Mohamed Sathak A J College of Engineering, Chennai - 603103

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)

Question Bank With Answers
EC3501 - WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

PART – A
UNIT - 1

1. Need for frequency reuse in Cellular radio systems

The radio spectrum is limited and cannot serve all users directly.
Frequency reuse allows the same frequencies in different cells separated by
distance.
It increases system capacity and improves coverage efficiently.

2. How the near-far effect in wireless networks can be avoided?

Near-far effect happens when a nearby strong user masks a far weaker one.
It is common in CDMA-based systems.
It can be avoided using power control, sectoring, or interference cancellation.

3. Define frequency reuse

Frequency reuse is the process of assigning the same frequency channels to
multiple cells.
These cells are placed far enough to reduce interference.
It helps in efficient utilization of limited frequency spectrum.

4. In a cellular network, among a handoff call and a new call which one is
given priority? Why?
Handoff calls are given more priority than new calls.
This prevents ongoing calls from being dropped suddenly.
It improves user satisfaction and ensures better Quality of Service (QoS).

5. Define multiple access technique and their types

Multiple access allows many users to share the same spectrum.
It avoids interference by dividing frequency, time, or codes.
Types include FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and OFDMA.

6. What is co-channel and adjacent channel interference and how to avoid

it?
Co-channel interference occurs due to reuse of the same frequency in nearby
cells.
Adjacent channel interference arises from imperfect filtering of neighboring
frequencies.
Avoidance is done by proper channel assignment, guard bands, and sectoring.

7. What do you mean by mobile-assisted hand-off?

In Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO), the mobile measures signal strength of
nearby base stations.
It reports the information to the serving base station.
The network uses this to decide the best cell for handoff.

8. What is the role of cellular concept in mobile technology?

The cellular concept divides an area into small cells with separate base stations.
It enables frequency reuse, increases system capacity, and improves coverage.
This concept is the foundation of modern mobile communication.

UNIT I PART B

Cellular System – Long Questions with Answers

Q41. Explain the principle of handoff strategies adopted

in Cellular Networks. Also explain how power control is
utilized for interference reduction.
Handoff is the process of transferring an ongoing call from one base station to
another to maintain continuity of service. The principle involves three steps: (i)
Measurement of signal strengths, (ii) Decision of when/where to switch, and
(iii) Execution of handoff.

Handoff Strategies include Hard Handoff (break-before-make), Soft Handoff

(make-before-break), Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO), Network-Controlled
and Mobile-Controlled handoffs. The goal is to reduce call drops and maintain
QoS.
Power control adjusts mobile transmit power to reduce interference and near–far
effects. The received power can be expressed as:
Pr = Pt * d^(-α)
where Pr is received power, Pt is transmit power, d is distance, and α is path-
loss exponent. Closed-loop and open-loop power control methods are employed
in practice.

Q42. Explain how the spectrum is efficiently utilized in

cellular technology by reusing the frequency. Compare
the various channel assignment strategies.
Frequency reuse allows efficient utilization of spectrum by assigning the same
set of frequencies to cells separated by sufficient distance. This increases
capacity without extra spectrum.

Reuse Distance is given by:

D = R * sqrt(3N)
where R = cell radius, N = cluster size.

Channels per Cell:

S=M/N
where M = total number of channels.

Channel Assignment Strategies:

1. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA): Fixed allocation, simple but less efficient.
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA): On-demand allocation, efficient but
complex.
3. Hybrid Assignment: Combines FCA and DCA for balanced performance.
Q43. Describe in detail about the Channel assignment
strategies and Handoff strategies in cellular system.
Channel Assignment Strategies:
1. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA): Each cell has a permanent set of channels.
Simple but inflexible.
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA): Channels assigned on demand.
Improves utilization but complex.
3. Hybrid Assignment: Combines FCA and DCA for balanced performance.

Handoff Strategies:
1. Hard Handoff (break-before-make).
2. Soft Handoff (make-before-break).
3. Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO).
4. Network-Controlled and Mobile-Controlled handoffs.
Handoff ensures ongoing call continuity while user moves across cells.
Q44. In cellular network what are the techniques to
improve coverage and system capacity? Explain in
detail.
Techniques include:
1. Cell Splitting: Large cells divided into smaller cells to increase capacity.
2. Sectoring: Using directional antennas to divide a cell into sectors, reducing
co-channel interference.
3. Microcells, Picocells, and Femtocells: For hotspot coverage.
4. Power Control: Reduces interference and increases capacity.
5. Smart Antennas/MIMO: Improves spectrum efficiency.

Expression: Capacity per cell = M/N where M=total channels, N=cluster size.
Q45. Explain the fundamental concepts of cellular
system with neat diagrams.
Fundamentals:
- Cell: Basic coverage area served by a base station.
- Cluster: Group of cells using unique frequency sets.
- Frequency Reuse: Same frequency reused at a distance.
- Reuse Distance: D = R * sqrt(3N).
- Handoff: Call transfer between cells.

Diagram shows a cluster with N=7 cells.

Q46. Numerical Problem
Given: Total channels M = 917, Cell area = 4 km², Total area = 1400 km², N =
7.
Number of cells = 1400 / 4 = 350.

i) Channels per cell = M / N = 917 / 7 ≈ 131.

System capacity = 131 * (350/7) = 917.

ii) Replication = total cells / N = 350 / 7 = 50 times.

iii) For N = 4, clusters = 350/4 ≈ 87. Channels per cell = 917/4 ≈ 229.

Comparison: Smaller N → higher reuse (more capacity) but higher interference.

Q47. Describe various interferences and increasing the
system capacity of wireless cellular network.
Types of Interference:
1. Co-channel interference: Same frequency reused in nearby cells.
2. Adjacent-channel interference: Imperfect filtering of neighboring channels.
3. Multipath fading interference.
4. Intermodulation interference.

Capacity Improvement Techniques: Cell splitting, sectoring, microcells, power

control, smart antennas, OFDMA.

Q48. Explain the concept of cellular topology and cell

fundamentals.
Cellular Topology: Service area divided into hexagonal cells, each with a base
station. Cells grouped into clusters for frequency reuse.

Cell Fundamentals:
- Cell Radius (R).
- Cluster size (N).
- Reuse distance D = R * sqrt(3N).
- Capacity per cell = M/N.
- Handoff zones at cell boundaries.

Diagram illustrates a cluster of 7 cells in cellular topology.

UNIT I PART C

Q81. Analyze how a cellular packet switched

architecture supports highly dense user environments.
Answer:

Cellular packet-switched architecture (used in GPRS, LTE, 5G) is designed to

efficiently handle large numbers of users with bursty traffic like internet
browsing, video streaming, IoT, etc.

Key Features Supporting Dense Users:

1. Statistical Multiplexing:
o Bandwidth is shared among active users only.
o Idle users do not consume resources.
2. Dynamic Resource Allocation:
o Schedulers allocate time slots, frequency blocks based on traffic
demand.
3. Quality of Service (QoS):
o Real-time services (VoIP, video) get priority over non-real-time
traffic (file downloads).
4. Seamless Handover:
o IP-based handoff minimizes delay during mobility.
5. Small Cells & Sectorization:
o Macro, micro, pico, and femtocells handle high user density.
Expression for Throughput:

T=η.B.log2(1+SIR)

 T = Throughput
 η = Spectral efficiency
 B = Bandwidth
 SIR = Signal-to-Interference Ratio

Advantages in Dense Environments:

 High spectral efficiency

 Support for heterogeneous traffic
 Scalable for 5G ultra-dense networks
 Q82.
82 Consider a code division multiple access (CDMA) system where multiple
users share the same frequency band. Each user is assigned a unique spreading
code, Which is used to modulate their data before transmission. The system
operates with the following parameters.
i)No of users (K) – 10
ii)Spreading code length (N) – 31 chips
iii) Data rate – 10kbps
iv)SNR required per user 10db calculate
SIR (Signal to interference ratio) for a single user in the system
II. If the spreading code length is increased to 63 chips, discuss how the
data rate & system capacity would be affected.
III. Suggest methods to mitigate the affects of multiple access interference
(MAI) in a CDMA system and briefly describe how these methods
improve system performance.

(i) Calculation of SIR for a single user

 Given parameters:
 Number of users, K=10K
 Spreading code length, N=31N
 Data rate, Rb=10 kbps
 Required SNR per user = 10 dB10

Processing Gain (PG):

PG = Rc/Rb = N⋅Rb /Rb = N=31

where Rc is chip rate.

Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR):

For CDMA, approximate single-user SIR is:

SIR=PG/K−1
Substitute values:

SIR= 31/10−1 =31/9 ≈3.44

Convert to dB:

SIR dB= 10log⁡10(3.44) ≈5.36 dB ( note 10 log to the base 10)

(ii) Effect of increasing spreading code length N=63N =

63N=63

 Processing Gain (PG):

PG =N = 63

 Higher PG ⇒ Better interference suppression.

Impact:

 Data Rate: Remains same (10 kbps) since data rate depends on
modulation and symbol rate, not directly on spreading code length.
 System Capacity: Increases because more users can be supported for the
same SIR requirement.

New SIR with N = 63, K = 10:

SIR = 63/9 =7.0 ⇒ SIR dB = 10log⁡10(7) ≈8.45 dB (10 log to the base 10 )

→ Still below 10 dB, but much better than 5.36 dB.

→ With longer spreading codes, the system can allow more users while
maintaining performance.

✅ Answer: Increasing NNN improves capacity and SIR, but data rate remains
unchanged.

(iii) Methods to Mitigate Multiple Access Interference (MAI)

1. Power Control
 o Adjusts user transmit power so that all received signals arrive with
similar power.
o Prevents “near-far problem” where strong users drown weaker
ones.
2. Multiuser Detection (MUD)
o Uses advanced receivers (e.g., MMSE, SIC) to jointly detect
multiple users instead of treating interference as noise.
o Significantly improves SIR and reduces BER.
3. Error-Correcting Codes (FEC, Turbo Codes, LDPC)
o Adds redundancy, enabling recovery of data even under
interference.
o Improves effective capacity and reduces required SNR.
4. Improved Spreading Sequences
o Use orthogonal or low cross-correlation codes (e.g., Gold codes,
Walsh codes).
o Reduces mutual interference.
5. Interference Cancellation Techniques
o Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) removes strongest
detected users first, then decodes weaker ones.
o Parallel Interference Cancellation (PIC) estimates and subtracts
interference in parallel.

✅ Answer: MAI can be mitigated by power control, multiuser detection,

coding, better spreading sequences, and interference cancellation, all of
which improve capacity, reliability, and BER performance in CDMA
systems.

UNIT 4 PART A

Q25. How does Spread Spectrum technique provide resistance to

interference and jamming?

Spread spectrum spreads the signal over a wide frequency band, making
interference or jamming concentrated in a small portion of the band. This
reduces its effect and improves system robustness.

Q26.
26 In IS-95 CDMA system, if W=1.25 MHz, R=9600 bps, and N=14 users
(a) calculate Eb/N0
b) When no voice activity is there, calculate E b/N0 for omnidirectional
antennas.

.(a) Processing gain:

PG=W / R=1.25×106 / 9600 ≈130

Eb / N0 = PG / N =130 / 14 ≈9.3 (9.7 dB)

(b) With no voice activity, effective users reduce by half → N=7

Eb / N0 = 130 / 7 ≈ 18.6 (12.7 dB)

Q27. Differentiate between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.

 FDMA: Users allocated separate frequency bands.

 TDMA: Users share same frequency, separated in time slots.
 CDMA: All users share same frequency & time, separated by unique
codes.

Q28. List out the types of spread spectrum.

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).
 Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (THSS).
 Hybrid techniques (e.g., DS-FH).

Q29. What is the need of guard bands in FDMA?

Guard bands are small frequency gaps inserted between adjacent channels to
prevent overlapping and reduce inter-channel interference.

Q30. How FDMA handles near–far problem?

FDMA uses fixed frequency channels and tight power control, ensuring that
stronger nearby users do not dominate weaker far-away users.

Q31. What is the need of guard bands in FDMA?

(Same as Q29) Guard bands are required to avoid adjacent channel

interference by providing frequency separation between users.

Q32. What is multiple access technique?

Multiple access techniques allow many users to share the same

communication medium efficiently (e.g., FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) without
excessive interference.

UNIT 4 PART B

Q65. Elaborate the performance of DMA in detail

(Assuming DMA = “Digital Multiple Access” or “Dynamic Multiple Access /

Multiple Access techniques in digital cellular systems.)
Points to cover

1. Definition & Types

o Digital multiple access refers to techniques that allow many users
to share channels in a digital cellular system.
o Main types: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and hybrid schemes; also
SDMA.
2. Performance Metrics
o Capacity (number of users per cell / sector)
o Spectral efficiency (bits/s/Hz/cell)
o Quality of service (bit error rate, drop calls)
o Delay / latency
o Power efficiency; battery life
o Complexity / cost
3. Effect of Interference
o Intra-cell and inter-cell interference.
o Near-far problem (especially in CDMA)
o Role of power control
4. Effect of Propagation / Fading
o Path loss exponent, shadowing, multipath, fading (slow/fast)
o Effects on required Eb/N0, link budget
5. Voice Activity Factor
o Not all users transmit continuously; this reduces average
interference, increasing effective capacity
6. Sectorization and Antenna Gains
o Using directional antennas, splitting cells into sectors reduces
interference and increases capacity
7. Soft-capacity vs hard-capacity
o In TDMA / FDMA, capacity more “fixed” (limited by number of
frequency / time slots)
o In CDMA, “soft capacity” – you can keep adding users until
interference degrades performance
8. Operational issues
o Power control, synchronization, code orthogonality (for CDMA),
guard times/bands (for TDMA/FDMA)
o Handoff overhead
9. Trade-offs
o Complexity vs performance
o Cost of infrastructure vs benefits in capacity / coverage.
Q66 — Explain the two main types of spread-spectrum
multiple access schemes. Evaluate the capacity of a
cellular CDMA system.
(a) Two main spread-spectrum multiple access schemes

1. Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS / DS-CDMA)

o Each user multiplies data by a high-rate pseudorandom chip
sequence (spreading code). Receiver correlates with the same code
to despread.
o Advantages: good resistance to narrowband interference, simple
synchronization, soft capacity via power control.
2. Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS / FH-CDMA)
o Users rapidly change carrier frequency according to a
pseudorandom hop pattern. Multiple users can use orthogonal or
different hop sequences.
o Advantages: robustness to burst interference, simpler receivers for
slow FH; can be combined with DS for hybrid schemes.

(b) Evaluating capacity of cellular CDMA (outline + simple

formula)

 Processing gain (PG): G=W / R (chip rate or system bandwidth W over

user data rate R).
 Single-cell uplink simplified relation (thermally limited ignored):

Eb / N0 ≈ G / (1- Ma) + Iext

Where Ma = number of active users in the sector (or cell) and Iext=
normalized external interference from other cells (in same units).

 Solve for active users per sector:

Ma ≈ 1+G / Eb/N0

Include voice activity factor α\alphaα (fraction of time users actually

transmit):

replace Ma−1 α(M-1)α(M−1), giving

 Ma ≈ 1+G / (Eb/N0)α - Iext /α

 Interpretation: capacity (number of users) increases with higher PG and

higher allowable Eb / N0 margin; decreases with external interference
and larger required Eb/N0 . Sectorization and voice activity increase
effective capacity.

Q67. Explain SDMA technique and how SDMA complements

other multiple access techniques in advanced cellular
networks?
SDMA Explanation

 Definition: Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA): sharing of

wireless resources by distinguishing users based on spatial separation
(direction, angle) using directional antennas, beamforming, smart
antennas.
 Mechanisms:
• Sectorization (fixed sectors, e.g. 3 sectors per cell with 120° each)
• Smart / adaptive / phased array antennas: dynamic beam steering and
nulling
 Benefits:
• Reduces interference (spatial filtering)
• Increases capacity: same frequency / time / code resource reused in
different spatial directions
 Challenges:
• Complexity in antenna design, beamforming, direction estimation
• Cost of hardware
• Need for tracking of mobiles to steer beams

How SDMA complements MA techniques

 With FDMA/TDMA: for each FDMA channel or TDMA time slot, if

antennas are sectorized or beamformed, you can reuse that same channel
in different spatial directions, increasing reuse (spatial reuse).
 With CDMA: even though all users are in same frequency/time/code,
spatial discrimination reduces interference, thus raising capacity.
 In advanced systems (e.g. 3G/4G/5G): SDMA is integral (massive
MIMO, beamforming) working together with OFDMA / CDMA / time vs
frequency domain techniques.
Q.68 Derive the Expression for the Total Capacity of a
Multi-Cell CDMA System

Derivation: Total Capacity of a Multi-Cell CDMA System

Objective: Derive an expression for the total number of simultaneous users in a
multi-cell CDMA system (total capacity), under standard simplifying
assumptions. The final result gives the number of users per cell and the total
system capacity across K cells.

Assumptions
1. All users use the same bit rate R and the same processing bandwidth W (chip
rate).

2. Perfect power control: the average received signal power from every active
user at its serving base station is S (same for all users).

3. There are K identical cells, each with N active users (so total users M = K·N).

4. Inter-cell interference from a user in another cell is on average reduced by a

factor α (0 ≤ α ≤ 1) at the reference base station compared with an in-cell user.

5. Thermal noise power over the system bandwidth is N0·W.

6. Each user requires a target energy-per-bit to noise ratio (Eb/N0)_{req} for

acceptable performance.

Notation
W : system (chip) bandwidth (Hz)

R : user data rate (bits/s)

Gp = W/R : processing gain

S : received signal power from a single user at its serving BS

N0 : noise power spectral density (W/Hz)

Eb/N0 : required energy per bit to noise density (linear, not dB)

α : average attenuation factor for inter-cell interferers (0 ≤ α ≤ 1)

K : number of identical cells

N : number of users per cell (to be found)

M = K·N : total system capacity (total users across K cells)

Derivation (uplink perspective)

Consider the uplink at a reference base station (one cell). The total
interference-plus-noise seen by the desired signal from one user is the sum of:

• Intra-cell interference from the other (N − 1) users in the same cell: (N − 1)·S

• Inter-cell interference from users in the other (K − 1) cells: (K − 1)·N·α·S (α

accounts for pathloss/attenuation)

• Thermal noise over the whole bandwidth: N0·W

Hence total interference plus noise at the reference BS:

I_total = (N − 1)·S + (K − 1)·N·α·S + N0·W

The signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SIR) for one user (after

despreading) is:

SIR = S / I_total = S / [ (N − 1)S + (K − 1)NαS + N0W ]

The required SIR to meet the target Eb/N0 is related by:

SIR_required = (Eb/N0) · (R / W)

(since Eb = S / R and noise density N0 gives Eb/N0 = (S/R) / (I_total/W) →

S/[I_total] = (Eb/N0)·(R/W))

Equate the actual SIR to the required SIR:

S / [ (N − 1)S + (K − 1)NαS + N0W ] = (Eb/N0) · (R / W)

Solve for N (users per cell)

Divide numerator and denominator by S (S > 0):

1 / [ (N − 1) + (K − 1)Nα + (N0W / S) ] = (Eb/N0) · (R / W)

Let A = (Eb/N0)·(R / W) and f_0 = N0W / S (the noise-to-signal ratio over the
bandwidth). Then:

1 / [ (N − 1) + (K − 1)Nα + f_0 ] = A
Invert both sides:

(N − 1) + (K − 1)Nα + f_0 = 1 / A

Group terms with N:

N · [ 1 + (K − 1)α ] − 1 + f_0 = 1 / A

Therefore:

N · [ 1 + (K − 1)α ] = 1 / A + 1 − f_0

Finally, the number of users per cell is:

N = [ 1 / A + 1 − f_0 ] / [ 1 + (K − 1)α ]

Expressing 1 / A explicitly
Recall A = (Eb/N0)·(R / W). So:

1 / A = W / [ R · (Eb/N0) ]

Substitute back:

N = [ W / ( R · (Eb/N0) ) + 1 − (N0W / S) ] / [ 1 + (K − 1)α ]

Total system capacity

Total capacity across K identical cells: M = K · N. Thus:

M = K · { [ W / ( R · (Eb/N0) ) + 1 − (N0W / S) ] / [ 1 + (K − 1)α ] }

Common simplifications and special cases

1. Negligible thermal noise (interference limited): N0W / S ≈ 0. Then:

N ≈ [ W / ( R · (Eb/N0) ) + 1 ] / [ 1 + (K − 1)α ]

M ≈ K · [ W / ( R · (Eb/N0) ) + 1 ] / [ 1 + (K − 1)α ]

2. If inter-cell interference factor α ≈ 0 (perfect isolation between cells), then:

N ≈ W / ( R · (Eb/N0) ) + 1 − (N0W / S) (each cell behaves almost

independently)

3. Using processing gain Gp = W/R, the interference-limited (N0 ≈ 0) per-cell

capacity simplifies to:

N ≈ [ Gp / (Eb/N0) + 1 ] / [ 1 + (K − 1)α ]
Q69. Compare and contrast i) TDMA, ii) CDMA, iii) FDMA, with
necessary diagrams and explanations.

1. Definitions / Principles
o FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access – each user allocated
a unique frequency channel (band) for entire call duration.
o TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access – users share a frequency
channel but are assigned different time slots in repeating frames.
o CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access – all users share the same
frequency band simultaneously, separated by unique codes /
spreading sequences.
2. Diagrams
o FDMA: Spectrum axis showing non-overlapping frequency blocks
for A, B, C…
o TDMA: Time vs time-slot diagram showing time slots sequentially
for different users, same frequency channel.
o CDMA: All users transmitting in same time and frequency; codes
overlay; receiver correlates for correct code.

Conceptual Diagram of Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 3. Comparison Table

Feature FDMA TDMA CDMA

Better than FDMA

High, especially when
Spectral Moderate; suffers guard when many users /
many users & good
efficiency bands between channels slots used; some idle
interference control
slots wasted

Time slot Multiple Access

Adjacent-channel interference; guard Interference (MAI);
Interference interference; filter times; near-far issue;
type requirements; frequency synchronization; intercell interference;
planning needed inter-slot noise-like interference
interference from other users
 Feature FDMA TDMA CDMA

Synchronization of
Frequency accuracy; codes; less strict time
Synchronization Need precise frame /
frequency stability; less alignment but code
requirements slot synchronization
tight in time timing matters; fast
power control

Soft capacity: can

Hard capacity:
Hard capacity: limited degrade gradually as
Capacity limited by number of
by number of frequency more users are added;
behavior slots per frame ×
channels capacity limited by
number of channels
interference level

Excellent: voice
Flexibility for Less flexible; channel Time slots may be
activity means less
bursty traffic / reserved even if no wasted if user
average interference;
voice inactivity traffic inactive
more users supported

Power control

Complex receiver
Simpler in Needs time slot (despreading, rake
Complexity /
transmitter/receiver; control, guard times receivers, power
cost
filtering etc etc control, code
management)

4. When Each is Used / Examples

o FDMA: older analog systems; some narrowband systems; may be
part of hybrid systems
o TDMA: GSM etc.
o CDMA: IS-95, CDMA2000, parts of UMTS etc.
5. Trade-offs
o Usually trade between capacity vs complexity vs cost
o CDMA gives high capacity but comes with complexity (power
control, code management)

Q70. In IS-95 CDMA system if W=1.25MHz R= 9600bps, and N=14 uses

a) Calculate Eb/No
 b) When no voice activity is there, Calculate eb/No for omnidirectional
antennas.
If voice activity = 3/8 and three sector antennas are used, calculate the
total number of
users cell one with the maximum radio capacity. Assume n=4
propagation path loss.
System A: BC = 30 kHz, (C/I) min =15db
System B: BC = 25 kHz, (C/I) min = 14db
System C: BC = 12.5 kHz, (C/I) min = 2db
System D: BC= 6.25 kHz, (C/I) min = 9db

IS-95 CDMA System Capacity and Eb/No Calculation

Given Parameters:

• W = 1.25 MHz (CDMA system bandwidth)

• R = 9600 bps (data rate)

• N = 14 users (initial assumption)

• Voice activity factor = 3/8

• Sectorization = 3 sectors

• Propagation path loss exponent n = 4

a) Calculation of Eb/No
The processing gain (Gp) is given by:

Gp = W / R

Substituting values:

Gp = 1.25 × 10^6 / 9600 ≈ 130.2 (linear)

In dB:

Gp(dB) = 10 log10(130.2) ≈ 21.15 dB

For N = 14 users, the bit energy to noise density ratio is:

Eb/No = Gp / N = 130.2 / 14 ≈ 9.3 (linear)

In dB:

Eb/No = 10 log10(9.3) ≈ 9.7 dB

b) With Voice Activity Factor and Sectorization

When there is no voice activity (i.e., activity factor = 1), the above Eb/No
applies.

Considering a voice activity factor (α = 3/8 = 0.375) and three-sector antennas,

the effective number of users supported per cell is:

N_cell = (Gp / (Eb/No_required)) × (1/α) × (Number of sectors)

From part (a), Eb/No_required ≈ 9.7 dB ≈ 9.3 (linear).

Thus, N_cell = (130.2 / 9.3) × (1/0.375) × 3

≈ 14 × 2.67 × 3

≈ 112 users per cell.

c) Maximum Radio Capacity System Selection

We compare different systems based on minimum (C/I) requirement and
channel bandwidth (BC):

System A: BC = 30 kHz, (C/I)min = 15 dB

System B: BC = 25 kHz, (C/I)min = 14 dB

System C: BC = 12.5 kHz, (C/I)min = 2 dB

System D: BC = 6.25 kHz, (C/I)min = 9 dB

For frequency reuse, cluster size N = (C/I requirement)^(n/2).

Smaller cluster size and lower (C/I) requirement give higher capacity.

• System A: N = (10^(15/10))^(4/2) = (31.6)^2 ≈ 1000

• System B: N = (10^(14/10))^(4/2) = (25.1)^2 ≈ 630

• System C: N = (10^(2/10))^(4/2) = (1.58)^2 ≈ 2.5

• System D: N = (10^(9/10))^(4/2) = (7.94)^2 ≈ 63

Thus, System C with BC = 12.5 kHz and (C/I)min = 2 dB provides the

maximum radio capacity.

Q71. Explain in detail about spread spectrum multiple access.

This is largely similar to parts of Q66; a more detailed answer would include:

 Definition of spread spectrum (why spread – resilience to interference,

security, sharing)
 Types (DSSS, FHSS, Hybrid)
 Properties: processing gain, probability of intercept, resistance to
jamming, multiple access interference (MAI)
 Code properties: orthogonal codes, pseudo-random noise codes,
cross-correlation / auto-correlation
 How multiple access is achieved (different codes)
 Power control, synchronization, near-far problem
 Capacity analysis: expression for capacity as function of W/R, Eb/N0,
voice activity, intercell interference etc.
 Examples: IS-95, CDMA2000 etc.
Q72. With relevant sketch, explain the operation of multiple
access technique used in 2G cellular system. Also derive the
expressions to compute capacity of TDMA scheme.

Multiple Access Techniques in 2G Cellular Systems

In 2G cellular systems, multiple users share the same radio spectrum using
multiple access techniques. The most commonly used are FDMA, TDMA, and
CDMA. Among these, TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) was widely
used in GSM (Global System for Mobile communication).

Operation of TDMA (with Sketch)

In TDMA, the available radio frequency channel is divided into time slots. Each
user is assigned a specific time slot within a frame and transmits only in that
time slot. This ensures that multiple users can share the same carrier frequency
without interfering with each other.

Sketch: A frequency channel is divided into frames, and each frame is

subdivided into multiple time slots. Users U1, U2, U3... are allocated different
slots in a cyclic manner.

[Insert Diagram: A TDMA frame divided into time slots, showing User 1, User
2, and User 3 in separate slots]

Explanation of TDMA Operation

1. The total bandwidth (W) is divided into multiple carrier frequencies.
2. Each carrier frequency is further divided into time slots.
3. A frame is formed by a set of time slots, and each user is assigned one slot
per frame.
4. Guard periods are inserted between slots to avoid overlap and interference.
5. The system synchronizes all users so that each transmits only in its assigned
slot.

Derivation of TDMA Capacity

Let:

• W = Total system bandwidth

• Bc = Bandwidth per carrier channel
• Nc = Number of carrier channels = W / Bc
• S = Number of time slots per carrier
• G = Frequency reuse factor (cluster size)
• M = Total number of cells in system
 The capacity of TDMA system (C) in terms of maximum simultaneous users is
given by:

C = (M / G) × Nc × S

Explanation:

• (M / G) = Number of channels available per cell considering frequency reuse.

• Nc = Number of frequency channels per cell.
• S = Number of users supported per channel due to time slotting.

Hence, TDMA capacity depends on the system bandwidth, carrier bandwidth,

number of slots, and frequency reuse factor.

UNIT 4 PART C

87 For a cellular system with a total bandwidth of 15MHZ uses 10KHZ simplex,
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels. For 12 cellreuse
pattern and 1MHZ of the total bandwidth is allocated for control channels.
i) Calculate the total available channel.
ii) Determine the number of control channels.
Calculate the number of voice channels per cell.

Calculations

 Total bandwidth: 15 MHz

 Simplex channel bandwidth: 10 kHz
 Duplex voice/control: This means each full-duplex channel requires
two simplex channels (one for uplink, one for downlink). So, the
bandwidth for one full-duplex channel is 2×10 kHz=20 kHz.
 Control channel bandwidth: 1 MHz
 Frequency reuse pattern: 12-cell reuse (N=12)

i) Total Available Channels The total bandwidth is 15 MHz, and each full-
duplex channel uses 20 kHz.

Total available channels = Total Bandwidth / Bandwidth per full-duplex

channel
 Total available channels = 15 MHz/20 kHz

Total available channels = (15×106 Hz)/(20×103 Hz)

Total available channels = 750 channels

ii) Number of Control Channels The bandwidth allocated for control

channels is 1 MHz. Each control channel is a full-duplex channel, so it uses 20
kHz.

Number of control channels = Control channel bandwidth / Bandwidth per

full-duplex

Channel

Number of control channels = 1 MHz/20 kHz

Number of control channels = (1×106 Hz)/(20×103 Hz)

Number of control channels = 50 control channels

iii) Number of Voice Channels Per Cell First, let's find the total number of
voice channels available in the entire system.

Total voice channels = Total available channels - Number of control channels

Total voice channels = 750−50=700 channels

Next, we divide these voice channels among the cells using the reuse pattern
(N=12).

Number of voice channels per cell = Total voice channels / Frequency reuse
pattern (N)

Number of voice channels per cell = 700/12≈58.33

Since we can't have a fraction of a channel, the number of voice channels per
cell is 58.

88 Explain traffic routing involved in a wireless networks with necessary

diagrams.
Traffic routing in wireless networks is a process that determines the most
efficient path for data packets to travel from a source to a destination. Unlike
wired networks, wireless routing is dynamic and more complex due to factors
like mobility of nodes, limited bandwidth, and frequent changes in network
topology.

Types of Wireless Routing Protocols

 Proactive (Table-Driven) Protocols: These protocols maintain routing

information for all possible paths between nodes, even if there's no
ongoing data transfer. They respond quickly to changes in topology but
can generate significant overhead. An example is the Destination-
Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) protocol. In DSDV, each node
periodically broadcasts its routing table, which includes destination
addresses, the next hop, and a sequence number to prevent loops.
 Reactive (On-Demand) Protocols: These protocols only discover a
route when a node needs to send data. This reduces overhead in
networks with low traffic but can introduce delays while the route is
being established. The Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
protocol is a key example. When a source node needs to send data, it
broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ) message. Intermediate nodes
forward the RREQ, and when the destination is reached, it sends a Route
Reply (RREP) back along the path.
 Hybrid Protocols: These protocols combine elements of both proactive
and reactive approaches. They are designed to balance the trade-offs
between overhead and latency. For example, the Zone Routing
Protocol (ZRP) uses a proactive approach within a node's local "zone"
and a reactive approach for routing to destinations outside that zone.

Traffic Routing Process

The fundamental steps in wireless traffic routing involve.

Route Discovery: The process of finding a path from the source node to the
destination node. This is often initiated by the source node, which broadcasts a
request for a route.

1. Route Maintenance: Once a route is established, it needs to be

maintained. If a link breaks, the protocol must either find an alternative
path or initiate a new route discovery process. This is crucial in mobile
ad hoc networks (MANETs) where nodes frequently move.
2. Data Forwarding: After a route is found, data packets are forwarded
from one node to the next until they reach the destination. Each
intermediate node uses its routing table to determine the next hop.