(d) (i) Explain the classical wave theory of photoelectric emission.

(ii) Explain the features of classical wave theory.

5. Light of frequency 6.0x10-14Hz incident on a metal surface ejects

photoelectron having kinetic energy 3.0x 10 -9J. Calculate the energy needed
to remove an electron from the metal.

6. A dean surface of potassium in a vacuum is radiated with light of wave length

5.5x10-7m and electrons are found just to emerge but when light of wave
length 5.0x10-7m is incident, electrons emerge each with energy 3.6x10 -2J.
Estimate the value of plank’s constant.
Page | 131
7. A 100mW beam of light of wave length4.6x10 -7m falls on a cesium surface of
a photocell.
(i) How many photoelectrons strike the cesium surface per second?
(ii) If 80% of the photon emit photoelectrons. Find the resulting
photocurrent.
(iii) Calculate the kinetic energy of each photoelectron if the work function
of cesium is 2.15eV.

8. An argon laser emits a beam of light of wavelength 4.88x10-7m. The power of

the beam being 100mW.

(a) How many photons per second are emitted by the laser?

(b) If a beam falls on a cesium cathode of photocell. What photoelectric

current would be observed assuming 10% of the photo electrons are
able to eject an electron?

(c) Given that the limiting frequency of cesium is 5.2x1014 Hz. What
reverse potential difference between the cell electrodes is needed to
surprise the photocell current?

8.7 Field emission

This is the discharge of electrons from a metal surface subjected to a strong electric
field.

In absence of a strong electric field an electron must acquire must acquire a certain
minimum amount of energy called work function to escape through the surface of a
given metal which acts as a barrier to electron passage.

If a metal is placed in an electric field at a negative potential to the nearby electrode

the work function is so lowered that some electrons which have sufficient energy to
leak through the surface barrier.

8.8 Secondary emission.

This is the ejection of electrons from a metal that is bombarded by a beam of
electrons.

Some electrons within the surface of a metal are given enough energy to break free
from the attractive forces holding them to the nucleus by transfer of kinetic energy
from bombarding particles.

Page | 132
Page | 133
 9
CATHODE RAYS

9.0 Introduction
Cathode rays are steams of fast moving electrons.

9.1 Production of cathode rays in a cathode ray tube (C.R.T)

Anode
Cathode

Dull black surface

Fluorescent screen
-T1+T3

E.H.T

The cathode produces electrons by thermionic emission. Electrons are accelerated

by extra high tension potential difference connected between the fluorescent screen.

9.2 Properties of cathode rays

 They travel in straight lines.
 They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
 They have momentum hence they are particles.
 They carry a negative charge hence they are electrons.
 Upon sticking glass or certain other metals they cause them to glow.
 They fluorescence certain substances.

9.21 Experiment to show that cathode rays travel in straight lines

Anode Maltase cross
Cathode Florescent screen

Page | 134
- + Sharp shadow

E.H.T
Cathode emits electrons thermionically; they are accelerated by extra high potential
difference between the cathodes and anode.

When maltase cross is placed in the path of these electrons indicates that cathode
rays travel in a straight line.

9.22 Justification of the properties

 They travel in straight lines because they cast a sharp shadow of a maltase
cross on the fluorescent screen.
 They carry a charge, they are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
 They have momentum because they make a maltase cross to rotate.

9.23 Experiment to show that cathode rays convey a negative charge

Faraday’s cage

Cathode Anode

Vacuum

Electron beam
Low voltage B

N
Gold leaf electroscope
EHT

Apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram, with the cap of the electroscope
originally negatively charged, connected to the faraday’s cage.
A magnetic pole is used to deviate the electron beam to the cage.
It is observed that whenever the beam struck the cage, the divergence of the leaf of
the gold leaf electroscope increases. This shows that cathode rays are indeed
negatively charged.

9.3 Motion of cathode rays (electrons) in an electric field

Suppose a horizontal beam of electrons at a speed u enters mid way between the
plates, the plates separated by distance d, length l a potential difference V connected
a cross the plates.

O1
Vy
P+ ϴ

Vx
Ums-1 ϴ
O
Electron beam
d
Screen Page | 135

Q -
D
- The force on an electron of charge moving between the plates is
F = eE, E = v/d where E is electric field intensity.
- Since E is vertical no horizontal force acts on the electron entering the plates
horizontal velocity u is constant.
1 F
y= a y t 2 F=ma a y=
- In a vertical direction, displacement, 2 ,from y⇒ m , but
eE eEt 2 dis tan ce x
a y= y= t= =
F=eE ⇒ m ⇒ 2 m , also speed u , where x is the horizontal
distance moved by the electron.

eEx 2
y= 2
2 mu 2 , where m is electron mass. This is of the form y=kx hence the path of
an electron in an electric field is parabolic.

eEL2
y=
When electron just passes the plates ⇒ x = L⇒ 2 mu 2 , then the beam moves
in a straight line. Therefore when electron comes out of the electric field it moves in
a straight line

Vertical component of velocity y y V =u +a t

y but y u =0
since initially the beam is
moving purely horizontal there is no vertical component of the initial velocity.

eEt L eEL
V y=a y t ⇒ V y= t= V y=
m , but u⇒ mu and V x=u because u is constant and it
is horizontal.

√(
V = V 2 +V
x y2 )

√ e2 E 2 x2
√
2 2 2
2 2 e E L
V= u + V = u +
m 2 u2 and when x=L⇒ m2 u 2 and this would be the speed of
the electron at the edge of the plates.

Vy
tanθ=
And the angle,ϴ at which beam emerges from the field is given by: V x but
eEL tan θ= eEL V tan θ=
eVL
V y= 2
E=
mu ⇒ mu and d ⇒ mdu 2
S S eVL
tanθ= tan θ= =
1 1 mdu 2
L+ D L+ D
Also 2 , therefore 2
Where d = separation of plates.

Worked examples

Page | 136
1(a) Explain the motion of electrons in an electric field.
(b) A beam of electrons moving with a velocity of 1x10 7ms-1 enters midway between
two horizontal parallel plates P, Q in a direction parallel to plates. P and Q are 5cm
long and 2cm apart and have a potential difference, V applied between them.
Calculate V if the beam is deflected so that it just glazes the edge of the lower plate
Q.
e
(Assume m = 1.8x1011CKg-1)

Solution
(a) The electrons experience an electric force (F = E e) in the direction opposite to
that of the field. This makes them to describe a parabolic path.

When electrons move centrally in two parallel plates in an electric field, they
experience F = E e, normal to the direction of electrons causing them to describe a
parabolic path.

e
Given u=1x10 ms L=5cm, d=2cm, and m = 1.8x1011Ckg-1
7 -1,

y=
eEL2 d 2×10−2
y= =
From 2 mu 2 but 2 2 = 1.0x10-2m

2
−2 1 .8×10 E ( 5×10 )
11 −2
eEL2 −2 1×10 =
1×10 = 2
⇒ 2 mu2 ⇒ 2 ( 1×10 7 ) ⇒ E = 4.4x103Vm-1, butV =Ed
⇒ V =4 . 4×10
3
×2×10−2 ⇒ V = 88.9 Volts.

2. A screen is placed 50cm from the metal plates 2cm apart and 8cm along. An
electron of kinetic energy 6.4x10-16J is directed midway between the plates.
Calculate the p.d which must be applied across the plates to deflect the electrons
4cm on the screen.
Solution.
Given information.
e= 1.6x10-19C
S= 4x10-2m
D = 50x10-2m
L = 8x10-2m
D = 2x10-2m.
1
K . E= mu2 =6. 4×10−16
Lets use the kinetic energy formula to calculate the speed 2

⇒
u=
√( 2×6 . 4×10−16
)
9 . 1×10−31 ⇒ u = 3.75x107ms-

Page | 137
 S eVL Smu 2
tan θ= = E=

Also
1
2
L+ D mdu
2

⇒
1
eL L+ D
2 ⇒ ( )
2
4×10−2×9. 1×10−31×( 3 .75×107 )
E=
1 . 6×10−19×8×10−2 ( 8×10−2
2
+50×10−2 )
⇒ E = 7405.6Vms-1
But V =Ed ⇒ V = 7405.6x2x10-2 ⇒ V = 148 Volts.

3. In a cathode ray oscilloscope electrons are accelerated through a potential

difference of 9000V focused into a narrow beam. Calculate
(i) the velocity of the electrons in the beam.
(ii) What is the number of electrons in 1cm length of the beam if the current carried
by the beam 4.4A.
(iii) The same beam passes along a line midway between the electrostatic deflecting
plates 20cm long and 4cm apart.
What is the value of the p.d between the plates required to deflect the beam through
the greatest angle possible.

Solution.
1
K . E= mu2 =eV o
(i) Kinetic energy = electric energy⇒ 2 , Vo = accelerating
potential difference (potential difference before the electrons reach the plates)

u=
√
2 eV o
m ⇒
u=
√
2×1 . 6×10−19×9000
9 .1×10−31 ⇒ u=5.6x107ms-1
(ii) If n is the number of electrons.
It L
n= t=
Q=It =ne ⇒ e but u and L=1×10-2m

IL 4×10−6 ×1×10−2
n= =
eu 1 . 6×10−19×5 .6×107 ⇒ n = 4.4x103electrons.

(iii) L= 20x10-2m, d = 4x10-2m

The beam is deflected through a greatest angle when the beam emerges just at the
edge of the plates y = 4/2 = 2cm = 2x10-2m

Page | 138
 eEL2 V y= eVL 2 2 mdu2 L
y= E= V =
From 2 mu 2 but d 2 dmu 2 ⇒ eL2 ⇒
7 2
2×9 .1×10 ×2×10 ×( 5 . 6×10 )
−31 −2
V= 2
1. 6×10−19×( 20×10−2 ) ⇒ V= 713.4volts

4. In a C.R.O an electron beam passes between the y- deflections plate each 5cm long
and 0.5cm a part. The distance between the center of the y-plate and the screen is
20cm and the p.d between the anode and electron gun is 2500V. Determine the
deflection in vm-1 of the electron beam on the screen of the CRO.

Solution.
Vo = 2500V, L = 5x10-2m, d = 0.5x10-2m
L
/2 + D = 20x10-2m.
Let the p.d between plates be V deflection in screen s.
1
k . E= mu 2 =eV o
From 2

√ 2 eV 0
√
−19
2×1. 6×10 ×2500
u= = 7 −1
m 9 . 1×10−31 ⇒ u=2. 96×10 ms
Vy S Eel S
tanθ= = −2 =
From, Vx 20×10 ⇒ mu 20×10−2
2

2
V 9. 1×10 ×( 2. 96×10 ) ×0 .5×10
−31 7 −2
V Vel S
E= = =
But, d ,⇒ mu2 d 20×10−2 ⇒ S 20×10−2×1 . 6×10−19×5×10−2

V = 2494.6Vm-1

Exercise:

(a) What are cathode rays?

(b) (i) Describe the mechanism of thermionic emission.

(ii) Describe how cathode rays are produced in a C.R.T.

(c) An electron gun operating at 3000V is used to project electrons into the space
between two oppositely charged plates of length 10cm and separation 5cm.
calculate, the deflection of the electrons as e.g. emerge from the region between the
charged plates when the p.d is 1000V.( ans;1.67×10-2)

Page | 139
9.4 Motion of electrons in a magnetic field
Consider an electron beam moving with a common velocity u entering magnetic
field B at right angles to B. The force F=Beu is at right angles to both B and u.
Magnetic force cannot change the speed of electron, hence its kinetic energy is
conserved, the beam moves in a circular path with constant velocity.

FB  Beu
Since the beam moves in a circle of radius, r, magnetic force perpendicular to the
path is equal to centripetal force which acts towards the center
mu 2 mu
Beu= r=
r ⇒ Be

9.41 Motion of an electron in crossed uniform electric & magnetic

fields
+

Consider an electron moving with speed u at right angles to both the electric field of
intensity E & magnetic flux density, B at right angles to both the electric field
intensity.

The electric force on the electrons is F=eE acting downwards.

The electron will pass through the region of the crossed fields un deflected if F e=Fm
i.e. the electric force equals to magnetic force.

E
u=
If the electron has a speed B , then it will pass through the region of crossed
fields in deflected.
If Fm>Fe then the beam will be deflected upwards
If Fm<Fe then the beam will be deflected downwards
Page | 140
9.42 Joseph John Thomson’s experiment to determine specific charge of an
electron. (J.J Thomson)
e
Specific charge is the ratio of charge to mass of an electron, m .
Florescent screen
Filament
Anode

K
X
Low voltage

C
V

 Electrons are emitted from F thermionically and accelerated to anode.

 With no magnetic force and electric field applied at X, the electron will reach
point K on the screen.
 Point K is noted.
 The magnetic field of known flux density B is applied at x to deflect the
electron beam to position C. Electric field is also simultaneously applied at x
and adjusted until beam goes back to K.
 The potential difference across plates V and plate separation d are noted.
e V2
=
m 2 V a d 2 B2
 The charge to mass ratio
Where Va is the accelerating potential difference.

The theory of the experiment.

1 2
mu =eV a
The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is 2 where
Va = accelerating potential difference.
2 eV a
u2 =
m
Also when electric force balances with magnetic force at crossed fields.
E u2 = E2
u=
Fe=Fm ⇒ eE=Beu ⇒ B⇒ B2
E2 2 eV a e E2 V e V2
= = 2 E= = 2 2
⇒ B2 m ⇒ m 2 V a B but d ⇒ m 2d Va B

Page | 141
9.43 The fine beam experiment to determine specific charge of an
electron
Hydrogen gas at low pressure

Accelerating potential difference

Anode
Va

Heating potential difference

Glass bulb

Cathode
Electron path

Electrons are emitted thermionically from the cathode and accelerated to anode.
Electrons collide with hydrogen atoms, causing the atoms to emit light, revealing a
circular path of electrons.
Uniform magnetic field, B within the bulb deflects the beam back to the cathode.
The radius r of the path is measured by use of a plane mirror. Determine the specific
charge of an electron from;
e 2V a
=
m B2 r 2 Where Va is the accelerating potential difference.

Worked examples
1. A beam of electrons having a common velocity enters a uniform magnetic field in
a direction normal to the field.
(i) Describe and explain the subsequent motion of electrons.
(ii) Explain whether a similar path would be followed if a uniform magnetic field
were substituted for a magnetic field.

Solution
The electrons will describe a circular path since they experience a magnetic force (F
= B e u) at right angles to the direction of motion and to the field, this provides a
centripetal force.

The electrons experience an electric force (F = e E) in the direction opposite to that

of the field. This causes them to describe a parabolic path.

Page | 142
2.An electron having 450eV of energy moves at right angles to a uniform magnetic
field of flux density 1.50x10-3T. Show that the path of the electrons is circular and
e
=1 . 76×10 11 CKg −1
find its radius (assume m )
Solution.
1 2
mu =eV a
From 2 where Va = 450V
2

u=
√( m
2 eV a
)
The path of electron is a circle because the force is constant and always normal to
the electron path. Its radius is given by:

Beu=
mu 2
r ⇒
r=
mu
Be ⇒
r=
m
Be √( 2 eV a
m )
r=
1
B √( 2 mV a
e ) ⇒
r=
1
1 .5×10−3 √( 2×450
)
1. 76×1011 ⇒ r = 4.8x10-2m

3.An electron acceleration by a potential difference of 1000V passes through a

uniform electric field of intensity E, crossed with a uniform magnetic field of flux
density 0.3T. If the electron emerges un deflected. Calculate the electric field
intensity.
Solution.
For crossed fields, F E =F B =eE=Beu
=E=Bu.

Also
1
k . E= mu 2 =eV o u=
2 ⇒
2 eV 0
m ⇒
E=B
2eV 0
m √ √
⇒
E=0 .3
√ 2×1. 6×10−19×1000
9 . 1×10−31 ⇒ E= 5.63x106Vm-1

4. A beam of cathode rays is directed mid-way between two parallel metal plates of
length 4.0cm & separation 1.0cm. The beam is deflected through 10cm on the
fluorescent screen placed 20cm beyond the nearest edge of the plates when a
potential difference of 200V is applied a crossed the plates. If the deflection is
crossed out by a magnetic field of flux density 1.14x10-3T applied normal to the
electric field between plates, find the charge to mass ratio of cathode rays.
Solution
Given
L=4cm
Page | 143
D=20cm
S=10cm
D=1cm
S eEL
tan θ= =
1 mu 2
L+ D
From 2

S B2 eL
2 =
E u2 = E 1 mE
u= 2 L+ D
But for crossed fields B⇒ B ⇒2

e ES e VS
= =
m
(1
B2 L L+ D
2 ⇒)but
E=
V
d ⇒
m
( 1
dB 2 L L+ D
2 ⇒)
e 200×10×10−2
=
m 2 1
(
1×10−2×( 1. 14×10−3 ) ×4×10−2 × ×4×10−2 +20×10−2
2
e
⇒m )
=1 . 76×10 11 Kg

Revision exercise
1(a) Describe the motion of electrons in
(i) a uniform electric field.
(ii) a uniform magnetic field
(iii) a crossed electric and magnetic field.

9.5 The cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)

Functions of the essential parts of a C.R.O

Low voltage supply: Heating the filament.
Page | 144
Filament – Heats the cathode.
Cathode – produces electrons when heated.
Control grid - controls the number of electrons in the beam.
Focusing anode - focuses the beam (electrons)
Accelerating anode – accelerates the electrons.
Y – Plates- Defines electrons vertically.
X – Plates- deflect electrons horizontally.
Graphite coating- conducts stray electrons away to the earth.
Fluorescent screen- Display the signals

Mode of operation
The cathode is heated indirectly and emits electrons thermionically. The grid
controls the number of electrons in the beam Anodes A1 & A2 focus & accelerate the
electrons onto the screen. X and Y plates deflect electrons horizontally and vertically
respectively.
Graphite coating conducts stray electrons to earth. The fluorescent screen displays
the signal.
Time base: Is a circuit connected to x- plates and generates a saw tooth potential
difference which enables the wave form applied to y- plates to be seen.

9.51 Uses of C.R.O

 Used as a voltmeter
 Display wave forms.
 Compare frequencies
 Measure time intervals
 Measure phase relationships

9.52 Advantages of cathode ray oscilloscope over the usual voltmeter.

 The electron beam acts as a pointer of negligible inertia making it accurate.
 Can measure both ac & d.c
 Has an almost infinite resistance to d.c & a very high impedance to a.c and so
the circuit to which it is connected is not affected.
 C.R.O is not damaged by over loading.
Worked examples
1.A CRO has its sensitivity set to 10Vcm-1.A sinusoidal in put voltage is suitably
applied to give a steady trace with time base switched on so that the electron beam
takes 0.01s to traverse the screen. If the trace seen has a peak to peak height of 4cm
& contains to complete cycles, find the:,
(i) Root mean square value of the input voltage.
(ii) Frequency of the input signal.

Peak to peak voltage=4x10=40V

peaktopeak
peakvoltage=
2

40 peakvoltage 20
= V r . m . s= =
2 =20V. √2 √2 = 14V
Page | 145
 0 .01
T= =0 . 005 sec onds
(ii 2
1 1
f= =
But T 0 . 005 = 200Hz.

2. The gain control of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is set on 0.5Vm -1 and an alternating
voltage produces a vertical trace of 2cm long with the time base off. Find the root
mean square value of the applied voltage.

Solution

Peak voltage= y-sensitivity x height to peak

=0.5x2

=1v.

peaktopeakvoltage 1V
V peak = ⇒ V peak = =o .5 V
2 2
V 0. 5
V r . m . s = peak = =0 .35 V
√ 2 √2
Revision questions

1(a)(i) Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram the main features of a cathode
ray oscilloscope.

(ii) State two uses of a CRO.

(b) A beam of electrons is a accelerated through a p.d of 2000v & is directed mid
way between two horizontal plates of length 5cm & a separation of 2cm. The p.d a
cross the plates is 80v.

(i) Calculate the speed of the electrons as they enter the region between the plates.

(ii) Explain the motion of the electrons between the plates

(iii) Find the speed of the electrons as they emerge from the region between the
plates

Constant temperature bath

9.6 Millikan’s oil drop experiment.

Oil spray
Travelling microscope
A
H K
Page | 146
X-rays
B
Intense light
  A & B are metal plates a distance d apart; H is a hole in plate A.
 Switch K is open. Oil drops are sprayed through H i.e. they are introduced
with extra charge by applying x-rays.
 The chamber is illuminated with intense light from the arc and drops
observed using a traveling microscope, select a suitable drop and determine
its terminal velocity u1, by measuring the distance of fall x1 through a time t
x1
u1 =
such that t .
 The switch k is closed to provide a known potential difference V between
plate A and B, obtain the new terminal velocity u2
 Calculate the charge Q from

Q=
6 πd
V √( 9 ηu1
)
( u −u )
2 ( ρ−σ ) 1 2 , where ρ is density of oil; σ is density of air

g is acceleration due to gravity.

Theory of the experiment

Before application of potential difference, the forces on the drop are F1 , U & W
F1 U

W
U=up thrust, F= viscous drag,

w= weight of drop at terminal state

F1+ u = W -------- (1)

4 3 4 3
U = πr σg W = πr ρg
But F 1=6 πη ru 1 , 3 and 3

Page | 147
 4 4
6 πη ru1 + πr 3 σg= πr 3 ρg
3 3

⇒
4
6 πη ru1 = πr 3 ( ρ−σ ) g
3 ………………… (2) ⇒
r=
√( 9 ηu1
2 ( ρ−σ ) g )
When a potential difference V is applied the forces in action are F E =QE ,
4 4
U = πr 3 σg F =6 πη ru W = πr 3 ρg
3 , 2 2 , 3

When u2 = new terminal velocity

F2 FE U

U+F +FE = W
4 4
6 πη ru 2 + πr 3 σg+ QE= πr 3 ρg
3 3

4
6 πη ru 2 +QE= πr 3 ( ρ−σ ) g
3 …………………..(3)
Substituting (2) in (3)

6 πη ru 2 +QE=6 πη ru 1

6 πη r ( u1 −u2 ) V 6 πη dr ( u1 −u2 )
Q= E= Q=
E But d⇒ V

Also from (2) ⇒

Q=
6 πd
V √( 9 ηu1
2 ( ρ−σ ) )( u1 −u2 )

N.B

For the drop to remain stationary, viscous force is zero.

If up thrust is neglected, or if density of air is neglected then u=0

If the drop falls steadily viscous force acts upwards.

If the drop raises steadily viscous force acts down wards

Page | 148
Worked examples

1.Calculate the radius of oil drop density 900Kgm -3, which falls with a terminal
velocity of 2.9x10-4 ms-1 through air of viscosity 1.8x10-5Nsm-2. Ignore the density of
air if the charge on the drop is -3e, what p.d must be applied between two plates
5mm apart (e= 1.6x10-19C) for the drop to remain stationary.

Solution

If σ is ignored, up thrust, U = 0

At terminal state

( )
1
4 9ηu
F=W ⇒6 πηru= πr 3 ρg⇒ r= 2
3 2ρg

( )
1
9×1.8×10−5 ×2.9×10−4 2
r=
2×900×9.81
r=1.63×10−6 m
When p.d V is applied,
At stationary state
3
4 4 πr 3 ρg 4×3 . 142×( 1 .63×10 ) ×900×9 . 81
qE= πr 3 ρg⇒ E= =
3 3q 3×3×1 .6×10−19
E=333716 .7 Vm−1
FromV =Ed , d=5x10-3m
V =333716. 7×5×10−3
V =1668 . 6 V

2.(a) Give a conclusion from Milliken’s oil drop experiment.

(b) Explain how Milliken experiment for measuring charge of an electron proves
that charge is quantized.

(c)Oil drops are introduced into the space between two plat horizontal plates set
5mm apart. The plate voltage is them adjusted to exactly 780V so that one of the
droplets is held stationary, then the plate voltage is switched off and the selected
droplet is observed to fall a measured distance of 1.5mm in 11.2seconds. Give the
density of the oil used is 900Kgm-3 and viscosity of air is 1.8x10-5Nsm-2, calculate on
the charge of the droplet.

Solution.
The value of charge is found to be an integral multiple of a small quantity the =
1.6x10-19.
Page | 149
i.e. Q = ne where n is an integer.
Milliken’s results showed that the droplet charge was always a whole number
1x1.6x10-19C. Thus carried by a single electron is -1.6x10-19C. A droplet carrying
charge = Nx1.6x10-19 has either N electrons too many or too few. Hence Millikan
showed that change is quantized.

(c)Given
d = 5x10-3m, v = 780v, since density of air has not been given we shall neglect it.

( )
1
9 ηuO
r= 2 dis tan ce 1 .5×10−3
2 ρg uO = = =1 . 34×10−4 ms−1
but time 11. 2

⇒ r=( ) ⇒r=1.11×10
−5 −4 1
9×1.8×10 ×1.34×10 2 −6
m
2×900×9.81
mgd 4 4 3
q= m= πr 3 ρg= ×3 . 142×( 1 .11×10−6 ) ×900×9 . 81=5 . 058×10−14 Kg
V But 3 3
5. 058×10−14×9. 81×5×103
⇒ q=
780
q=3 . 24×10−19 C

3. A charged oil drop of mass 4x10-15Kg falls at constant speed in Milliken’s oil drop
experiment when there is no p.d between the plates. This drop is held stationary
when an electric field is applied between the two plates. If the drop carries 6
electronic charges each of value 1.6x10-19C. Calculate the value of the electric field
strength.

Solution.
m = 4x10-15Kg

When drop is stationary there is no friction (viscous force (drag))

mg
Eq=mg ⇒ q=
E But q=ne=6×1 .6×10−19=9. 6×10−19 C
mg 4×10−15×9 . 81
E= = −19
=40875 Vm−1
q 9 . 6×10

4. An oil drop damping on charge of 3e fails under gravity in air with a velocity of
4.6x10-4ms-1 between parallel plates 5mm a part. When the p.d of 4600V is
connected between the plates of drop rises steadily. Assuming that the effect of air
buoyancy on the drop is negligible, calculate:-

Solution.
u1 = 4.6x10-4ms-1

Page | 150
 ( ) (
9 ηu1 12
)
1
9×1.8×10−5 ×4.6×10−4 2
r= ⇒ r= ⇒r=2.05×10−6 m
2 ρg 2×900×9.81
When p.d is applied new terminal velocity u2 the drop rises steadily.
4
Eq=6 πη ru 2 + πr 3 ρg.................................(i )
3
V 4600
E= = =9 . 2×105 Vm−1
But d 5×10 −3

q=ne=3×1. 6×10−19=4 . 8×10−19 C

Making u2 the subject from (i)

3
3 Eq−4 πr ρg 3×9. 2×10 ×4 . 8×10 −4×3 . 142×( 2 . 05×10 ) ×900×9 . 81
3 5 −19 −6
u2 = =
18 πηr 18×3 . 142×2 .05×10−6 ×1 . 8×10−5
u2 =1 .768×10−4 ms−1

5. In Millikan’s oil drop experiment, an oil drop of mass 4.9x10-14Kg is balanced by

applying a p.d of 2KV between two plates which are 8mm apart. Ignore the density
of air. Calculate the number of charges on the drop.

Solution.
mg
Eq=mg ⇒ q=
At balance E
V mgd
E= ⇒ q=
But d V
4 . 9×10−14 ×9 . 81×8×10−3
q=
2×103
q=1 . 92×10−18 C
q 1 . 92×10−18
q=ne ⇒ n= = =12
But e 1 . 6×10−19

Revision exercise.
1(a) what is meant by quantization of charge?
(b) A spherical oil drop of r = 2x10-6 is held stationary between two parallel plates
across which a p.d of 4500V is applied. If the separation of the plates is 1.5cm.
Calculate the charge on the drop if the density of oil is 880kgm-3.
(Ans: q = 9.64x10-19)

2. In Millikan’s oil drop experiment a droplet is observed to fall with a terminal

speed of 1.4mms-1 when no electric field is applied. Then a vertical electric field of
4.9x105Vm is switched on and the droplet is observed to continue down wards at a
terminal velocity of 1.21ms-1. How many quantum units of charge do the droplet
passes. (Given that density of oil = 750Kgm-3, viscosity of air
= 1.8x10-5Nm-2)
Page | 151
3. In Millikan’s apparatus the horizontal plates are 1.5cm apart with the electric field
switched off an oil drop is observed to fall with a steady velocity
2.5x10-2cms-1. when the field is switched on the upper plate being positive the drop
just remains stationary when the p.d between the two plates is 1500V.
(a) Calculate the radius of the drop. (Ans: 1.5x10-6m)
(b) How many electric charges does it carry? (Ans: 8)
(c)If the p.d between plates remains un charged, with what velocity will the drop
move when it has collected two more electrons as a result of exposure to ionizing
radiation. (Oil density = 900Kgm-3, Viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nsm-2).

4. In Millikan’s experiment a single charged drop was found to fall under gravity at a
terminal velocity of 0.004cms-1 and to rise at 0.0120cms-1when a field of
2x105Vm-1 was suitably applied. Calculate the electronic charge given that radius of
the drop was 6x10-7m & that viscous of the gas under the conditions of the
experiment was 1.80x10-5 Nsm-2 (Ans: 1.6X10-19C).

5. A small metal sphere of radius 0.5mm has mass of 1.0x10-3kg is dropped into oil of
which the viscosity is 0.36Nsm-2. What is the terminal velocity at which it falls?

6. The data below is from an experiment similar to Millikan’s experiment

-Density of oil = 900kgm-3, p.d across the plates = 613V
- Plate separation = 0.01m
- Viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nms-2
When the voltage between the plates is turned off the droplet falls steadily a
distance of 2.50x10-3m in a time of 225. What is the charge? Take
g=9.8ms-2(Ans:q=6.4x10-19)

7. In an experiment to determine the charge on a charge oil dropt, the dropt was
held stationary in a vertical electric field of strength 57kvm-1. After the field was
switched off, the droplet fell at a steady speed, taking 18.35 to fall through a vertical
distance of 2.0mm.
a) Calculate the speed of the droplet it falls.
b) Show that the drop’s radius is 9.7x10-7m.
c) Calculate the charge of the droplet (Ans: q =3.61x10-19)
d) Compare this to the electronic charge. What does this suggest

9.7 Positive rays

These are rays produced when electrons collide with gas atoms and remove
electrons from them.
Paphorated Cathode
Anode

To the vacuum pump

Page | 152

E.H.T
When a discharge charge tube is kept at extra high tension potential difference and
at low pressure, some fast moving electrons are discharged from the cathode, these
fast moving electrons collide with neutral gas atoms removing some electrons out of
them, the atoms become positive ions due to loss of electrons. These ions are
accelerated to cathode the stream of these positively charged particles are called
positive rays.

9.71 Properties of positive rays

 They are positively charged
 They have much bigger mass than cathode rays
 They are deflected by both electric & magnetic fields
 They are ions of atoms after they have lost electrons
 Have varying speeds.
 Travel in straight lines.
 Make a glow on certain substance.

9.72 The Bain Bridge mass spectrometer.

The Bain Bridge mass spectrometer is used to:
-determine charge to mass ratio of positive rays.
-determine & distinguish between isotopes
Ions
S1
S2

Velocity selector

B1
Photographic plate
S3
Evacuated chamber (momentum selector)

B2

A beam of ions are made to pass through the velocity selector perpendicular to
electric field.
F E =F B Where F E =Eq and F B =B1 qu
E
Eq=B1 qu⇒ u=
B1

Page | 153
 E
u=
Only ions satisfying B1 pass through un deflected, these ions on entering region
of magnetic field B2. They are deflected in a circular path according to Fleming’s left
hand rule.
mu 2
F C =F B Where F C= , F B =B 2 qu
r
mu 2 q u
⇒ =B2 qu ⇒ =
r m B2 r
E
u=
But B1
q E
=
m B1 B 2 r
q
Where m is charge to mass ratio of positive ions, r is radius of path of the rays.

Measurement of r enables isotopes to be differentiated.

Worked examples.
1. A steam of singly ionized magnesium atom is accelerated through a potential
difference of 50V and then enters a region of uniform magnetic field of flux density
2.08 x10-2T. The ions describe a circular path of radius 0.242m. Calculate the atomic
mass of the ions.
Solution.

mu 2 Bqr
Bqu= ⇒u=
From r m
1 2
mu =qV
Also kinetic energy of ions, 2
2
B 2 qr ( 2. 08×10−2 ) ×1 . 6×10−19×0 .242
⇒ m= ⇒m=
2V 2×50
−26
m=3 . 987×10 Kg

2. Singly charged ions of masses 154 are accelerated by a potential difference of

800V and then passed perpendicular to lines of force of uniform magnetic field of
flux density 0.20T, calculate:
(i) Radius of curvature of the path followed by ions in the magnetic field.
(ii) the kinetic energy with which the ions strike the plate with in the deflection
chamber.
(1u=1.66x10-27Kg)
Solution.

Page | 154
 mu2 mu
Bqu= ⇒r =
From r Bq
1 2
Also from 2
mu =qV ⇒ u=
2 qV
m √
√
−19
2×1. 6×10 ×800
u=
15×1. 66×10−27
u=1. 0139×10 5 ms−1

13×1 .66×10−27×1. 0139×105

r=
0 .20×1. 6×10−19
r =0 .0789 m

3.A stream of ions contains sodium isotopes 22.98 and 23.99 enter the velocity of
the Bain bridge mass spectrometer which has E= 5X10-6Nc-1 and
B= 2.0x10-7T.calculate
(i) Velocity of ions from velocity selector.
(ii) The separation of the lines observed by the photography in the same magnetic
field B continue beyond the selector (take NA = 6.02X1023mol-1)
Solution

E 5×10−6
Bqu=Eq ⇒u= = −7
u=25 ms−1
(i)From B 2 . 0×10
(ii) 22.98g contain 6.02x1023 moles
1 mole 22.98g
6.02x1023

= 22.98x10-3
6.02x1023

m1 = 3.817x10-2Kg
For 23.99g 6.02x1023 moles
1 mole 23.99x10-3
6.02x1023
m2 = 3.985x10-26Kg
q E
=
From m B1 B 2 r
According to the question, B1 = B2
q1 = q2 = 1.6x10-19C

Em
q= 2
2
B r
Em 1
r1=
B22 q

Page | 155
 Em1
r2=
B22 q
r1 = 5x10-6x3.817x10-26
(2.0x10-3)2 x 1.6x10-19
r1 = 2.98x10-7m
r2 = 5x10-6x3.98x10-26
(2.0x10-3)2 x 1.6x10-19
r2 = 3.11x10-7m

Separation = r2 – r1
= 3.11x10-7 – 2.98x10-7
= 1.3 x 10-7m

10
X – RAYS

10.0 definition
X- rays are electromagnetic radiations (waves) of much shorter wavelength
produced when cathode rays strike metal target.

10.1 Production of x-rays in an x-ray tube.

-E.H.T+
Vacuum
Focusing cup
Tungsten target

Cooling fins
Electrons

LT

Cathode
X-rays
Anode
Filament

Filament emits electrons by thermionic emission; electrons are accelerated to the

anode by extra high potential difference between cathode and anode.

The electrons strike the tungsten target embedded in the anode, as a result x-rays
and heat are produced and heat is conducted away by cooling fins.

Page | 156
10.2 Precautions taken.
 The target is made of a high melting point since much heat is produced.

 Inside the x-ray tube is a vacuum so as to avoid electrons colliding with air
molecules.

 Cooling fins conduct the heat produced away.

10.3 Energy changes that occur in an x-ray tube

→ Electrical energy from low ac supply → heat energy due to filament current →
kinetic energy of moving electrons → heat energy produced in the target.
10.4 Intensity and penetrating power of x rays.
The intensity of an x- ray beam increases with the number of electrons hitting the
target and therefore with the filament current. It is also increased by increasing the
potential difference across the tube because this increases the energy with which
the electrons hit the target and also makes more energy available for x -ray
production.
The penetrating power or quality of x -rays increases with the potential difference
across the tube.

Calculations involving x-rays.

When electrons hit the target a small percentage of kinetic energy is produced as x-
rays whereas big percentage of kinetic energy is produced as heat.
I=ne
I=filament current.
n - Number of electrons
e = 1.6x10-19C
Work done on the electron to move from cathode to anode = e V also work done on
electron = h f max where h = plank’s constant

C C
f Max = eV =h
λ Min ⇒ eV =hf Max or λ Min

Also work done is equal to maximum kinetic energy with electrons strike the target.
1 1
mu 2 =eV K . E= mu 2max =hf max
2 max or 2
Worked examples.
1. An x-ray tube is operated at 50KV and 20mA. If 1% of the total energy supplied is
emitted radiation.

(i) Maximum frequency of emitted radiation.

(ii) Rate at which heat must be removed from the target in order to keep it at a
steady temperature.

Solution.

Page | 157
(i) eV =hf Max

1.6x10-19 x50x103 = 6.6x10-34 fmax

fmax = 1.21x1019Hz

(ii) Power supplied = IV = 20x10-3 x 50x103 = 1000W.

Power converted to heat and removed = 99 x 1000 = 990W
100
2. An x- ray tube is operated at 20kv with an electron current of 16mA in the tube.
Estimate the:-
(i) No of electrons hitting the target S-1
(ii) Rate of production of heat, assuming 99.5% of kinetic energy of electrons is
converted into heat.

Solution
(i) I = ne
16x10-3 = nx1.6x10-19 n = 16x10-3 = 1.0x1017electrons
1.6x10-19

(ii) Total energy ET = 20x103 x 1.0x1017x1.6x10-19

Rate of production of heat
= 99.5 x 20x103 x 1.0x1017x1.6x10-19
100
= 318.4W
3. If the potential difference applied a cross an x –ray tube is 12.4KV and the current
through it is 2mA, calculate:
(i) Number of electrons striking the target per second.
(ii) Speed with which they strike the target.
(iii) The shortest wavelength emitted (me=9.1x10-3ks)

Solution
(i)It = ne
n I 2×10−3
= = =1 .25×1016 electrons
t e 1. 6×10−19

(ii)
1 2
2
mu Max=eV ⇒ u Max=

C
2 eV
m √
⇒ uMax =
√
2×1 .6×10−19×12 . 4×103
9 .1×10−31
7
⇒u Max =6 . 6×10 ms

3×108
−1

eV =h ⇒1 . 6×10−19×12 . 4×103 =6 .63×10−34 × ⇒ λ Min =1×10−10 m

(iii) λ Min λ Min

4. An x-ray tube operated at a d.c potential difference of 40KV, produces heat at the
target at the rate of 720W. Assuming 0.5% of the energy of the incident electrons is
converted into x-radiations. Calculate:-
Page | 158
(i) The number of electrons striking the target

(ii) The velocity of the incident electrons

( e
m
=1. 8×10 11
CKg−1 )
Solution
n I
=
(i) t e But 99.5% of total power=Heat of target per second.
99. 5 IV 720×100
⇒ =720⇒ I=
100 99 .5×40×103
⇒ I=0. 018 A
n 0 . 018
⇒ = =1 .1×1017 electronsper second
t 1 .6×10 −19

1 2
(ii) 2
mu =eV ⇒ u=
m√
2 eV
⇒ u=√ 2×1 . 8×1011 ×40×103 ⇒ u=1 . 2×108 ms−1

5. In an x-ray tube operated at 1.5x103V, the target is made of a material of specific

heat capacity 2.5x102JKg-1K-1 and has a mass of 0.25Kg. 1% of the electric energy
supplied is converted into x-rays and the rest dissipated as heat in the target. If the
temperature of the target rises by 8Ks-1, find
(i) Number of electrons hitting the target per second.
(ii) The shortest wave length of the x-rays produced.
Solution
n I
=
(i) t e But 99% of total power=Heat of target per second.
99 IV Δθ 99 3 2
⇒ =mc ⇒ ×I×1 . 5×10 =0 . 25×2 . 5×10 ×8
100 Δt 100
⇒ I=0. 337 A
n 0 . 337
⇒ = =2 .1×1018 electronsper sec ond
t 1 .6×10 −19

C 3×10 8
h =eV ⇒ 6 .63×10−34 × =1. 6×10−19×1 .5×103
λ Min λ Min
−10
(ii)⇒ λ Min=8. 3×10 m

Exercise

1. An x-ray tube at a d.c potential difference of 50KV only 0.4% of the energy of the
cathode rays is converted into x-radiations and heat is generated in the target at a
rate of 600W, estimate the current passed through the tube.

Page | 159
(i) The current passed through the tube.

(ii) Velocity of the electrons striking the target.(me = 9.1x10-31kg,e1.6x10-18)

2. A 900w x-ray tube operates at a d.c potential difference of 300KV. Calculate

(i) The minimum wavelength of the x-rays produced.

(ii) The current through the tube if 90% of the power is dissipated as heat,
estimated the number of x-ray photons produced per second.

(h= 6.6x10-34Js, c=3.0x108ms-1, 1.6 x10-19C).

3. In an x-ray tube, 2% of electronic power supplied to the tube is produced as x-ray

photons. The acceleration potential difference is 75KV and power of 742.5W is
dissipated as heat.

(i) Find the number of electrons arriving at the target per second.

(ii) Explain the effect of increasing the acceleration voltage 0n the intensity of x-
rays.

4. In an x-ray tube the current through the tube is 1.0mA and accelerating potential
is 15KV. Calculate:

(i) The number of electrons striking the anode per second.

(ii) The speed of the electrons on striking the anode.

(iii) The rate at which a liquid at 10oC must circulate through the anode maintained
at 35oc (specific heat capacity=200JKg-1K-1, e= 1.6x10-19C, m=9.1x10-31Kg).

5. An x-ray tube operated at 30KV emits a continuous x-ray spectrum with a short
wavelength of 4.14x10-11m. Calculate plank’s constant, if e= 1.602x10-19C and
C=3.0x108ms-1)

6. An x-ray tube is operated at 75KV and 20mA. The target has a mass of 0.3Kg and
specific heat capacity 1.46x102JKg-1K-1,

(i) Calculate the shortest wavelength of x-rays emitted by a tube.

(ii) If only 1% of electrical power supplied is converted into x-rays and rest
dissipated as heat in the target. Calculate the average rate at which the temperature
of the target will.

10.5 Properties of x-rays

 Travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
 They are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields hence carry no charge.

Page | 160
  They penetrate all matter to some extent. The penetration is least in
materials of high densities and atomic number.
 They ionize gas through which they pass.
 Affect photographic plates (decompose)
 Cause florescence in some materials.
 Diffracted by crystals.

10.6 Use of x-rays

 Used to study facture in bones.
 Used to detect thousand cracks in metals.
 Used to treat cancer
 Used to ion is the gas (oil drop experiment)
 Used n cryptography i.e. they are used to study orientations and
identification of crystal patterns in metals.
 Used to detect fire arms at international airports.

10.7 Negative effects of x – rays

 Cause deep burning
 Cause damage to blood and eyes.
 Produce genetic charges leading to long term complications.
 Destroy living cells.

Precautions.
 Radiation monitor should be used to detect x-rays.
 X-rays machine operators should wear protective clothing
 Right dosage should be administered.

10.8 X-ray diffraction and Bragg’s law.

Bragg’s law states that for constructive interference the path difference 2 d sinθ is
an integral multiple of the wavelength i.e.2 d sinθ=nλ where d = inter planal
spacing, θ = glancing angle, λ=wavelength n= 1, 2, 3, -----------.

10.81 Explanation of x-ray diffraction by crystals.

When x-rays fall on a single plane of atoms in crystal, each atom scatters a fraction
of the incident beam. The x-rays scattered from various planes interfere
constructively in those directions for which the scattered rays are parallel,
otherwise destructive interference occurs.

10.82 Derivation of Bragg’s law.

θ θ

d
A C
B
Page | 161
Path difference ¿ AB+ BC
= d sin θ+d sin θ
=2 d sin θ
For constructive interference,
Path difference =nλ
⇒ 2 d sinθ=nλ , where, n=1,2,3,......
Worked Examples.
The spacing between the principle planes of sodium chloride crystal is 2.82A0 at a
glancing angle of 100. Find the wave length of x-rays at the first order.

Solution
d=2.82A0 = 2.82x10-10m. (1A0 = 10-10)
θ=100, n = 1 for 1st order diffraction.
Using 2 d sinθ=nλ ,λ = 2x2.82x10-10sin100
λ=0.98x10-10m.

2. A beam of x-rays of wavelength 8.42x10-11m is incident on sodium chloride crystal

of inter planal separation 2.82x10-10m.find the glancing angle

Solution
λ= 8.42x10-11m, d = 2.82x10-10m, n= 1 using
2 d sinθ=nλ ⇒ 2×2 .82×10−10 sinθ=8 . 42×10−11 ⇒θ=8 .6 O

3. A monochromatic beam of x-rays incident on a set of planes in a certain crystal. At

00C first order diffraction is observed at a glancing angle of 30.40. When the
temperature has risen to 4000C, first order diffraction is observed at 300. Calculate
the mean coefficient of linear expansivity of the crystal for the temperature range
00C to 1000C.

Solution
At 00C n = 1, θ= 30.4o from 2 d sinθ=nλ 2dsin30.40= λ
λ λ
d O= =
2 sin 30 . 4 1. 01
O

At 4000C, n=1, Q = 300

λ
d θ =d 400= =λ
2 sin30 O

Page | 162
 d θ −d O
d θ =d O ( 1+αθ ) ⇒ α=
dO θ
λ
λ−
1. 01
⇒ α= =3 .03×10−5 per deg resscelsius
λ
×400
But 1. 01

10.83 Crystal spacing and density of crystal.

Let m= molecular mass.
ρ = density of a diatomic crystal.
NA = Avogadro’s number
m
=
The mass per unit molecule NA

mass m
= =
Volume of one molecule density N A ρ

Also volume of one atom = d3

For a diatomic crystal one molecule has two atoms hence volume associated with
m m
= ⇒ d 3=
one molecule is 2NA ρ 2NA ρ

Worked examples

1. A beam of x-rays of wavelength 1.0x10-10m is incident on a set of cubic planes in a

sodium chloride crystal. The 1st order diffracted beam is obtained for a glancing
angle of 10.20. Find
(i) The spacing between consecutive planes.
(ii) The volume of one atom
(iii) Density of sodium chloride.
λ= 1.0x10-10m, n=1, θ = 10.20

λ 1. 0×10−10
2 d sinθ=nλ ⇒ d= =
2 sin θ 2×sin 10 .2 O
−10
(i)Using d=2. 82×10 m

(ii) Volume. = d3
= (2.82x10-10)3
= 2.24x10-29m3.

Page | 163
m = 58.5g

m m
d 3= ⇒ ρ=
2NA ρ 2 N A d3
58. 5×10−3
ρ= 3
2×( 2 . 82×10−10 ) ×6 . 02×10 23
3 −3
(iii) ρ=2. 167×10 Kgm

2. Calculate the atomic spacing of sodium chloride if relative atomic mass of sodium
is 23 and that of chlorine is 35.5. The density of sodium chloride is 2.18x103kgm-3
Solution
Using

d 3=
m
2NA ρ
⇒d =3
m
2NA√
⇒ d=
√(
( 23+ 35. 5 ) ×103
3

2×6 . 02×1023×2 . 18×103

d =2. 81×10−10 m
)
3. Calculate the smallest glazing angle at which x – rays of wavelength 0.7x10-10m
will be reflected from a quartz which has an atomic separation of 1.5x10-10m. What
is the highest reflection order that can be observed with this deflection?

Solution.

Smallest glancing angle occurs when sin θ = -1

θ = 400.
Highest order sin θ = 1
2 d sin θ 2d
n= ⇒ nmax =
λ λ
−10
2×1 .5×10
n max = =4
0 .7×10−10

10.84 X – ray spectra in an x-ray tube

There are two types of x- ray spectra in an x-ray tube namely:- continuous spectrum.
- Line spectrum/ prominent lines

10.85 A graph of intensity against wavelength.

Line spectrum
Intensity
Continuous spectrum

Page | 164
Features
The graph has smooth varying curves which represent continuous spectrum.
- It also has lines superimposed on continuous background or white spectrum which
are line spectrum/ prominent spectrum.
- It has a cut off wavelength below which no radiation is emitted.

Definition:
Cut off wavelength is the wavelength of incident electrons below which no x – rays are
produced.

10.86 Production of a continuous x-ray spectrum in an x-ray tube

Define: Continuous spectrum is a spectrum produced as a result of multiple
collisions the electrons with target atoms.

This arises from multiple collisions of electrons with target atoms.

Any accelerated charged particle looses its kinetic energy inform of electromagnetic
radiation.

Electrons approaching a positively charged nucleus of the target atom experience a

large attractive force and therefore they are accelerated towards the target atom
and loose their kinetic energy in form of electromagnetic radiations.

High rate of loss of kinetic energy leads to x-rays low rate of loss of kinetic energy
leads to infrared.

Different electrons have different rates of kinetic energy loss so the continuous
spectrum covering a range of wavelength is obtained.

N.B

1. Great majority (about 98%) of electrons loose their kinetic energy gradually for x-
rays to be emitted and merely to emit infrared radiation. The infrared is absorbed
by the target and converted into heat energy. This is why the target gets heated
when x-rays are reproduced in an x-ray tube.

2. Cut off wavelength is due electrons losing all their kinetic energy in a single
encounter with the target atom.
Page | 165
10.87 Characteristics of continuous x – ray spectrum
For anode potential, there is a minimum wavelength below which no radiation is
emitted. This wavelength is called cut off wavelength.

When the voltage across the tube is increased the minimum wavelength is shifted
towards a smaller value.

It’s produced due to deceleration of high velocity electrons which are deflected
while passing near the positively charged nucleus of the atom of the target material.

The minimum wavelength, λ min is independent of the nature of target material but
inversely proportional to potential difference between the cathode and anode.

The intensity of the continuous spectrum is nearly proportional to the square of the
applied voltage of the given target and to the atomic number of the target material.

There is a shift of the maximum intensity position towards the short wavelength as
voltage increases.

10.88 Production of line spectrum in an x-ray tube.

What is a line spectrum?

These are discontinuous lines produced by excited atoms and ions as electrons fall
back to a lower energy level.

Line spectrum is a characteristic of the target material.

Electrons in an atom belong to shells covering a range of energy shells labeled K, L,
M, N, O.

At high enough tube voltage the high energy bombarding electrons are able to
penetrate deep into the atoms of the target material and displace electrons from
their energy levels which have their full complements of electron. The electron is
either ejected out of the atom completely or jumps to a higher state putting the atom
at an excited state (unstable).

The stability of the atom is regained when one of the outer electrons fills the
vacancy in the inner shells. The transition results into the radiation of a photon of
high energy with definite wavelength.
Example.
Explain using suitable sketch graphs, how x-ray spectra in an x-ray tube are formed.
Solution.

Line spectrum
Intensity
Continuous spectrum

Page | 166
Continuous spectrum is formed as a result of multiple collisions of energetic
electrons with target atoms. At each collision x-rays of different wavelength are
emitted.
Line spectrum is formed when a highly energetic electron knocks an electron out of
the inner most shell (L or K). Electron transitions to the vacancies left results in
emission of x- rays of definite wavelength.

How line spectrum accounts for the existence of discrete energy levels in
atoms
Atoms of a particular element always give radiation (line spectrum) of definite
frequencies (wavelength). In an excited atom an electron may fall to a lower energy
level through definite stages. Each electron transition involves the emission of
electromagnetic waves whose frequency depends on the difference in energy
between the two energy levels involved. Since the frequencies are definite for a
given material → energy levels are discrete.

10.89 Experiment to show that X – rays are waves (electromagnetic waves).

Monochromatic X-ray

Crystal

A narrow beam of monochromatic x-ray is directed towards a crystal of dimensions

compared to the wavelength of x-rays through slits S1 and S2.
Behind the crystal a photographic plate is placed, the developed photographic plate
reveals that most of the radiations pass straight through the crystal to give a large
central dark spot surrounded by a pattern of other small dark spots. This shows that
x-rays are diffracted hence confirming their wave nature.
Worked examples
1.Explain why x-ray production is considered as the reverse of photoelectric
emission.
X- Ray photon
Ejected electrons Page | 167
 - X-ray photons strike the surface and electrons are ejected from the surface.
All the energy is imported to the emitted electrons hence photoelectric
emission.

Electrons
X- Ray photon

Electrons strike the metal target and x-ray radiations is given out hence production
of x-rays is a reverse of photo electric emission.

2.An x-ray tube with a molybdenum target is operated at 4x104V. The energy needs
to inject the electron out of the target are 3.22x10-15J and
0.42x11-15J respectively. Determine:
(i) The shortest wave length of continuous x-ray emitted by the tube.
(ii) The longest wave length of K- lines emitted by the target atom.
Solution.
(i)Usinghf Max =eV
butC=fλ
hC hC 6 . 6×10−34×3×108
=eV ⇒ λ Min= =
λ Min eV 4×10 4 ×1 .6×10−19
⇒ λ Min=3 . 094×10−11 m

(ii) h f min = change in energy

hC −15 −15
hf Min =E K −E L ⇒ =3 . 22×10 −0 . 42×10
λ Max
6 .6×10−34 ×3×10 8
⇒ λ Max=
3. 22×10−15−0 . 42×10−15
⇒ λ Nax =7 .07×10−11 m

Page | 168
Page | 169
 11
ENERGY LEVELS
11.0 Definition
Energy levels are specific values of energy possessed by electrons in an atom e.g.
energy levels for hydrogen.
Energy levels of an atom are usually represented as a series of horizontal lines and
their values are expressed in terms of a whole numbern called quantum number for
a particular energy level.

n=∞
0
n=5 -0.54
n=4 -0.85
Ionization energy in e V
n=3 -1.51

n=2 -3.39

n=1 -13.6
Ground state

Definitions.
 Ground state – This is the state in which an atom attains its minimum
possible energy.
 Excitation energy – Is the energy required to remove an electron from an
atom in its ground state to a higher energy level.
 Ionization energy – energy required to remove an electron from an atom in
its ground state to infinity so that it is completely lost(or ionized)
 Ionization potential – potential difference required to liberate an electron
completely from the atom.
 Excitation potential – potential difference through which an electron is
accelerated to produce excitation of the atom.
Excitation occurs when electrons jump from one orbit to a lower energy level, to
another of a higher energy level.

Why are values of energy negative?

Because the electrons are bound to the nucleus of the atom work must be done
to remove the electron from the atom. This work is done against the nuclear
attraction binding the electron in the atom.

When an electron jumps from a lower energy E1, to a higher energy level E3 then
back, it emits a radiation of a certain wave length such that;
C
E1 −(−E3 )=hf ⇒ E3 −E1 =h
λ
Page | 170
 Examples.
1. The energy levels in a mercury atom are -10.4eV, -5.5eV, -3.7eV, and -1.6eV.
(i)Find the ionization energy of mercury in joules.
(ii)What is likely to happen if a mercury atom in an excited state is bombarded with
an electron of energy 4.0eV, 6.7eV, or 11.0eV?
Solution.
(i) E∞ = 0--10.4eV = 10.4x1.6x10-19J = 1.664x10-18J

(ii)4.0eV – 10.4eV = -6.4eV- atoms remain un excited.

6.7ev - 10.4=-3.7eV atom excited to level -3.7ev.
11.0ev – 10.4= 0.6eV- atom ionized, electron lost from atom.

2.
E∞
0eV
E4 -0.81eV
E3 -2.77eV

E2 -4.87eV

E1 -21.47eV

The figure shows the energy levels of neon. Determine the wavelength of the
radiation emitted in an electron transition from E4 to E3.
In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does the radiation live?
Solution
C
E 4 −E3 =hf ⇒ E 4 −E3 =h
λ
−19 −34 3×108
⇒ (−0 .81−−2. 77 ) ×1. 6×10 =6 . 6×10 ×
λ
⇒ λ=6 . 31×10−7 m
It falls with in visible spectrum.

Page | 171
11.1 Rutherford’s model of an atom.
It states that an atom consists of a nucleus in which most of its mass and all its
positive charge is concentrated ⇒ the negative charge surrounds the positive
charge.

11.11 Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment.

Fluorescent screen

Radioactive source Alpha particles Travelling microscope

Thin gold foil

Alpha particles are directed towards a thin gold foil and observed on the screen
using a travelling microscope.
Observation.
Most alpha particles pass through gold foil un deflected this is because most space in
an atom is empty.
A few α-particles are deflected through small angles less than 90o. This is because a
few angles incident on an atom at closer distances from the nucleus.
Very few particles are scattered through large angles greater than 90o. This is
because the chance of a head on collision is very small the nucleus occupies a small
portion of the available space.

N.B.
The experiment is carried out in a vacuum because the range of α -particles to reach
the foil and the detector beyond the foil.

11.12 Distance of closest approach of alpha particles and gold

atom.
Ums-1 2e
Ze

Page | 172
The kinetic energy possessed by α particles = ½ mu2 . The electrostatic potential
Ze ( 2 e )
energy of α particles and nucleus at closest approach b is give by 4 πε o b . Where Z is
the atomic number, e is the electronic change.

At closest approach, the alpha particle is at rest and its initial kinetic energy
balances the electrostatic potential energy.

1 2 2 Ze 2 Ze 2
mu = b=
2 4 πε o b ⇒ πε o mu 2
Example
(a) Describe Ruther fold’s experiment and the evidence it provides for the existence
of an atom.

(b) An alpha particle with kinetic 5MeV is involved in a head on collision with an
atom in a gold foil and later deflected through 1800. Calculate the distance of closest
approach of the particle to the gold nucleus. (Atomic number of gold is 79)

Solution
(b) Kinetic energy = 5MeV = 5x106x1.6x10-19J, Z = 79.
1 2 Ze 2 Ze 2
kinetic energy of alpha particles= mu 2 = b=
2 4 πε o b ⇒ πε o mu 2
2
79×( 1. 6×10−16 )
b=
2×π×8 . 85×10−12×5×10 3×1 . 6×10−19

b = 4.55x10-4m
Example.
Explain the observations made in the Rutherford alpha particle scattering
experiment. Why is the vacuum necessary?
Solution.
 Most alpha particles passed through the foil un deflected. This is because
space in the atom is empty.
 A few alpha particles deflected through small angles less than 90oso the
vacuum allows the particles to reach the foil and the detector beyond the foil.
This is because a few particles are incident on the atom at closer or near
distances from the nucleus.
 Very few particles are scattered through large angles greater than 90o. This is
because the chance of head on collision is very small thus the nucleus
occupies a small portion of the available space.
The experiment is carried out in a vacuum because the range of alpha particles in air
is limited so the vacuum allows the particles to reach the foil and the detector
beyond the foil.

Page | 173
11.2 Bohr model of hydrogen atom
What is a Bohr atom?

Is an atom with central positive nucleus with electrons revolving round it only in
certain allowed orbits and while in these orbits they don’t emit radiations.

11.21 Postulates or assumptions of Bohr’s model of an atom.

(i) Every atom consists of nucleus and suitable number of electrons revolved around
the nucleus in circular orbits.

(ii) Electrons revolved only in certain non-radiating orbits called stationery orbits
h
for which the total angular momentum is an integral multiple of 2 π where h is
plank's constant.

L is the Angular momentum of the revolving electrons

(iii) Radiation occurs when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
It is emitted when electron jumps from higher orbit to a lower orbit

i.e., E2 - E1 = h f, where f is frequency of radiation.

11.22 Derivation of Radius of orbits.

Radii of orbits

According to Bohr's second postulate

Page | 174
Where m is mass of electron, v is linear velocity, r is radius of orbit in which e
revolves around the nucleus.

Now

1
K=
Where 4 πε O

[Because necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of

attraction between electron and nucleus] whose charge is Z e where Z is the atomic
number of the atom.

Substituting for v,

For Hydrogen atom Z = 1

i.e., r a n2 the stationary orbits are not equally spaced

On substituting the value h = 6.6x10-34 J-sec

Page | 175
n=1

K = 9 x 109Nm2/c2

m = 9.1 x 10-31kg

e = 1.6 x 10-19c, we get

r = 5.29 x 10-11m

This is called the Bohr radius.

11.23 Velocity of electron in a stationary orbit.

Substituting the expression for r in the equation

We get

The resulting expression is

Calculation shows that when n=1, velocity v of the electron is 1/137 time velocity of
light is vacuum i.e.,

11.24 The total energy (T.E) of the electron in stationary orbit

Page | 176
The energy of electron revolving in a stationery orbit is of two types. Kinetic energy
due to velocity and potential energy due to the position of the electron.

Now

(negative is for charge of an electron)

Now T.E = K.E + P.E

Spectral series of hydrogenations.

On putting the value m, k, e, h, we get

Page | 177
For hydrogen

The negative sign implies that electron is bound to the nucleus. As n increases, the
total energy of electron is more than that in the inner orbits.
11.25 Failures of Bohr’s theory.

 It failed to account for the spectra of more complex atoms.

 It didn’t predict for the combination of the atoms.
 It failed to account for the fine stricture of spectral lines.
 It didn’t explain what is stationary about the stationary states.
 It did not explain why an electron does not jumping the nucleus.

11.3 Atomic absorption and emission spectra.

Isolated atoms can absorb and emit packets of electromagnetic radiation having
discrete energies dictated by the detailed atomic structure of the atoms. When the
corresponding light is passed through a prism or spectrograph it is separated
spatially according to wavelength, as illustrated in the following image.

Separation of light by a prism according to wavelength

11.31 Continuum, Emission, and Absorption Spectra.

Page | 178
The corresponding spectrum may exhibit a continuum, or may have superposed on
the continuum bright lines (an emission spectrum) or dark lines (an absorption
spectrum), as illustrated in the following figure.

Continuous, emission, and absorption spectra

11.32 Origin of Continuum, Emission, and Absorption Spectra.

The origins of these three types of spectra are illustrated in the following figure.

Sources of continuous, emission, and absorption spectra

Thus, emission spectra are produced by thin gases in which the atoms do not
experience many collisions (because of the low density). The emission lines
correspond to photons of discrete energies that are emitted when excited atomic
states in the gas make transitions back to lower-lying levels.

A continuum spectrum results when the gas pressures are higher. Generally, solids,
liquids, or dense gases emit light at all wavelengths when heated.

Page | 179
An absorption spectrum occurs when light passes through a cold, dilute gas and
atoms in the gas absorb at characteristic frequencies; since the re-emitted light is
unlikely to be emitted in the same direction as the absorbed photon, this gives rise
to dark lines (absence of light) in the spectrum.

Question

13.6
E n  electronvo lts
The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are given by n2 ,
where n takes on values of 1, 2, 3, …
Use this result to account for the occurrence of emission and absorption line
spectra.
Answer
Energy levels are discrete. When an electron makes a transition to a higher energy
level the atom becomes unstable since the energy is increased. Electron transition
may occur to the vacancy left in lower energy level and a radiation of definite
hc

wavelength, λ is emitted.  Emission of line spectra. E .
hc
E
If a photon of energy  is just sufficient to excite an atom to one of the higher
energy levels, the photon will be absorbed, so the intensity of the incident radiation
is reduced. A dark line is observed whose wavelength is that of the absorbed photon.

12
Page | 180
 RADIOACTIVITY
12.0 Definition
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei by emission of
radiations.

The radiations emitted include alpha, beta & gamma rays

12.1 Alpha particles
An alpha is a helium nucleus which positively charged. When the nucleus decays by
emission of an alpha particle mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number
A A−4 4
decreases by 2 i.e. Z X → Z −2 Y + 2 He

E.g. radium-226 decays to Radom by emitting an alpha particle.

226
86 Ra→ 222 4
84 Rn+ 2 He

12.11 Properties of alpha particles

 They are fast moving helium nuclei of mass for and charge +2e.
 They are positively charged.
 They have low penetrating power compared to B particles
 They are deflect by both electric and magnetic field
 They have the greatest ionizing ability compared to B –particles and gamma
rays
 They have straight tracks since they are heavy.
 They blacken the photographic plate.
 They are stopped by a thin piece of paper.

N.B particles cannot easily be detected by a tube since they cannot penetrate the
window.
11.2 Beta particles.
These are fast moving electrons.
When a nucleus decays by emission of B- particle, the mass number remains
A A 0
uncharged but the number increases by one i.e. Z X → Z+1 Y +−1 e
11.21 Properties of B- particles
 They are negatively charged
 They have much smaller effect on fluorescence screen than - particles.
 They ionize gas atoms.
 They blacken the photographic plate.
 They penetrate matter electrons hence are cathode rays.
 They have irregular tracks and all other properties of cathode rays.

11.3 Gamma rays

They are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength with no charge.
The emission of gamma rays is usually accompanied by beta particles.

Page | 181
11.31 Properties of gamma- rays.
 They carry on charge hence not deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields.
 They decompose photographic plates.
 They travel in vacuum with a speed of light.
 They are deflected by crystals just like x- rays.
 The wavelength of gamma rays is shorter than that of x- rays.
 They cause photoelectric emission when they strike metal surface.
 They have high penetrating power.
 They have very short, heavy and non – continuous tracks.
 They are stopped by very thick sheet of lead.
 They have very weak ionizing potential.
11.32 Differences between gamma rays and cathode rays.

Gamma rays cathode rays

negatively charged Carry no charge

deflected by both magnetic and electric Not deflected by both magnetic and
field electric field

Electromagnetic radiations Electromagnetic radiations

Produced when first moving electrons Produced either by thermionic or
strike metal target photographic effect.

11.4 Methods of detecting nuclear radiation

They include:
 Ionization chamber.
 Geiger Muller tube.
 Wilson Cloud chamber.
 Diffusion Cloud chamber.

11.41 Ionization Chamber

Consists of two electrodes contained in a vessel filled with argon gas at tow
pressure.
One electrode is a cylindrical metal can and the other is a thin wire along the axis of
the cylinder.
Source of radiation

Sensitive gauze Page | 182

Cathode
  When ionizing radiation enter into the chamber through sensitive gauze, it
ionizes neutral gas atoms and ion pairs are formed
 Positively ions drifts to the cathode, electrons are accelerated to the anode by
help of E.H.T p.d
 The circuit is completed by the movement of ions chamber.
 When the electrons arrive at the anode, current flows (current pulse) which
is amplified and fed to the sensitive current detector. The magnitude of
current pulse depends on the nature of radiation.
 Alpha particles create a pulse of order x10-10A while beta- particles and
gamma- rays cause much smaller current than this, since they cause less
ionization.

11.42 A graph of ionization current against voltage.

Ionization current

A B

O Voltage

Along OA, the voltage is low and ions produced as a result of ionization have high
chance of recombining since their voltage velocity is low hence intensity is
proportional to voltage.
Along AB, all ions pairs produced per second travel and reach the electrodes
resulting into constant current called circulation current. Is.
The ionization chamber is normally operated in this region electrons produced by
ionization of the neutral gas molecule gain sufficient energy to also cause ionization

Page | 183
of other neutral gas molecule. This results into a rapid multiplication of ions in the
chamber hence a rise in ionization current.

11.43 The Geiger Muller Tube

+
R
Anode
Wire gauze To amplifier and counter
Cathode

Thin mica window Glass tube partially evacuated containing argon and bromine vapour

When ionizing particle enters the tube through mica widow, ion pairs are produced
through collisions with argon atoms.
The electrons produced are accelerated towards the anode and positively ions to the
cathode more and more ion pairs are produced by repeated collisions.
The electrons produced, produce more ion pairs, resulting into gas amplification or
an avalanche. On reaching the anode discharge occurs and causes a current pulse
through R.
The voltage pulse which develops is amplified and operates a counter which
registers passage of ionizing particle. The tube is made ready (quenched) for next
count. The positive ions that would have caused secondary discharge on reaching
the cathode are slowed down by collisions with bromine molecules.

N.B
To prevent further ionization of the gas atoms a quenching agent such as a
halogen like Bromine is used to ensure that only a pulse corresponding to a single
entry in the tube is detected.

Count rate

C
B

A
O Voltage

 Up to the threshold voltage no counts are recorded at all since the amount of
electrons amplification is not enough to give pules of sufficient magnitude of
pulse to be detected. There is little gas amplification along OA.

Page | 184
  Between A and B, the magnitude of pulse developed in the tube depends on
the energy of incident particle only some of the particle give pulse of
sufficient magnitude to be detected.
 Between B and C (plateau region) count rare are almost constant. A full
avalanche is obtained along the entire length of the anode and all particles
whatever their energy produce detectable pulses.
 Beyond C, the count rate measure rapidly with voltage due to incomplete
quenching .the quenching process ineffective and continuous discharge
occurs.
 One incident particle may start a whole train of pulse.
N.B
GMT should be operated in the plateau region along BC since every particle
which produces any ionization at all is detected. Along AB the size of a particular
pulse depends on the strength of initial ionization.

Questions
1.explain the purpose of each of the following in the GM tube
(i) A thin mica window
(ii) Argon gas at low pressure
(iii) Halogen gas mixed with argon gas
(iv) Anode in the form of a wire
Solutions.
(i) A thin mica window is to allow easy entry of ionizing particles in the GM tube.
(ii)
(iii) Halogen mixed with argon gas form a quenching agent to prevent secondary
ionization.
(iv) Wire anode is to increase the strength of the electric field intensity.

2.Explain the meaning of the following terms applied to a Geiger Muller tube.
(i) Thresh hold potential differences
(ii) Dead time
(ii) A quenching agent

Solution.
(i) The threshold potential difference is the minimum potential difference below
which no pulse can be detected. This is because there is no sufficient gas
amplification.
(ii) Dead time is the time ions take to travel towards the cathode before the electric
field at the anode returns to a level large enough for an avalanche to start.
Ionizing particles arriving with in this time will not be detected.
(iii) A quenching agent is a gas or vapour inside a Geiger Muller Tube to ensure that
only one pulse is produced by each ionizing particles that enters the tube. It slows
down the positive ions, and prevents further ionization.

3.Identify giving reasons the parts of the characteristics graph of a Geiger Muller
tube should be operated
Solution.

Page | 185
The Geiger Muller Tube is operated in the plateau region where all the pulses have
the same amplitude irrespective of the strength of the initial ionization. Every
particle which produces any radiation at all is detected.

11.44 Cloud Chambers.

They are of two types; Diffusion cloud chamber, and Wilson cloud chamber

11.45 Diffusion cloud chamber

Perspex lid

Felt ring soaked in alcohol

Light

Black metal base Solid carbon dioxide

Sponge

 The base of the chamber is maintained at -800C by solid carbon dioxide and
top is at room temperature.
 There is a temperature gradient between the top and the bottom.
 The air at the top is saturated with alcohol vapour from the felt ring and
diffuses down wards into the cooler region so that the air there becomes
super saturated.
 When ionizing radiation (agent) passes through the air the excess vapour
condenses on the ionized atom which acts as nucleating sites.
 When suitably illuminated the tracks are seen as a series of tiny drop of
condensation. The type of track depends on the type ionizing radiation.

11.46 The Wilson Cloud Chamber.

Camera

Black pad
Radiation source Page | 186

Piston
Liquid alcohol is placed on a dark pad on a piston. When the piston is moved down
quickly, the air in the chamber undergoes adiabatic expansion and cools.

The dust nuclei are carried away after a few expansions by drops forming on them
after condensation.

The dust free air is now subjected to a controlled expansion making the air super
saturated.

The air is then subjected to an ionizing radiation from the radioactive source. The
water droplets will collect around ions produced.

These droplets of water around the ions reflect light when illuminated and
photographed by the camera. This enables the detection of paths of radiation.

Question
Explain how cloud chamber observation can be used to ascertain whether the
source is an alpha or beta particle.
Alpha particles produce thick, short, straight and continuous paths.
Beta particles produce longer but straggly paths because they are light and can be
knocked off their path by collision of air molecules.

11.5 The Decay Laws

It is spontaneous that is can’t be speeded/ slowed down by physical means for
example temperature and pressure.
Its characteristics of an isotope. It varies from one isotope to another of the same
element.
The time taken for half of the atoms decay is constant for a particle isotope.
Radiation from an isotope is emitted randomly that is even the radiation from an
isotope of very long half life, is expected to be emitted at a constant rate.

11.51 Radio Activity Decay Law

It states that the rate of disintegration of a given nuclei is proportional to the
number of atoms present at that time.
dN
αN
i.e. dt
dN
=−λN
dt

Page | 187
 Where λ is the decay constant.
Definition:
Delay constant is the fraction of radioactive nuclei that decays per second.

The negative sign means that N decreases when t increases.

If the number of atoms initially are NO (un decayed atom) i.e. at t = 0

After time t, there are N un decayed atoms.

− λt
Deriving N=N o e
dN
=−λN
From dt
dN
=−λ dt
Separating variables N

N 1 t
⇒∫N dt=∫0 −λ dt ⇒ln N|N =−λt|0
N t
O N O

ln N −ln N 0 =−λt

ln
( )N
NO
=−λt ⇒
N
NO
=e
−λt

N=N o e− λt

The number of radioactive atoms decays exponentially with time.

11.52 Half life.
Half life is the time taken for half the number of atoms of a radioactive sample to
decay.
11.53 Deriving the relationship between half life and decay constant.
If No = original number of atoms after half life
T1 N
N= O
2 is the half life, 2
− λt
From N=N o e
− λT 1
NO 1 −λt
⇒ =N O e 2 ⇒ =e
2 2
− λT 1

()
ln
1
2
=ln e 2
ln 1−ln 2=−λT 1
2
−ln2=−λT 1
2
ln 2 0 . 69
T 1= T 1=
2
λ also 2 λ

Page | 188
11.54 Determining half life from decay curve.
Plot a graph of number of atoms against time.
Number of atoms
NO

NO
2

NO
4

0 T1 T2 Time
NO
Obtain T1 when No falls to 2 .
NO NO
Similarly obtain T2 when 2 falls to 4
T +T
T 1= 1 2
2
Obtain the average time 2
11.55 Determination of half life of the radiation sample using a GMT.

-measure the back ground count rate A o

-measure the activity of the source A1
-obtain activity A= A1 – A o
-obtain A at time interval of say 30 minutes.
-plot a graph of activity A against T time

-Divide the initial activity by 2

A
-Read the corresponding time for this 2 , this is the half life of the sample.
11.56 Activity
Activity is the number of disintegrations per second.
dN dN
− =A =−λN
dt But dt
⇒ A=λN
mass
N= ×N A
molecularmass
m
N= N A
M
−λt
If A o is the initial activity at t = 0, then AO =λN O and A=A o e the unit of activity is
,
Becquerel (B q).
Page | 189
Worked Examples
1. A radioactive sample had an initial activity of 200 counts S-1 on G.M tube counter.
After 30min, the activity had declined to 250counts S-1. Calculate the half life of the
radioactive sample.
Solution.
0 . 693
T 1=
2
λ
1 N
N =N o e− λt ⇒ λ= ln O ⇒ λ=
t N ( ) ( 1
30×60
ln) ( )
260
250
−5 −1
⇒ λ=2 . 179×10 s
0. 693
T 1= −5
⇒T 1 =3 .18×104 sec onds
2 2 .179×10 2
25
2. A mass of 1.0x10-6g of nuclei 11 Na decay by emission of a beta particle and its half
life is 60seconds. Find:
a) Numbers of atoms initially present.
b) Initial activity of the sample.
c) Number of atoms after 10minutes.
Solution.
(a) m = 1.0x10-6g, M = 25g
m 1. 0×10−6 ×10−3
N O= N A= −3
×6 .02×1023
M 25×10
16
N O=2. 4×10 atoms
(b) AO =λN O
0. 693 0. 693
λ= ⇒ λ= ⇒ λ=0 . 01155s−1
T1 60
But 2

AO =λN O ⇒ AO =0 .01155×2 . 4×1016 ⇒ AO =2. 772×10 14 Bq

− λt
(c) N=N o e
N=2. 4×1016 e−0 .01155×10×60 ⇒ N =2. 35×1013 atoms .

3. Radioactive isotope strontium of mass 5μg has half life of 28 years. Find the mass
of isotope left after 14 years.
Solution.
m
− λt N= N
Using N=N o e M A
but
m m
⇒ N A = O N A e−λt ⇒ m=m O e−λt
M M
0. 693 0 . 693
λ= ⇒ λ= =7 . 85×10−10 s−1
T1 28×3. 65×24×3600
But 2

Page | 190
 −10
m=5×10−6×10−3 e−7.35×10 ×365×24×3600

⇒ m=3×10−9 Kg
241
4. 95 Am is an alpha- source. A mass of 10-6g of this material is estimated to emit a
total of 1x104 alpha– particles in a second. Calculate the half life of Am.
Solution.
m 10−6 ×10−3
N= N A = 3
×6 .02×1023
M 241×10
15
N=2. 6×10 atoms
A = 1x104
A=λN
1×10 4 =λ×2 .5×1015
λ=4×10−12 s−1
0 . 693 0 . 693
T 1= = =1. 73×1011 seconds
2
λ 4×10 −12

5. A radioactive contains 1.0μg of platinum of mass number 239. If the source emits
2300 alpha particles per second. Calculate the half life of platinum.
Solution
A = 2300Bq., M = 239g, m = 1x10-6g.
N = m. NA
M
= 1x10-6 x 6.02x1023
239
= 2.52x1015atoms.
A=λN
2300=λ×2. 52×1015
λ=9 . 13×10−13 s−1
0 . 693 0 .693
T 1= = =7 .59×1011 sec onds
2
λ 9 .13×10 −13

6. An atom of 222Ra emits alpha particles of 5.3meV. Given that half life of 222Ra is
3.8days. Calculate:-
(i) Decay constant.
(ii)The amount of energy released by 3.0x10-9kg of 222Ra after 3.9 days.

Solution.
λ= ln2
T½
= 0.693
3.8x3600x21
= 2.11x10-6s-1.

(ii) No = m NA
M
Page | 191
 = 3.0x10-9 x 6.02x1023
222
= 8.135x1012 atoms
Number of atoms after 3.9 days, N
−6
N=N o e− λt ⇒ N =8 .135×1012 e−2 .11×10 ×3 . 9×3600×24=3 . 996×1012 atoms
Energy for one atom = 5.3x106x1.6x10-19=4.48x10-13J

Energy released after 3.9 days =N ×energyforoneatom

=3 . 996×1012×4 . 48×10−13=1. 79 J

11.6 Atomic Structure

An atom is made of protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are
found in the nucleus.

A neutral atom is one which has an equal number of protons and electrons.

Atomic number is the number of protons neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. An

A 1 1
atom is Z X , a proton is represented as; 1 H and a neutron as0 n .

11.61 Isotopes
These are atoms of the same element with same atomic number and different
atomic mass e.g. chlorine and chlorine, carbon -12 and carbon -14.

11.62 Radio Isotopes.

These are nuclides which are unstable and undergo radioactive decay by emitting
alpha, beta and gamma to become stable.

11.63 Relative atomic mass.

1
th
This is the ratio of mass of an atom 12 of the mass of carbon -12 (12C) i.e.

Relative atomic mass = mass of atom

1
12th Of mass of C-12

11.64 Einstein’s Mass Energy Relation.

If a mass of a closed system changes by ∆m Kg, the energy changes by amount of E
where E = ∆m C2. Where C is the speed of light in vacuum given by C = 3x108ms-1.
The units of energy include joules, electron volts (e V) and Unified atomic mass unit
(U).

1
th
The unified atomic mass unit (U) is defined as 12 of mass of 12C.
An electron volt is the energy gained by charge equating to that on an election
moving through a potential difference of one volt i.e. E = e V
Page | 192
Question
(a) Find energy in joules which is equal to 1eV.
Solution
Energy = charge x p.d ,e = 1.6x10-19C, V = 1V

1eV = 1.6x10-19x1
1eV = 1.6x10-19J.
1MeV = 1.6x10-19x106J
1MeV = 1.6x10-13J.

(b) Show that 1U = 931Mev.

Solution
1
1U = 12 of mass of 1 atom of 12C
12
12g of 12C contain 6.02x1023 atoms 1u = 1.66x10-27x30x108
1 atom = 12 1u = 1.494x10-10J
6.02x10 23
but MeV = 1.6x10-13J
1U = 1 x 12x103 1u = 1.494x10-10
12 6.02x1023 1.6x1023
1U = 1.66x10 Kg-27
1u = 931MeV
But E = ∆mc , C = 3x10 ms
2 8 -1

11.7 Binding Energy.

This is the minimum amount of energy required to break a nucleus into its
constituent nucleons and completely separate them from one another.

Binding energy B = ∆MC2 where C2 = energy equivalence = 931MeV.

∆m = mass effect given by,

Δm=Zm p + ( A−Z ) m n−M ( A , Z )
Where Z mp = total mass of neutrons.
(A-Z) mn = total mass of neutrons.
M(A,Z) = total mass of whole nucleus.
B=( Zm p + ( A−Z ) mn −M ( A , Z ) )×energyequivalence

Worked Examples
1. Calculate the mass defect for 5920Fe given the allowing information
59
Mass of 20 Fe nucleus = 58.934.
1
Mass of 1 H = 1.007280.
1
Mass of 0 n = 1.00867U.

Solution.
Page | 193
Δm=Zm p + ( A−Z ) m n−M ( A , Z )
= 26x1.00728 x (59-26) x 1.00867-58.93488
= 0.540514.

4 1
2. Compute binding energy of 2 He ; given that the mass of 1 H = 1.007825U, mass of
1 4
0 n = 1.00865U and mass of 2 He = 4.002603U in MeV.

Solution.

B=( Zm p + ( A−Z ) mn −M ( A , Z ) )×energyequivalence

= (2x1.007825+ (4-2)1.00865) – 4.002603) x931MeV
= 28.296MeV.

12 1
3. Calculate the binding energy of 6 C in joules, given that mass of a proton 1 H =
1 12
1.007825U, mass of 0 n = 1.008665U, mass of 6C = 12.0U. (1U=1.4923295x10-10)

Solution.
B=( Zm p + ( A−Z ) mn −M ( A , Z ) )×energyequivalence
= (6x1.007825+ (12-6) x 1.008665+12.0) x 1.4923295x10-10.
= 1.4765108x10-11J.

11.71 Binding energy per nucleolus ( B)

Binding energy per nucleon is the binding energy of the nucleus divided by the
number of nucleons.
B
B̄=
A

B = 1 (Z Mp + (A-Z)Mn - M(A,Z)C2.
A
B = 1 (92x1.007825+ (238-92) x 1.008665 – 238.050784) x 931mev.
238
= 7.57022MeV nucleon-1.

1
2. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of an alpha particle (mass of 1 H =
1 4
1.00804, 0 n = 1.0087U; 2 He = 4.00264, 1U= 93lMeV

Solution
B = 1 (Z Mp + (A-Z)Mn - M(A,Z))x energy equivalence.
A

B = ¼ (2x1.0080+ (4-2) x 1.0087 – 4.00264) x 931 MeV.

Page | 194
B = 7.1687mev (nucleon).

A graph of binding energy per nucleon B against mass number.

P
Mass number

Features of the graph.

Binding energy per nucleon ( B) is least for very low mass numbers and highest for
mass number between 50 and 60 e.g. hydrogen has low binding energy.

And elements with very high mass number e.g. 238U have low binding energy.

Along PQ binding energy increase with increase in mass number.

Along QR, binding energy decrease with increase in mass number.

11.72 Nuclear Fusion.

Process where two or more light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus releasing
2 2 4
. 1 H + 1 H → 2 He+ energy
large amount of energy e.g

11.73 Nuclear Fission.

Process where unstable heavy nuclei disintegrate into lighter nuclei which are
stable accompanied by vast amount of energy.

235 1
e.g. 92 U + 0 n→ 148 85 1
57 La+ 35 Br +3 0 n+energy

Page | 195
Questions.
1. Sketch a graph of showing variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass
number use the sketch graph you have drawn to explain how energy is released
during fusion and fission.
Solution

P
Mass number
During fission, a heavy nucleus of A > 56 splits to form two lighter nuclei of greater
binding energy per nucleon. The total mass of the two nuclei is less than the mass of
the heavy nuclei. The difference in mass is accounted for by the energy released.

During fusion, two light nuclei, A<56 combine to form heavy nucleus of greater
binding energy per nucleon. The total mass of the bigger nucleus is less than the
sum of the mass of two nuclei. The mass difference is accounted for by the energy
released.

2. Explain why a high temperature is required during fusion of nuclides.

Solution.
Nuclei must first have very high kinetic energy to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion and this happens at very high temperature.

3. Explain why bombardment of a nucleus with a Neutron is so much more effective

than bombardment with protons.

Solution.
Neutrons being neutral can penetrate deeper into the nucleus. Yet protons being
positively charged will be repelled by the positively charged nucleus.
11.74 Energy released during disintegration.
Energy=( mass of reactants−mass of products ) × energy equivalence
If the mass of decaying nucleus is greater that the total mass of the products, then
the reaction is spontaneous, otherwise, it not spontaneous.

Worked examples.

1.Calculate the energy of disintegration for polonium as in the equation

Page | 196
 210
84 Po→ 206 4
82 Pb+ 2 He . State whether the process is spontaneous or not (209.952U,
210
84 Po=209 .952 U 206 4
82 Pb=205 . 9392U , and 2 He=4 . 0044 U )

Solution.
Energy = (mass of reactants – total mass of products) x 931MeV
= 209.952 – (205.9392+ 4.0044) x 931MeV
= 0.009 x 931.5MeV.
= 8.3835MeV.

220
2.Calculate the energy released during the decay of 86 Rn Nucleus to216
84 Po
and an alpha particle.
220
Mass of 86 Rn=219. 96417 U
216
Mass of 84 Po=215 . 955794 U
4
Mass of He=4 . 001566 U
2

1U = 931MeV.

Solution
Energy = (mass of reactants – total mass of products) x 931MeV.
= (219.964176 - (215.955794+4.001566)) x 931MeV.
=6.345696MeV.

234 234 4
3.Uranium - 238 disintegrate according to the equation. 92 U → 90 Th+ 2 He
Calculate the total energy released in the disintegration given that;
Mass of U −238=238 . 12392U
Mass of Th−344=234 .11650U
Mass of He−4=4 .003894 U
1U = 931MeV.
Solution
Energy = (mass of reactants – mass of products) x 931MeV
= (238.12392 – (234-11650+4.00389)) x 931MeV
= 0.00353 x 93MeV
= 3.28643 MeV.
235 1 95 139 1 0
4.A nuclear reaction is given by 92 U + 0 n→ 42 Mo+ 57 La+2 0 n+7 −1 e .Calculate the total
1
energy released by 1g of uranium. Given mass of 0 n=1. 009 U ,mass of
0 95 139
−1 e=0. 00055 U , mass of 42 Mo=94 . 906U ,mass of 57 La=138 .906 U , mass of
235 −27
92 U =235 . 044 U , and 1 U=1. 66×10 Kg .
Solution.
Total mass of reactants = 235.044+1.009 = 236.053U
Total mass of products = 94.906+138.906+2x1.009+7x0.00055 = 235.83385U.
Mass defect, ∆m= 236.053 – 235.83385 = 0.21915U
Energy released by one atom = ∆mC2 =0.21915 x 1.66x10-27x (3 x108)2
= 3.274 x10-11J
Page | 197
 1
×6 . 02×10 23=2. 562×10 21 J
=
Number of atoms in 1g of uranium 235
Total energy = 2.562x1021x3.274x10-11
=8.39x1010J

11.8 Radio – Isotopes

These are radioactive atoms of the same element having the same atomic number
but different mass numbers.
11.81 Carbon dating.
Carbon dating is a process of determining the age of dead plants or animals using
the Isotope of carbon -14.
Living plants and animals contain small percentage of radioactive carbon in form of
isotope 14C.

The isotope is formed in atom due to cosmic rays knocking out neutrons from their
nuclei.

These neutrons then collide with nitrogen neutrons to form 14C nuclei.

Carbon dioxide from the atom is taken in by living plants as a result of

photosynthesis. So, a small percentage of carbon contents of plant material is 14C.
When a plant dies, no further 14C is taken in thus the portion of 14C in a dead plant
decreases as 14C atoms disintegrate.

Since activity is proportional to the number of atoms. Still disintegrate, and then
measuring the activity of 14C in the remains the taken when a plant is dead can be
estimated.

Question.
1. The activity of charcoal taken from an ancient homestead is 4.8x10-19C kg-1. Given
that the half life of carbon-14 is 5760 years and the activity of carbon-14 found in
living specimen is 7.0x10-19Ckg-1. Find the time when homestead was used.

Solution
A = 48x10-19CKg-1
A o = 7.0x10-19Ckg-1
T ½ = 5760yrs
−λt
From A=A o e
0. 693 0 .693
λ= = =3 . 815×10−12 s−1
T1 5760×365×24×3600
2

−19 −( 3.815×10 t)
−12
−19
⇒ 4.8×10 =7×10 e
⇒ t=9.889×1010 s

Page | 198
 54 54
2. A steel piston ring contains 15g of radioactive iron26 Fe . The activity of 26 Fe is
3.7x105 disintegration per second. After 100days of continuous use, the crank case
oil was found to have a total activity of 1.23x103 disintegrations per second. Find the
54
(i) Half life of26 Fe .
(ii) Average mass of iron worn off the ring per day assuming that all the metal
removed from the ring accumulates in the oil.

Solution.

(i)From
1
( )
A
A=A o e−λt ⇒ λ= ln O =
t A 100
1
×ln
(3 . 7×10 5
1 . 23×10 3)=0 .057065 day −1

0 . 693 0 .693
T 1= = =12 . 14 days
2
λ 0 .057065
(ii) New mass,
m=mO e− λt
From

m o = 15g, t = 100days, λ=0.057065day-1

m=15 e−0 .057065×100=0 . 05 g
Mass worm off = 15- 0.05
= 14.9g
Mass worm out per day = 14.95 = 0.1495gday-1
100

3.At a certain time, an alpha particle detector registers count rate of 385 per second,
exactly 10 days later, the count rate dropped to 85 per second. Find the decay
constant.

Solution
1 A
( )
1
A=A o e−λt ⇒ λ= ln O = ×ln
t A 10
385
85 ( )
=0 . 151 day−1

90
4.The radio isotope 38 Sr decays by emission of β- particles. The half life of the radio
active isotope is 28.8years. Determine the activity of 1g of the isotope.
Solution
T ½ = 28.8years
A=λN
λ = 0.693
28.8
= 0.0244year-1
But N = m NA
M
= 1 x 6.02x1023
90
= 6.6889x1021 atoms
Page | 199
A=λN=0. 0244×6 . 689×10 21=1. 632×10 20 year −1
1 . 632×1020
A= =5 .175×1012 s−1
Thus 365×24×3600

17.82 Uses of radio isotopes.

Industrial use;
 eliminate rate of wear of machinery
 Automatic control of thickness of paper, plastic or metal sheeting
 investigating flow of liquids in chemical plants or in underground water and
sewerage pipe lines

Biological uses;
 radio therapy

 Gamma rays are replacing x – rays in treatment of cancer.

 tracers – used in localizing the body and disorder
 Sterilization – medical instruments and bandages are sterilized by exposure
to gamma rays.
 Mutations – Radio isotopes can be used to induce plant mutations causing
improved seed varieties.
 Carbon dating – can be used to determine the age of remains of dead
organisms.
 Used in assessing of volume of blood in a patient.

11.83 Health hazards

 create radiation skin burn
 cause genetic mutation
 Cause cancer.

Revision questions.
1 (a) (i) what is meant by the terms half life and decay constant?
(ii) Derive the relationship between half life and decay constant.
(b) (i) what are radioisotopes?
(ii) The half life of polonium -30 is 2.5minutes. Determine the
activity of 1g of the isotope.(ans:9.29x1019s-1)
(iii) state one medical use and one biological use of radioisotopes.
(c) (i) what is meant by dead time as applied to a GMT.
(ii) Sketch the count rate voltage characteristics of a GMT and
explain its main features.
(iv) Identify giving reasons the suitable range in (c)(i) operation of
the tube.

2 (a) (i) what is meant by line spectrum?

Page | 200
 (ii) Explain how line spectrum accounts for the existence of
discrete energy levels in atoms.

(b)
E∞
0eV
E4 -1.6eV
E3 -3.7eV

E2 -5.5eV

E1 -10.4eV
The figure shows some of the energy levels of a mercury atom.
Determine;
(i) The ionization energy of mercury in joules.(ans:1.664x10-18J)
(ii) The wavelength of the radiation emitted in an electron
transition from E4 to E3.(ans:5.89x10-7m)
(c) (i) describe with the aid of a labeled diagram the action of an x
Ray tube.
(ii) Explain briefly how the intensity of x rays in an x ray tube is
controlled.
(iii) An x ray tube is operated at 40KV with an electron current of
20mA in the tube. Determine the number of electrons striking
the target per second.(ans:1.25x1017s-1)
3. (a) (i) what is meant by specific charge of an electron.
(ii) Abeam of electrons, having a common velocity, enters a
uniform magnetic field in a direction normal to the field.
Describe and explain the path of the electrons.
(iii) a beam of electrons directed mid way between two parallel
metal plates of length 4cm and separation 1cm is deflected
through 10cm on a fluorescent screen placed 20cm beyond the
nearest edge of the plates when a p.d of 200V applied across
the plates. If this deflection is annulled by a magnetic field of
flux density 1.14x10-3T applied normal to the electric field
between the plates, find the specific charge of the electrons.
(ans:1.74x107CKg-1)
(b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe and give the theory of
Bainbridge mass spectrometer for measuring the specific charge of
the positive ions.
(c) State one similarity and one difference between:
(i) Gamma rays and x rays.
(ii) Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
4. (a) state the laws of photo electric effect.
(b) What is meant by the following?
Page | 201
 (i) Work function
(ii) Stopping potential?
(c) Distinguish between ionization and excitation energies.
(d) State Bohr’s postulates of the hydrogen atom.
(e) The energy levels of the hydrogen atom are given by
13 . 6
En =− electronvolts
n2 , where n takes on values of 1, 2, 3, …
(i) Use this result to account for the occurrence of emission and
absorption line spectra.(ans:9.10x10-6m)
(ii) Find the shortest wavelength of radiation which can be emitted
by the hydrogen atom.
5. (a) Describe the structure of an atom.
(b) (i) Give the difference between gamma and x rays.
(ii) Write a nuclear equation to show the formation of a beta
particle in the nucleus of an atom.
(d) Explain one biological and industrial use of radioisotopes.
(c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a Geiger Muller tube
works.
(e) In a nuclear fission, U-235 splits according to the equation.
235 1 148 85 1
92 U + 0 n→ 57 La+ 35 Br +3 0 n . Find the obtained from 50g of U-235.

( Massof 23592 U =235 . 1U , Massof 1o n=1 .009 U , Massof 14857 La=148 . 0 U , Massof 8535 Br=84 . 9 U )
(ans:3.48x1014J).

6. (a) (i) Describe Millikan’s experiment for the determination of

Charge of an electron.
(ii) Explain the fact that from the experiment above charge was
found to be quantized.
(b) In the determination of the electron charge by Millikan’s experiment,
a potential difference of 1.5KV is applied between the horizontal
metal plates, 12mm apart. With the field switched off, a drop of oil of
mass 1x10-14Kg is observed to fall with a velocity of 4x10-4ms-1
between two metal plates 12mm. when a potential difference of 1.5KV
is applied across the plates, the drop rises with a constant velocity of
8x10-5ms-1. How many electron charges are there on the drop?
(Assume air resistance is proportional to the velocity of the drop and
neglect air buoyancy). (answer: n = 6)
(c) Explain why;
(i) The apparatus in Millikan’s experiment is surrounded with a
constant temperature enclosure.
(ii) Low vapour pressure oil is used.
(d) In Millikan’s experiment, the radius, r of the drop is calculated from

r=
√ 9 ηv
2 ρg where η is the viscosity of air and ρ is the density of oil.
Identify the symbol v and describe briefly how it is measured.
7. (a) define mass defect.

Page | 202
 238 234
(b) A uranium nucleus 92 U alpha particle and 90 Th . Calculate the
(i) Total energy in joules released (ans:5.9584x10-13J)
(ii) Kinetic energy of the alpha particle if the Uranium nucleus was
originally at rest. (ans:5.86x10-13J)

(c)
{ }{ }{ }
238 234 4
mas of 92U=238.125U¿ mas of 90Th=234.1 7U¿ mas of2He=4.0 4U ¿{}
Define the following terms
(i) Activity
(ii) Decay constant.
70
(d) Calculate the energy released when 31 Ga under goes a negative decay
70 70
to produce 32 Ge (atomic mass of 31 Ga=69 . 92605 U ,of
70
32 Ge=69. 92425 U ,1U=932MeV). Answer 1.68MeV.

8. (a) Define the terms

(i) Unified atomic mass unit.
(ii) Mass defect.
(b) A radioactive substance decays by 10% in 2 hours determine the
(i) Decay constant
(ii) Half life of the substance
(c) Sketch a graph showing how binding energy per nucleon varies with
mass number and describe the features of the graph.
235
(d) 1μg of 92 U takes part in an atomic blast. How much energy will be
liberated?
Mass of proton =1.00147U
Mass of neutron=1.00552U
235
Mass of 92 U =234.9250U
1U=1.66x10-27Kg. answer 3.82x105J
(e) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe the working of a diffusion
cloud chamber.

Page | 203
Page | 204