Unit 4 CPF - (Computer Programming Fundamental)
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adodecloudestorage07Unit 4 CPF - (Computer Programming Fundamental)
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adodecloudestorage07Unit 4
An Introduction to Computer Networking
computernetworkisasystemthatconnectsnumerousindependentcomputersinorderto
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share information (data) and resources. Theintegrationofcomputersandotherdifferent
devices allows users to communicate more easily.
computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked
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together. A network connection can be established using eithercableorwirelessmedia.
Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware,
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personal computers,andotherspecializedorgeneral-purposehostscanallbenodesina
computer network.
Uses Of Computer Network
esource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
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printers,anddataamongtheusersonthenetworkwithouttherequirementofthephysical
location of the resource and user.
erver-Clientmodel:Computernetworkingisusedintheserver-clientmodel.Aserveris
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a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system
administrator.Clientsarethemachinesusedtoaccesstheinformationstoredintheserver
remotely.
ommunicationmedium:Computernetworkbehavesasacommunicationmediumamong
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theusers.Forexample,acompanycontainingmorethanonecomputerhasanemailsystem
which the employees use for daily communication.
-commerce: Computer networks arealsoimportantinbusinesses.Wecandobusiness
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over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet,
i.eThey are doing their business over the internet.
Network Types
heNetworkallowscomputerstoconnectandcommunicatewithdifferentcomputersvia
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any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of networks designed to
operate over the areatheycover.Therearesomesimilaritiesanddissimilaritiesbetween
them.Oneofthemajordifferencesisthegeographicalareatheycover,i.e.LANcoversthe
smallest area, MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largestof all.
LAN (Local Area Network)
LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal
c omputers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers
and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private
addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in
relation to other computers on the local network.
ata transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By
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definition, the connections must be high-speed. LANs coverasmallergeographicalarea
(Sizeislimitedtoafewkilometers)andareprivatelyowned.Onecanuseitforanoffice
building, home, hospital, school, etc. LAN is easyto design and maintain.
ANs speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. The smallest LAN may only use two
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computers,whilelargerLANscanaccommodatethousandsofcomputers.LANhasarange
ofupto2km.ALANtypicallyreliesmostlyonwiredconnectionsforincreasedspeedand
security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. For example: A bunchof
students playing Counter-Strike in the same room (without internet).
Advantages:
●Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speedcommunication.
●Easy to set up and manage.
●Can be used to share peripheral devices such asprinters and scanners.●
Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
●Limited geographical coverage.
●Limited scalability and may require significantinfrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
●May experience congestion and network performanceissues with increasedusage.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
ANorMetropolitanareaNetworkcoversalargerareathanthatcoveredbyaLANanda
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smallerareaascomparedtoWAN.MANhasarangeof5-50km.Itconnectstwoormore
computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It covers a large
geographical area. MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity.
Speeds of MAN range intermsofMbps.It’shardtodesignandmaintainaMetropolitan
Area Network.
I t is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. Devices used for
transmission of data throughMANareModemandWire/Cable.ExamplesofaMANare
part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the
customer or the cable TV network in a city.
Advantages:
●Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographicalarea than LAN.
●Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
●Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in somecases.
Disadvantages:
●Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
●May experience congestion and network performanceissues with increasedusage.
●May have limited fault tolerance and security comparedto LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
ANorWideAreaNetworkisacomputernetworkthatextendsoveralargegeographical
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area,althoughitmightbeconfinedwithintheboundsofastateorcountry.WANhasarange
of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via
telephone linesandradiowavesandmaybelimitedtoanenterprise(acorporationoran
organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively
expensive.
ANisdifficulttodesignandmaintain.WAN’sdatarateisslow.ThespeedofWANranges
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fromafewkilobitspersecond(Kbps)tomegabitspersecond(Mbps).Devicesusedforthe
transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves, andSatellites.
Advantages:
●Covers large geographical areas and can connectremote locations.●
Provides connectivity to the internet.
●Offers remote access to resources and applications.
●Can be used to support multiple users and applicationssimultaneously.
Disadvantages:
●Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
●Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
●May experience higher latency and longer propagationdelays due to longer
distances and multiple network hops.
●May have lower fault tolerance and security comparedto LANs.
Differences between LAN, MAN, and WAN
Basis LAN MAN WAN
Full-Form AN stands for
L MAN stands for
local area WAN stands for
network. metropolitan area
wide area network.
network.
eographic
G perates
O in Operates in larger
Span small areas such Operates in large
as the same areas such as
building or areas such as a
campus. countries or
city.
continents.
Ownership
AN’s ownership
L
is private.
MAN’s
While WAN also
ownership can be
might not be owned
ransmissi
T private or public.
onSpeed by one organization.
hetransmission
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speed of a LAN
ishigh.
While the
Whereas the
transmission
transmission speed
speed of a MAN
of a WAN is low.
is average.
ropagation
P he propagation
T There is a
delay delay is short in Whereas, there is a
aLAN. moderate
long propagation
propagation delay
delay in a WAN.
in a MAN.
Congestion here is l ess
T While there is
congestion i n Whereas there is
LAN. more congestion
more congestion
in MAN.
than MAN in WAN.
esign &
D maintenance are d esign and d esign and
Maintenance e asy. maintenance are maintenancearealso
more difficult more difficult than
than LAN. LAN as well as
MAN.
here is more
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faulttolerancein hile there is
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Fault tolerance In WAN, there is
LAN. less fault
also less fault
tolerance.
LAN’sdesignand While MAN’s tolerance.
Whereas WAN’s
Modes of Data Transmission
○The way in which data is transmitted from one deviceto another device is knownas
transmission mode.
○The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
○ Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission
media provide the direction. Therefore,thetransmissionmodeisalsoknownasa
directional mode.
○The transmission mode is defined in the physicallayer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
○Simplex mode
○Half-duplex mode
○Full-duplex mode
Simplex Mode
○In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,i.e., the data flows in one
direction.
○A device can only send the data but cannot receiveit or it can receive the data but
cannot send the data.
○ This transmission mode is not very popular asmainlycommunicationsrequirethe
two-wayexchangeofdata.Thesimplexmodeisusedinthebusinessfieldasinsales
that do not require any corresponding reply.
○The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmitsthe signal to the listeners but
never allows them to transmit back.
○The main advantage of the simplex mode is that thefull capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.
Advantage of Simplex mode:
○In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entirebandwidth of thecommunication
channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
○Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communicationbetweendevices.
Half-Duplex Mode
○In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed,i.e., the station can transmitand
receive the data as well.
○Messages flow in both directions, but not at thesame time.
○The entire bandwidth of the communication channelis utilized in one direction ata
time.
○In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform theerror detection, and if any error
occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
○ AWalkie-talkieisanexampleoftheHalf-duplexmode.InWalkie-talkie,oneparty
speaks,andanotherpartylistens.Afterapause,theotherspeaksandthefirstparty
listens. Speaking simultaneously will create a distorted sound which cannot be
understood.
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:
○Inhalf-duplexmode,boththedevicescansendandreceivethedataandalsocanutilize
the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmissionof data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
○In half-duplex mode, when one device is sendingthe data, then another has towait, this
causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.
Full-duplex Mode
○In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional,i.e., the data flow inboth
the directions.
○Both the stations can send and receive the messagesimultaneously.
○Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channelhas traffic moving inone
direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
○The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communicationbetween devices.
○ The mostcommonexampleofthefull-duplexmodeisatelephonenetwork.When
twopeoplearecommunicatingwitheachotherbyatelephoneline,bothcantalkand
listen at the same time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
○Both the stations can send and receive the dataat the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
○If no dedicated path exists between the devices,then the capacity of the
communication channel is divided into two parts.
Differences between Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex mode
Simplex mode Full-duplex mode
Basis forcomparison Half-duplexmode
irection of
D I n simplex mode, In half-duplex
communicat the communication In full-duplex mode, the
ion isunidirectional. mode, the
communication is
communication is
bidirectional.
b idirectional, but
one at a time.
Send/Receive device can only
A Both the devices
send the data but Both the devices can send
cannotreceiveitor can send and
it can only receive and receive the data
the data but cannot receive the data,
send it. simultaneously.
but one at a time.
Performan he performance
T The performance
of half-duplex The Full-duplex mode has
modeisbetterthan of full-duplex
thesimplex mode. better performance among
mode is better
simplex and half-duplex
than the
mode as it doubles the
half-duplex mode.
ce xamples
E of utilization of the capacity
Simplex mode are of the communication
radio,keyboard,and channel.
monitor.
Example of a
Example of the
half-duplex is
Example Full-duplex mode is a
Walkie-Talkies.
telephone network.
F orms of Data Transmission
There are two forms of data transmission:
1.AnalogDataTransmission:AnalogDataTransmissionisthetransmissionofdatain
acontinuouswaveform.Thetelephonesystemisanexampleofasystemdesigned
for analog data transmission.
2. DigitalDataTransmission:DigitalDataTransmissionisthetransmissionofdata
using distinct on and off electrical states. Recall that data in digital form are
represented as either 1(on)or0(off).Becausedatacommunicationisfasterand
more efficient than analog, it would seem that all data communication between
computers would be in digital form.
Transmission Channels(Media)
oranynetworkingtobeeffective,rawstreamofdataistobetransportedfromonedevice
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tootheroversomemedium.Varioustransmissionmediacanbeusedfortransferofdata.
These transmission media may be of two types −
1.G uided− In guided media, transmitted data travelsthrough a cabling system thathas
a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fiber optic wires, etc.
2.Unguided− In unguided media, transmitted datatravels through free space in the
form of electromagnetic signals. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.
ach transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms ofbandwidth,
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speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc.
wisted Pair Cable: Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting
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signals because of good performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in
telephonelines.However,iftwoormorewiresarelyingtogether,theycaninterferewith
eachother’ssignals.Toreducethiselectromagneticinterference,pairsofcopperwiresare
twistedtogetherinhelicalshapelikeaDNAmolecule.Suchtwistedcopperwiresarecalled
twisted pairs. To reduce interference between nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are
different for each pair.
p to 25 twisted pairs are put together in a protective covering to form twisted pair cables
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that are the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet networks.
Advantages of twisted pair cable:Twisted pair cablesare the oldest and most popular
cables all over the world. This is due to the many advantages that they offer −
. Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve2.
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Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
3. Least expensive for short distances
4. Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged
isadvantages of twisted pair cable:With its manyadvantages, twisted pair cablesoffer
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some disadvantages too −
. Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters
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2. High error rate for distances greater than 100m
3. Very thin and hence breaks easily
4. Not suitable for broadband connections
oaxial Cable: Coaxial cables are copper cables withbettershieldingthantwistedpair
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cables,sothattransmittedsignalsmaytravellongerdistancesathigherspeeds.Acoaxial
cable consists of these layers, starting from the innermost −
Stiff copper wire as core
I nsulating material surrounding the core
Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator
Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.
dvantages of Coaxial Cables
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These are the advantages of coaxial cables −
xcellent noise immunity
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Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Kmcable
Can be used for both analog and digital signals
Inexpensive as compared to fiber optic cables
Easy to install and maintain
isadvantages of Coaxial Cables
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These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −
xpensive as compared to twisted pair cables
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Not compatible with twisted pair cables
ptical Fiber: Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmitdatausinglightwavesare
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calledopticalfiber.LightEmittingDiodes(LEDs)orLaserDiodes(LDs)emitlightwaves
atthesource,whichisreadbyadetectorattheotherend.Opticalfibercablehasabundleof
suchthreadsorfibersbundledtogetherinaprotectivecovering.Eachfiberismadeupof
these three layers, starting with the innermost layer −
ore made of high quality silica glass or plastic
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Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index
than the core
Protective outer covering called buffer
Opticalfiberisrapidlyreplacingcopperwiresintelephonelines,internetcommunication
a nd even cable TV connections because transmitted data can travel very long distances
without weakening. Single node fiber optic cable can have a maximum segment length of
2 kms and bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multi-node fiber optic cable can have amaximum
segment length of 100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.
Advantages of Optical Fibre
Optical fiber is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that it offers −
igh bandwidth
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Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre
espite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fiber may not be a viable
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option for every one due to these disadvantages −
ptical fiber cables are expensive
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Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining
optical fiber cables
Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex
transmission
I nfrared: Low frequencyinfraredwavesareusedforveryshortdistancecommunication
likeTVremote,wirelessspeakers,automaticdoors,handhelddevicesetc.Infraredsignals
canpropagatewithinaroombutcannotpenetratewalls.However,duetosuchshortrange,it
is considered to be one of the most secure transmission modes.
Radio Wave
ransmissionofdatausingradiofrequenciesiscalledradio-wavetransmission.Weallare
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familiarwithradiochannelsthatbroadcastentertainmentprograms.Radiostationstransmit
r adio waves using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed inour devices.
Bothtransmittersandreceiversuseantennastoradiateorcaptureradiosignals.Theseradio
frequencies can also be used for directvoicecommunicationwithintheallocatedrange.
This range is usually 10 miles.
dvantages of Radio Wave
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These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −
I nexpensive mode of information exchange
No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap
Disadvantages of Radio Wave
These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −
I nsecure communication medium
Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.
icrowaves
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It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to beproperly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
roportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are
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majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.
Microwave Transmission
Introduction to Internet
he Internet is a group of computer systems connected from all around the world. The
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InternetprotocolsuiteisaframeworkdefinedthroughtheInternetstandards.Methodsare
dividedrightintoalayeredsetofprotocolsonthisarchitecture.TheInternetgivesahuge
variety of statistics and communique offerings, whichincludesforums,databases,email,
andhypertext.Itismadeintheneighborhoodofglobalpersonal,publicnetworksconnected
through plenty of digital, wireless, and networking technologies.
he Internet is a worldwide interconnected network of hundreds of thousands of
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computers of various types that belong to multiple networks.
orkingofthei nternet:Theinternetisaglobalcomputernetworkthatconnectsvarious
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devices and sends a lot of information and media. It uses an Internet Protocol (IP) and
TransportControlProtocol(TCP)-basedpacketroutingnetwork.TCPandIPworktogether
toensurethatdatatransmissionacrosstheinternetisconsistentandreliable,regardlessof
the deviceorlocation.Dataisdeliveredacrosstheinternetintheformofmessagesand
packets.Amessageisapieceofdatadeliveredovertheinternet,butbeforeitissent,itis
broken down into smaller pieces known as packets.
I Pisasetofrulesthatcontrolhowdataistransmittedfromonecomputertoanotherviathe
internet.TheIPsystemreceivesfurtherinstructionsonhowthedatashouldbetransferred
using a numerical address (IP Address). The TCP is used with IP to ensure that data is
transferred in a secure and reliable manner. This ensures that no packets are lost, that
packetsarereassembledinthecorrectorder,andthatthereisnodelaythatdegradesdata
quality.
History of Internet
alking about the history of the internet, the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
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Agency Network, later renamed the internet) established a successful link between the
niversity of California Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on October 29,
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1969. Libraries automate and network catalogs outside of ARPANET in the late 1960s.
CP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) was established in the
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1970s,allowinginternettechnologytomature.Thedevelopmentoftheseprotocolsaidedin
thestandardizationofhowdatawassentandreceivedviatheinternet.NSFNET(National
ScienceFoundationNetwork),the56Kbpsbackboneoftheinternet,wasfinancedbythe
NationalScienceFoundationin1986.Becausegovernmentswerebeingusedtoadminister
and maintain it, there were commercial restrictions in place at thetime.
I n the year 1991, a user-friendly internet interface was developed. Delphi was the first
nationalcommercialonlineservicetoofferinternetconnectivityinJuly1992.LaterinMay
1995, All restrictions on commercial usage of the internet were lifted. As a result,the
internethasbeenabletodiversifyandgrowswiftly.Wi-Fiwasfirstintroducedin1997.The
yearis1998,andWindows98isreleased.Smartphoneusewaswidespreadin2007.The4G
networkwaslaunchedin2009.Theinternetisusedby3billionpeoplenowadays.By2030,
there are expected to be 7.5 billion internet users and 500billiondeviceslinkedtothe
internet.
Uses of the Internet
● E -mail: E-mail is an electronic message sent across a network from one
computer user to one or more recipients. It refers to the internet servicesin
which messages are sent from and received by servers.
● Web Chat: Web chat is an application that allows you to send and receive
messagesinreal-timewithothers.ByusingInternetchatsoftware,theusercan
log on to specific websites and talk with avarietyofotherusersonline.Chat
software is interactive software that allows users to enter comments in one
windowandreceiveresponsesfromotherswhoareusingthesamesoftwarein
another window.
● World Wide Web: The World Wide Web is the Internet’s most popular
informationexchangeservice.Itprovidesuserswithaccesstoalargenumberof
documents that are linked together using hypertext or hyperlinks.
● E-commerce:E-commercereferstoelectronicbusinesstransactionsmadeover
theInternet.Itencompassesawiderangeofproductandservice-relatedonline
business activities.
● Internet telephony: The technique that converts analog speech impulses into
digitalsignalsandroutesthemthroughpacket-switchednetworksoftheinternet
is known as internet telephony.
●Video conferencing:The term “video conferencing”refers to the use of voice
and images to communicate amongst users.
Application of Internet
Web Client
heclient(oruser)sideoftheInternet.TheWebbrowserontheuser’scomputerormobile
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deviceisreferredtoasaWebclient.Itcouldalsoapplytobrowserextensionsandhelper
software that improve the browser’s ability to support specific site services.
Web browser
web browser is a software program that searches for, retrieves, and presentsmaterial
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whichincludesWebpages,photos,videos,anddifferentfiles.Thebrowsersendsarequest
to the Web Server, which then transmits the statistics returned to the browser, which
presents the findings at the laptop. Example –MozillaFirefox,MicrosoftEdge,Google
Chrome, Safari etc.
Webpage
ninternetwebpage(additionallycalledawebpage)isareportthatmayberegardedinan
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internet browser attheWorldWideWeb.HTML(HyperTextMarkupLanguage)andCSS
(CascadingStyleSheet)areusedtogeneratetheprimaryshapeofaninternetwebpage.An
internetwebpageisgenerallyasegmentofaninternetsitethatcarriesstatisticsinplentyof
formats,whichincludestextualcontentinsidetheshapeofparagraphs,lists,tables,andso
on.
Website
n internet site, trendy, is a group of statistics prepared into many internet pages. An
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internetsiteisprobablymadeforasuremotive,subjectmatter,ortoprovideaservice.An
internet site (abbreviated as “website” or “site”) is a group of online pages connected
collectivelythroughlinksandsavedonaninternetserver.Byclickingonlinks,atouristcan
passfromonewebpagetothenext.Aninternetsite’spagesalsoareconnectedbelowone
area call and proportion a not unusual place subject matter and template.
Search Engine
earchenginesarewebsitesthatsearchontheinternetonbehalfofusersandshowalisting
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of results. More than actually written may be discovered on seek engines. You can be
capableoflookingfordifferentonlinecontentmaterialwhichincludesphotographs,video
contentmaterial,books,andnews,inadditiontogadgetsandofferings,relyingontheseek
engine you are using. Example: Google, Bing, DuckDuckGo, yahoo, etc.
Web 1.0: The Beginning of the Internet
eb1.0,whichemergedwiththeinventionoftheInternet,featuredstaticwebpagesthat
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couldonlybeviewed.Theseearlywebsiteswereessentiallydigitalbrochures,withlimited
interactivity and no ability for users to contribute content. This era saw the rise of
e arly browsers such as Mosaic and Netscape Navigator, which made it easier for users to
access the Web.
Web 2.0: The Era of Social Media and User-Generated Content
eb2.0,whichemergedduringthe“InternetBoom”eraofthelate1990sandearly2000s,
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introducedmoredynamicwebpagesandwebsites,andallowedforuser-generatedcontent.
ThiserasawtheriseofsocialmediaplatformssuchasFacebook,Twitter,andYouTube,as
well as the introduction of blogs, wikis, and other forms of user-generatedcontent.
Web 3.0: The Future of the Internet
eb3.0,whichisstillindevelopment,promisestobringamorepersonalizedandintuitive
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experienceforusers.Itisexpectedtobemoreintelligentandabletounderstandthecontext
andintentoftheuser’sactions.ThiswillbeachievedthroughtheintegrationofArtificial
Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies.
anyexpertsinthetechindustryclaimedthatWeb3.0isthenextevolutionoftheinternet
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that is focused on decentralization, intelligence, and security. It aims to create a more
personalized,intuitive,andinclusiveexperienceforusersbyleveragingnewtechnologies
suchasblockchainandartificialintelligence.ThegoalofWeb3.0istomaketheinternet
more democratic, open-source, and secure.
Advantages of the Internet:
●It is the best source of a wide range of information.There is no better place to
conduct research than the internet.
●Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies,dramas, and TV series are
quickly becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
●Becausetherearehundredsofthousandsofnewsgroupsandservicesthatkeepyou
updatedwitheverytickoftheclock,theInternetisasourceofthemostrecent
news.
● Becauseofvirtualshopswhereyoumaybuyanythingyouwantandneedwithout
leavingyourhouse,internetshoppingisbecomingincreasinglypopular.Recently,
virtual shops have been making a lot of money.
●With the emergence of online businesses, virtualstores, and credit card usage,
purchasing goods without going to the store has never been easier.
Disadvantages of the Internet:
●Spending too much time on the internet is hazardousfor the young generation’s
physical and mental health.
●Children who use the internet develop an addiction,which is quite dangerous.●It
is now quite easy to decipher someone’s chat or email messages thanks to the
hacking community.
●With the emergence of online stores, people preferto order online rather than
going to local stores which results in less social interactions among people.
Hardware and Software requirements for internet
Hardware Requirements of the Internet
Any one of the following must be present in order to connect to the Internet.
The Internet is connected over a telephone connection using aModem.
hemostcrucialpieceofhardwareneededtoconnecttotheInternetistheNIC-Network
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Interface Card (wired/wireless) facility. For instance, the laptop might be tethered or
wirelessly connected to the internet.
Utilizing a cellular network, adongleis used toconnect to the Internet.AWi-Fi router
or hotspotis used when using a wireless network toaccess the Internet.Cellular
network-capable electronic device.
I nternet connectivity through wired and wireless (cellular) networks, cable TV, ISDN,DSL,
and dial-up connections.
Software Prerequisites
heoperatingsystemshouldsupporttheTCP/IP(TransferControlProtocol)andHTTP
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(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure) protocols, as well as SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and HTTP (HyperText TransferProtocol).
ccess to web apps like Outlook, Gmail, Whatsapp, Facebook, Twitter, and othersthrough
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browsers and other Internet clients.
Intranet
n intranet is a kind of private network. For example, an intranet is used by different
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organizationsandonlymembers/staffofthatorganizationhaveaccesstothis.Itisasystem
inwhichmultiplecomputersofanorganization(orthecomputersyouwanttoconnect)are
connectedthroughanintranet.Asthisisaprivatenetwork,sonoonefromtheoutsideworld
canaccessthisnetwork.Somanyorganizationsandcompanieshavetheirintranetnetwork
andonlyitsmembersandstaffhaveaccesstothisnetwork.Thisisalsousedtoprotectyour
dataandprovidedatasecuritytoaparticularorganization,asitisaprivatenetworkanddoes
not leak data to the outside world.
orking of Intranet
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An intranet is a network confined to a company, school, or organization that works likethe
Internet.
ere in this diagram, a company or an organization has created its private network or
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intranetforitswork(intranetnetworkisunderthecircle).Thecompanyororganizationhas
manyemployees(inthisdiagram,wehaveconsidered3).So,fortheiraccess,theyhavePC
1,PC2,andPC3(Intherealworldtherearemanyemployeesaspertherequirementsofan
organization). Also, they have their server for files or data to store, and to protect this
privatenetwork,thereisaFirewall.Thisfirewallprotectsandgivessecuritytotheintranet
serveranditsdatafromgettingleakedtoanyunwanteduser.So,auserwhohasaccesstothe
intranet canonlyaccessthisnetwork.So,noonefromtheoutsideworldcanaccessthis
network.Also,anintranetusercanaccesstheinternetbutapersonusingtheinternetcannot
access the intranet network.
Application of Intranet
Document management:The ability to store, organize,and share documents.●
●
Collaboration tools:The ability to collaborate onprojects and tasks.●News and
announcements:The ability to share news and announcementswith employees.
●Employee directory:The ability to find contactinformation for employees.●
Training and development:The ability to provide trainingand development
resources to employees.
●HR resources:The ability to access HR-related information,such as benefitsand
policies.
●Support services:The ability to submit supporttickets and get help from IT.
Advantages of Intranet
In the intranet, the cost of conveying data utilizing the intranet is very low.●
●
Using intranet employees can easily get data anytime and anywhere.
●It is easy to learn and use.
●It can be utilized as a correspondence center pointwhere employees can storedata
at whatever point they need and download files in just a few seconds.●It connects
employees with each other.
●The documents stored on the intranet are much moresecure.
Disadvantages of Intranet
●The expense of actualizing intranets is normallyhigh.
●The staff of the company or organization requirespecial training to know howto
use the system.
●Data overloading.
●Although the intranet provides good security, itstill lacks in some places.
ses of Intranet
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An intranet software is mainly used by organizations as a tool :
Intranet share organizational updates.
●
●Intranets become the center repository of importantinformation. news and
company data are stored. We can store files using intranet.
● Easy to communicate with employees. They create employee directories and
organization charts readily available, improving internal corporate
communications. Intranet connect employees of the organization
●Easy to access information. Using intranet collaboratewith teams acrossborders
●Productivity increases using Intranet.
●Give employees a voice in the organization
Network Topologies
opology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
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interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.
Types of Network Topology
hysicaltopologyisthegeometricrepresentationofallthenodesinanetwork.Thereare
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sixtypesofnetworktopologywhichareBusTopology,RingTopology,TreeTopology,Star
Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.
1) Bus Topology
○The bus topology is designed in such a way thatall the stations are connectedthrough
a single cable known as a backbone cable.
○Each node is either connected to the backbone cableby drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
○ Whenanodewantstosendamessageoverthenetwork,itputsamessageoverthe
network.Allthestationsavailableinthenetworkwillreceivethemessagewhetherit
has been addressed or not.
○The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpleras compared to othertopologies.
○The backbone cable is considered as a"single lane"through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
○The most common access method of the bus topologiesisCSMA(Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
SMA:Itisamediaaccesscontrolusedtocontrolthedataflowsothatdataintegrityis
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maintained,i.e.,thepacketsdonotgetlost.Therearetwoalternativewaysofhandlingthe
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
○CSMACD:CSMACD(Collisiondetection)isanaccessmethodusedtodetectthe
collision.Oncethecollisionisdetected,thesenderwillstoptransmittingthedata.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
○CSMACA:CSMACA(CollisionAvoidance)isanaccessmethodusedtoavoidthe
collisionbycheckingwhetherthetransmissionmediaisbusyornot.Ifbusy,thenthe
sender waits until the media becomesidle.Thistechniqueeffectivelyreducesthe
possibility of collision. It does not work on "recovery after thecollision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
○Low-cost cable:In bus topology, nodes are directlyconnected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
○Moderate data speeds:Coaxial or twisted pair cablesare mainly used inbus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
○ Familiartechnology:Bustopologyisafamiliartechnologyastheinstallationand
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
○Limited failure:A failure in one node will nothave any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
○Extensive cabling:A bus topology is quite simple,but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
○ Difficulttroubleshooting:Itrequiresspecializedtestequipmenttodeterminethe
cablefaults.Ifanyfaultoccursinthecable,thenitwoulddisruptthecommunication
for all the nodes.
○Signal interference:If two nodes send the messagessimultaneously, then thesignals
of both the nodes collide with each other.
○Reconfiguration is difficult:Adding new devicesto the network would slowdown
the network.
○Attenuation:Attenuation is a loss of signal that leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
2) Ring Topology
○Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connectedends.
○The node that receives the message from the previouscomputer will retransmit tothe
next node.
○The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
○The data flows in a single loop continuously knownas an endless loop.
○It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connectedto another node and has no
termination point.
○The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwisedirection.
○The most common access method of the ring topologyistoken passing.
○Token passing:It is a network access method inwhich a token is passedfrom
one node to another node.
○Token:It is a frame that circulates around thenetwork.
Working of Token passing
○A token moves around the network, and it is passedfrom computer to computeruntil
it reaches the destination.
The sender modifies the token by putting the addressalong with the data.
○
○ The data is passed from onedevicetoanotherdeviceuntilthedestinationaddress
matches. Once the token is received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgement to the sender.
○In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
○Network Management:Faulty devices can be removedfrom the network without
bringing the network down.
○Product availability:Many hardware and softwaretools for network operationand
monitoring are available.
○Cost:Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easilyavailable. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
○Reliable:It is a more reliable network becausethe communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
○ Difficulttroubleshooting:Itrequiresspecializedtestequipmenttodeterminethe
cablefaults.Ifanyfaultoccursinthecable,thenitwoulddisruptthecommunication
for all the nodes.
○Failure:The breakdown in one station leads to thefailure of the overall network.
○Reconfiguration is difficult:Adding new devicesto the network would slowdown
the network.
○Delay:Communication delay is directly proportionalto the number of nodes.Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.
3) Star Topology
○Star topology is an arrangement of the network inwhich every node is connectedto
the central hub, switch or a central computer.
○The central computer is known as aserver, and the peripheral devices attached tothe
server are known asclients.
○Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devicesin aphysical startopology.
○Star topology is the most popular topology in networkimplementation.
Advantages of Star topology
○ Efficienttroubleshooting:Troubleshootingisquiteefficientinastartopologyas
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to thesingle
station to troubleshoot the problem.
○ Networkcontrol:Complexnetworkcontrolfeaturescanbeeasilyimplementedin
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
○Limited failure:As each station is connected tothe central hub with its owncable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
○Familiar technology:Star topology is a familiartechnology as its tools are
cost-effective.
○Easily expandable:It is easily expandable as newstations can be added to theopen
ports on the hub.
○Cost effective:Star topology networks are cost-effectiveas it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
○High data speeds:It supports a bandwidth of approx100Mbps.
Disadvantages of Star topology
○A Central point of failure:If the central hub orswitch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
○Cable:Sometimes cable routing becomes difficultwhen a significant amount of
routing is required.
4) Tree topology
○Tree topology combines the characteristics of bustopology and star topology.
○A tree topology is a type of structure in whichall the computers are connectedwith
each other in hierarchical fashion.
○The top-most node in tree topology is known as aroot node, and all other nodesare
the descendants of the root node.
○There is only one path between two nodes for thedata transmission. Thus, it formsa
parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
○ Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
○Easily expandable:We can add the new device tothe existing network.Therefore,
we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
○Easily manageable:In tree topology, the whole networkis divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
○Error detection:Error detection and error correctionare very easy in a tree
topology.
○Limited failure:The breakdown in one station doesnot affect the entire network.○
Point-to-point wiring:It has point-to-point wiringfor individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
○Difficult troubleshooting:If any fault occurs inthe node, then it becomesdifficult
to troubleshoot the problem.
○High cost:Devices required for broadband transmissionare very costly.
○Failure:A tree topology mainly relies on the main bus cable and failure in themain
bus cable will damage the overall network.
○Reconfiguration difficult:If new devices are added,then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
5) Mesh topology
○Mesh technology is an arrangement of the networkin which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
○There are multiple paths from one computer to anothercomputer.
○It does not contain the switch, hub or any centralcomputer which acts as a central
point of communication.
○The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
○Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
eliable:The mesh topology networks are very reliableas if any link breakdown will not
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affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication:Communication is very fast betweenthe nodes.
asier Reconfiguration:Adding new devices would notdisrupt the communication
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between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
○Cost:A mesh topology contains a large number ofconnected devices such as arouter
and more transmission media than other topologies.
○ Management:Meshtopologynetworksareverylargeandverydifficulttomaintain
andmanage.Ifthenetworkisnotmonitoredcarefully,thenthecommunicationlink
failure goes undetected.
○Efficiency:In this topology, redundant connectionsare high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.
6) Hybrid Topology
○The combination of various different topologiesis known asHybrid topology.
○A Hybrid topology is a connection between differentlinks and nodes to transferthe
data.
○WhentwoormoredifferenttopologiesarecombinedtogetheritistermedasHybrid
topologyandifsimilartopologiesareconnectedwitheachotherwillnotresultin
Hybridtopology.Forexample,ifthereexistsaringtopologyinonebranchofICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
dvantages of Hybrid Topology
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○Reliable:If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioningof
the rest of the network.
○Scalable:Size of the network can be easily expandedby adding new deviceswithout
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
○Flexible:This topology is very flexible as it canbe designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
○ Effective:Hybridtopologyisveryeffectiveasitcanbedesignedinsuchawaythat
the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network isminimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
○ Complex design:ThemajordrawbackoftheHybridtopologyisthedesignofthe
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybridnetwork.
○Costly Hub:The Hubs used in the Hybrid topologyare very expensive as thesehubs
are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
○Costly infrastructure:The infrastructure cost isvery high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
