International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE)

Vol. 14, No. 5, October 2025, pp. 4006~4018

ISSN: 2252-8822, DOI: 10.11591/ijere.v14i5.26708  4006

Let’s be a chef! The antecedents of chef’s key competencies for

vocational school students

Badraningsih Lastariwati1, Tuatul Mahfud2

1
Department of Culinary Art Vocational Education, Yogyakarta State University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2
Department of Tourism, Balikpapan State Polytechnic, Balikpapan, Indonesia

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Chefs are considered a factor in the success of a culinary tourism business.
Therefore, mastering the chef’s key competencies (CKC) through vocational
Received Jan 29, 2023 high schools is very important. Many studies have examined the competence
Revised May 22, 2025 of chefs. Still, the mechanism for getting key competency chefs involving
Accepted Jun 12, 2025 industry commitment (IC), social support (SS), vocational teaching quality
(TQ), and occupational self-efficacy (OSE) of culinary student chefs has not
been discussed clearly. This study investigates the antecedents of the
Keywords: mastery of key chef competencies for vocational school students. This study
involved 392 culinary students at seven vocational schools in Yogyakarta,
Chefs Indonesia. Data was collected by proportional random sampling through a
Industry commitment questionnaire. Amos 18 software is used for structural equation modeling
Key competencies (SEM) analysis. The study’s results revealed that the mastery of the chef’s
Occupational self-efficacy critical competencies for students was directly and significantly influenced
Teaching quality by IC, quality of vocational teaching, and OSE of chefs. In addition, chef
OSE is a mediator on the influence of IC, SS, and quality of vocational
teaching on mastering the chef’s critical competencies for culinary students.
This study’s findings discuss in depth some of the implications for
vocational education practitioners that are proposed for further
improvement.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Badraningsih Lastariwati
Department of Culinary Art Vocational Education, Yogyakarta State University
Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
The growth of the food service industry continues to parallel the evolution of human needs. The
provision of food services for the hospitality business is one of them. For instance, the number of international
tourists visiting Indonesia climbed by 1.88%. In comparison, the average number of rooms utilized each night
in all-star hotels in Indonesia in 2019 was 54.99% of the total number of rooms available [1], likewise
affecting the delivery of food services. In addition, studies indicate that tourists allocate a substantial part of
their travel budget—approximately one-third—on food-related experiences, underscoring the importance of
culinary offerings in enhancing travel satisfaction and overall experience [2]. The 20%-30% of travel
expenditures are spent on dining [3]. This situation encourages food suppliers, including hotels, restaurants,
caterers, and other quality food producers, to compete to suit the gastronomic experience needs of tourists [4].
The quality of culinary products is crucial in determining visitor happiness [5]. According to
scholars, the quality of the provided culinary products substantially impacts the satisfaction a tourist derives
from a culinary tourism experience [6]. The quality of the cook or chef in the preparation of culinary
products is crucial for the creation of high-grade culinary products. Therefore, preparing skilled chefs is

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crucial to the growth of the culinary business, mainly through vocational education [7]. In Indonesia, the
program for preparing chefs can be taught in vocational high schools. Vocational education is a style of
education that focuses on educating skilled graduates for specific fields of employment [8]. However,
vocational graduates have the highest unemployment rate depending on education.
In 2019, the unemployment rate increased by around 50,000 persons compared to the previous year,
while the open unemployment rate decreased by 0.06 percentage points. According to the level of education,
vocational high schools contribute the most to the open unemployment rate at 10.42%, the most significant
percentage among all other levels of education [9]. The unemployment data for vocational high school
graduates demonstrate that the actual condition of qualifications for vocational high school graduates has not
met the needs of the world of work and has not been able to fulfill the purpose of vocational education, which
is to assist individuals in identifying their suitability, readiness, and work capacity [8], [10]. In addition, job
characteristics of the 21st century, such as increased automation and technology, have contributed to
graduates’ lack of readiness for the workforce.
There are several causes of the high unemployment rate among those with a high school diploma in
a technical or trade area. One of the issues that vocational high schools face is that the vocational education
system they were built on is no longer adequate to meet the needs of today’s pupils [11]. Among these
nonsensical requests is the training of workers for occupations that will be obsolete soon [12]. Furthermore,
most schools are only able to develop human resources that can work in technical sorts of labor (regular and
manual labor), and this has not yet led to preparing a workforce that works in top-level positions like
management and the arts [13], [14]. Similarly, Mahfud et al. [15] found that many people who earn degrees
in vocational fields feel unprepared to enter the workforce.
Furthermore, past research has shown that the competency gap between vocational education
institutions and the needs of the world of work is the primary cause of the difficulties encountered by
vocational education. Zopiatis [16] states that students often have difficulty applying what they have learned
in the classroom to “real-world” scenarios. Meanwhile, Jauhari [17] states discrepancies between hotel sector
needs and recruitment efforts regarding requisite skills have been found. Raybould and Wilkins [18] found a
similar discrepancy between what the industry expects and what students think are the most critical abilities
for graduates. For example, a study by Ayonmike and Okeke [19] found that those with degrees in vocational
education were deficient in various essential competencies, the vast majority of which were broad abilities. In
particular, research shows that many graduates lack critical practical experience, which is critical to success
in a fast-paced environment, where creativity must align with market demand and profitability [20].
Entrepreneurs in the culinary industry have raised concerns that educational institutions often fail to equip
students with the complex competencies needed to excel, including leadership, business acumen and
effective managerial skills [21].
The study’s preliminary research found that a variety of concerns surfaced outside those related to
student competency, such as a perception that industry commitment (IC) was still subpar. The apprenticeship
scheme is the only program involving the business world that has been executed successfully. While other
initiatives, such as teaching factories and guest lecturers, may help students prepare for the working world,
this one does not. The qualifications of recent graduates of culinary arts programs are sometimes subpar for
other reasons as well. Student job choices are met with little social support (SS), vocational education falls
short, and culinary school students lack confidence in their ability to succeed in the kitchen.
Referring to the empirical findings of past studies, vocational high schools must alter their
educational system to be demand-driven. The demand-driven paradigm is the development of vocational high
schools based on the needs of the business and industry sectors as vocational high school graduate
consumers. Relevance or “link and match” efforts between the worlds of education and work can be made to
prepare students, workers, and citizens for success in global skills competitions [22]–[24]. Relevance is a
significant issue in the development of vocational education to prepare students, workers, and citizens for
success in global skills competitions. Consequently, vocational high schools play a crucial role in training
human resources with competitive and comparative advantages to compete and adapt to future demands.
The need for interdisciplinary skills in tourism is growing [25]. The term “interdisciplinary
competence in the field of tourism” refers to the acquisition of skills and knowledge in the tourist industry
that may be applied to completing tasks and duties in other related fields, such as the travel and hospitality
industries. People require these essential skills for their professional and personal growth to adapt to an
ever-evolving work environment. Mastery of core competencies provides a foundation for skill development
in subsequent learning cycles [26], particularly in the context of professional skill acquisition. According to
Tuparova et al. [27] and the European Commission [28], fundamental skills are essential for people to
achieve happiness, grow as citizens, participate fully in society, find gainful employment, and advance in
their professional lives. Critical competency development is also crucial for promoting sustainable growth
and increasing opportunities for lifelong education [26].

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Theoretically, essential competencies encompass not only a collection of knowledge but also a
collection of skills, attitudes, and values [26]. According to Tuparova et al. [27], core competencies combine
context-appropriate knowledge, abilities, and attitudes. The Minister of Manpower and Transmigration of the
Republic of Indonesia stated that core competencies are the broad abilities required to meet performance
criteria at the level of work required for the tasks and responsibilities of a specific job [29]. Thus, the chef’s
key competencies (CKC) are a collection of natural talents that serve as performance standards for fulfilling
the chef’s duty and responsibility.
Experts have different ideas about what makes up a chef’s critical competencies. Study by Hu [30],
for example, stated that an innovative chef needs to be good at product, culture, management, service,
aesthetics, creativity, and technology. Other things you need to be a chef are attention to detail, business
knowledge, cleanliness, creativity, cooking skills, the ability to make quick decisions, motivation, the ability
to do more than one thing at once, organizational skills, and teamwork [31]. Allen and Iomaire [32]
mentioned that a head chef needs to meet standards of professionalism, personality, leadership, management,
and interaction with the work environment. The need for chefs to have key skills is critical in a world of work
that is constantly changing. Even though many studies in the past showed how vital key competencies are for
a chef’s career, these studies were only able to identify them; they did not show how each chef could develop
their key competencies.
Bandura [33] study of the social learning theory showed that student learning success, as measured
by changes in behavior, is mainly affected by environmental factors and individual traits (personal). So, it is
clear that developing key chef skills to achieve learning outcomes in schools needs to make sure that the
education system works well at the same time between important factors like personal and environmental
factors. Referring to this theory, the three dimensions of social learning theory are turned into five essential
factors for developing key chef skills in vocational students: i) partner; ii) place; iii) process; iv) personal;
and v) product, or the 5P vocational learning factor. In social learning theory, the first three factors show the
environmental dimension. The personal factor shows the personal dimension, and the product factor shows
the behavioral dimension.
First, the partner factor is the role of business or the community in activities for vocational learning,
such as business commitment. Second is the place factor or social environment, which includes all the
physical and social things that affect a person’s development in the place where they learn [34]. For example,
SS, learning culture, and learning climate are all things that make a place an excellent place to learn. Third,
the process factor refers to the steps people take to make a set of changes in behavior that will happen as a
result of learning. The quality of the teacher’s teaching to help students master the learning outcomes is part
of the process factor. Fourth, students’ personalities play a role in learning to master a set of expected
competencies. This factor has information about traits, personality, psychology, and intelligence. Lastly, the
product factor in learning is seen as the result of learning activities, which are seen as changes in how
students act. In this case, it can be shown by the skills or abilities gained through learning. It is thought that
the importance of establishing essential competencies in vocational education institutions may produce
human resources who are proficient in their disciplines and highly competitive in the global labor market. In
numerous research, specialists have demonstrated the significance of fundamental skills for cooks [30]–[32],
[35]–[39]. Future research must elucidate processes for generating or developing a CKC in individuals,
particularly vocational high school students, based on identifying the CKC from earlier studies. This follow-
up is essential for ensuring the availability of qualified chef candidates through vocational schools and the
education system.
In addition, other studies reveal that the achievement of student learning outcomes in the form of
achieving a set of competencies in vocational education is influenced by several significant factors, such as
the commitment of the industry in the form of involvement [40]–[42], SS [43], [44], quality of vocational
teaching [45], [46], and occupational self-efficacy (OSE) [47]–[49]. Developing chef’s essential competences
for vocational high school students is therefore regarded to necessitate a collaborative role involving IC, SS,
quality of vocational instruction, and OSE. As a result, there is a pressing need for research into the interplay
between industry dedication (partner), SS (place), instructional excellence (process), and individual
confidence in one’s ability to succeed in one’s chosen profession (personal) and their impact on the formation
of students’ key competencies (products) in the culinary school. This was done to get a bird’s-eye view of the
main factors in shaping future chefs’ fundamental skill sets. This study aimed to identify a framework for
preparing culinary school students for the challenges they will face in the workplace of the twenty-first
century by helping them acquire the necessary skills and knowledge. Culinary schools place a high value on
students learning about the chef’s key competence structure model so that they can send out competent
and competitive graduates into the workforce. Figure 1 depicts the theoretical framework for this
investigation.

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Figure 1 is a conceptual model developed based on previous literature studies. A chef’s competence
is influenced by IC, SS, teaching quality (TQ), and OSE of vocational students. In addition, OSE also acts as
a mediator on the effects of IC, SS, and TQ on chef competence. Furthermore, we believe several hypotheses
need to be tested in this study, namely:
- H1: IC has a direct positive influence on the formation of key competency chefs in culinary school
students.
- H2: SS has a direct positive influence on the formation of key competency chefs in culinary school
students.
- H3: TQ has a direct positive influence on the formation of key competency chefs in culinary school
students.
- H4: OSE has a direct positive influence on the formation of key competency chefs in culinary school
students.
- H5: OSE mediates the effect of industrial commitment on the formation of key competency chefs in
culinary school students.
- H6: OSE mediates the effects of SS on the formation of key competency chefs for culinary school
students.
- H7: OSE mediates the effect of TQ on the formation of key competency chefs in culinary school students.

Industry
commitment
Occupational
self-efficacy

Social
support

Key
competencies

Teaching
quality

Figure 1. A hypothetical model for chef’s key competency development

2. METHOD
This study uses a questionnaire as a data collection tool [50]. The data were collected using
self-administered questionnaires, in which respondents answered the questionnaire questions without
assistance from data collectors [51]. Questionnaires were delivered to respondents directly and taken back by
data collectors. Respondents involved in data collection were 392 culinary school students from seven
vocational high schools in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, as shown in Table 1. The criteria for students involved
were third-grade students of vocational high schools for the Culinary Department in Yogyakarta who had
participated in an internship program in the industry. Respondents filled in question items according to the
questionnaire instructions without assistance from researchers or data collectors. Data collection for each
variable is carried out using self-report. In other words, students rated their perceptions of IC, SS, quality of
vocational teaching, OSE, and CKC.
Data on the CKC was revealed with the chef’s key competency questionnaire, developed and
adapted from the results of previous studies [32], [35], [36], [52]. The developed instrument consists of eight
constructs: culinary skills, food hygiene and safety, creativity, aesthetics, interpersonal, business sense,
leadership, and managerial. The eight key competencies are used as indicators in this study. Furthermore,
each indicator is translated into smaller components. These components are the questions in the key
competency questionnaire.

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Table 1. Demographics of research respondents

Attribute Category N Percentage (%)
Gender Man 46 11.7
Woman 346 88.3
Age 17 years old 185 47.2
18 years old 197 50.3
19 years old 8 2
20 years old 2 0.5
Which school are you from? State Vocational High School A 50 12.8
State Vocational High School B 52 13.3
State Vocational High School C 35 8.9
State Vocational High School D 23 5.9
State Vocational High School E 39 9.9
State Vocational High School F 78 19.9
State Vocational High School G 115 29.3

Meanwhile, the industrial commitment questionnaire revealed students’ perceptions of industrial

commitment, developed and adapted from previous studies [53], [54]. Referring to the study, there are
essential indicators in revealing the industry’s commitment: compensation, career opportunities, performance
appraisal, involvement/participation, and empowerment. The description of each indicator into smaller
components is adapted to the context of the learning environment in vocational schools. These components
are the questions in the IC questionnaire.
Data on SS felt by students was revealed by the SS questionnaire, developed and adapted from
Ray and Miller [55] instrument to measure SS from teachers, friends, and family. Furthermore, each of these
indicators is described in the form of smaller support components, including teacher, friend and family
support. In addition, the vocational TQ questionnaire revealed students’ perceptions of TQ in vocational
education were developed and adapted from a study conducted by Faraday et al. [56] regarding effective
teaching and learning in vocational education. The study contains effective teaching and learning indicators
in vocational education, including teaching models, teaching skills, teaching relationships, teaching contexts,
and teaching reflection. Furthermore, each of these indicators is translated into smaller components.
The chef OSE questionnaire revealed the chef profession’s OSE for students, developed and adapted
from Zelenak’s instrument [57]. Chef OSE for vocational students is explained through several indicators
consisting of enactive experiences, modeling experiences, verbal or social persuasion, and emotional states.
Furthermore, each of these indicators is translated into smaller components. These components form the
questions in the cook OSE questionnaire. All questionnaires in this study used a Likert scale with five
alternative answers: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and disagree. The scoring weights used include
strongly agree=5, agree=4, neutral=3, disagree=2, disagree=1.
We utilize SPSS version 20 to assure the validity and dependability of each variable’s items. The
Amos 18 program enabled us to do a structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis, which we employed to
validate our hypotheses and models. First, the model’s appropriateness is determined by comparing it to a set
benchmark [58]. In addition, the derived p-value along the path of regression was examined to evaluate the
research hypothesis at a significance level of 0.05. If the p-value is larger than 0.05, the hypothesis is deemed
false; if it is less than 0.05, the hypothesis is deemed valid. To investigate the relevance of the involvement of
social self-efficacy mediators in this study model, the bootstrapping confidence interval (CI) estimation
method is utilized. This study uses 200 bootstrap samples and has a 90% confidence level.

3. RESULTS
3.1. Test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire
The validity test of the chef competency questionnaire, IC, SS, and quality of vocational teaching is
shown in Table 2. All items in this study’s questionnaire proved valid with the acquisition of Pearson
correlation scores ranging from 0.267 to 0.736 (Sig.=0.000~0.041). In addition, Cronbach’s alpha scores
ranged from 0.744 to 0.908, which meant that all of the questionnaires in this study were reliable for
measuring chef competence, IC, SS, and quality of vocational teaching.

3.2. Structural equation modeling analysis

SEM analysis was used to identify the antecedents of mastering key chef competencies for culinary
school students. Based on the theoretical study, several critical antecedent factors were obtained in mastering
the key chef competencies for students: IC, SS, quality of vocational teaching, and chef OSE. The first three
factors, IC, SS, and quality of vocational teaching, act as exogenous variables. Meanwhile, the chef’s OSE

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acts as an endogenous variable and, at the same time, as a mediator between the relationship of the three
exogenous variables to the CKC.
The results of the SEM analysis using SPSS AMOS 21 for Windows are shown in Figure 2. At a
glance, the results of this analysis have shown a good fit model with the acquisition of goodness of index
(GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) scores that meet
the criteria. However, the Chi-square value is still too high (greater than 2.df), and this model can still be
optimized by modifying it. Modifying the SEM model improves model fit better and increases the
significance level of the regression path in the SEM model. This study’s step of modifying the SEM model
uses the Amos output reference on modification indices. Modification indices in Amos provide several
suggestions to improve the model fit criteria.

Table 2. Questionnaire validity and reliability test results

Variable Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Cronbach’s alpha
Chef competence 0.267**~0.736** 0.000~0.041 0.908
IC 0.269**~0.702** 0.000~0.040 0.818
SS 0.405*~0.643** 0.000~0.001 0.744
Quality of vocational teaching 0.332**~0.679** 0.000~0.001 0.869
Chef OSE 0.387**~0.674** 0.000~0.001 0.894
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Figure 2. SEM analysis in the first model

After making several modifications to the SEM model by providing covariance paths for several
error variables, as shown in Figure 3, the results of the SEM analysis on the modified model show that the
acquisition of model fit criteria is better than the previous model. Although the Chi-square value is still above
2 df, several criteria have increased. The RMSEA value decreased by 0.007 in the modified model, which is
close to close fit (RMSEA≤0.05). In addition, an increase in the model fit criteria was also experienced in the
GFI and CFI criteria. The GFI value increased by 0.012, and the CFI value increased by 0.017.
The results of the SEM analysis on the modified model show good model fit results, as seen in
Table 3. The fit model test in Table 3 shows that the Cmin/df, GFI, adjusted goodness of index (AGFI),
RMSEA, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), CFI, and normed fit index (NFI) criteria provide a suitability index by
the recommended limits. However, the Chi-square criteria, probability level, and root mean square residual
(RMR) show that the criteria are not fit because they exceed the recommended limits. Overall, seven indices
show the results of the fit model, and three indices show the model is not fit. Thus, it can be concluded that
the entire SEM model regarding the structural model of chef mastery of key competencies for culinary school
students is acceptable and has been tested empirically.
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After obtaining good goodness of fit criteria in the full model and the assumptions of testing the
hypothesis have been fulfilled, the research hypothesis is tested. They are testing the research hypothesis to
determine the significance of the effect of exogenous variables on endogenous variables using the reference
value of regression weights (p-value) in each regression path. In the context of this study, seven hypotheses
will be tested by obtaining regression weights (p-values). The results of the regression test analysis on the
seven hypotheses of this study are shown in Table 4.

Figure 3. SEM analysis on the modified model

Table 3. SEM full model conformity index

Goodness of fit measure Index value Cut off-value Note
df 237
Chi-square of estimate model 666.245 <2 df Models do not fit
Probability level 0.000 >0.05 Models do not fit
Cmin/df 2.811 ≤5 Fit models
GFI 0.877 GFI≥0.9=good fit; 0.8≤GFI<0.9=marginal fit Marginal fit
AGFI 0.844 AGFI≥0.9=good fit; 0.8≤AGFI<0.9=marginal fit Marginal fit
RMSEA 0.068 ≤0.08 Fit models
RMR 0.168 <0.05 Models do not fit
TLI 0.941 TLI≥0.9=good fit; 0.8≤TLI<0.9=marginal fit Fit models
CFI 0.950 CFI≥0.9=good fit; 0.8≤CFI<0.9=marginal fit Fit models
NFI 0.924 NFI≥0.9=good fit; 0.8≤NFI<0.9=marginal fit Fit models

Table 4. Results of path analysis (standardized regression weights) of full model SEM
Regression path Estimate S. E C. R. P
IC → OSE 0.463 0.045 7.848 ***
SS → OSE 0.259 0.078 4.285 ***
TQ → OSE 0.274 0.116 5.114 ***
OSE → CKC 0.467 0.086 6.394 ***
TQ → CKC 0.171 0.119 3.671 ***
IC → CKC 0.262 0.054 4.360 ***
SS → CKC 0.097 0.079 1.879 0.060
***Very small p-value (smaller than 0.001).

The results indicate that IC has a significant direct positive effect on the mastery of CKC for culinary
students (estimate=0.262; p-value<0.05; the first hypothesis is accepted). In addition, SS is proven to have a
direct positive effect on the mastery of CKC for culinary students (estimate=0.097; p-value>0.05; the second

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hypothesis is rejected). Another finding, testing the third hypothesis, assumes that the quality of vocational
teaching significantly positively affects the mastery of CKC for culinary students. Based on the output of the
SEM analysis with Amos in Table 4, the estimated value of the standardized regression weights is 0.171, and
the p-value is very small (smaller than 0.001/***; the third hypothesis is accepted). We have also proven that
chef OSE significantly has a direct positive effect on the mastery of CKC for culinary students
(estimate=0.467; p-value<0.05; the fourth hypothesis is accepted).
Meanwhile, testing the significance of the role of the chef’s OSE mediator in this research model uses
the estimated bootstrapping CI analysis technique. This study used five hundred bootstrap samples with a
90% confidence level. This analysis technique tests the eighth, ninth, and tenth hypotheses. The results of the
mediation role significance test with the bootstrapping method are shown in Table 5.
In the mediation test, our study shows that chef OSE significantly mediates the effect of IC on the
mastery of CKC for culinary school students (estimate=0.216; p-value=0.002; CI=0.148~0.320; the fifth
hypothesis is accepted). The type of mediation in this relationship is partial mediation. Furthermore, chef
OSE was shown to significantly mediate the effect of SS on the mastery of CKC for culinary school students
(estimate=0.121; p-value=0.005; CI=0.056~0.214; sixth hypothesis accepted). The type of mediation in this
relationship is full mediation. And lastly, chef OSE also significantly mediates the influence of the quality of
vocational teaching on the mastery of CKC for culinary school students (estimate=0.128; p-value=0.003;
CI=0.072~0.211; the seventh hypothesis is accepted).

Table 5. Standardized effect and bootstrapping on full model SEM

Standardized direct effect Standardized indirect effect Standardized total effect
Regression path
Estimate P-value Estimate P-value Estimate P-value
IC → OSE 0.463 0.003 - - 0.463 0.003
SS → OSE 0.259 0.005 - - 0.259 0.005
TQ → OSE 0.274 0.002 - - 0.274 0.002
OSE → CKC 0.467 0.009 - - 0.467 0.009
TQ → CKC 0.171 0.001 0.128 0.003 0.299 0.003
IC → CKC 0.262 0.003 0.216 0.002 0.478 0.002
SS → CKC 0.097 0.139 0.121 0.005 0.218 0.004

4. DISCUSSION
The role of culinary vocational high schools in preparing prospective professional workers in the
culinary field has been in the spotlight. Culinary school is considered an essential program for preparing
professional chefs through the education system. In addition, mastery of key chef competencies for
vocational high school students is essential to becoming a professional chef. In this context, the CKC must be
internalized through the education curriculum in vocational high schools. The achievement of student
learning outcomes in the form of behavior change depends on two dimensions: the environmental dimension
and individual characteristics [33]. Therefore, mastery of the CKC for culinary school students needs to
ensure that the education system runs well simultaneously between important antecedent factors, which
include personal and environmental dimensions.
The results of this study reveal that IC significantly has a direct positive effect on the mastery of
CKC for culinary school students. These findings indicate that industry contributions in providing career
opportunities, performance appraisal, participation, and student empowerment can improve culinary school
students’ mastery of key chef competencies. The industry’s role in vocational learning is defined as the
extent to which the industry’s commitment is directly involved in preparing and developing human resources
to enter the world of work. One form of IC in vocational high school learning is being involved in an
apprenticeship program. The industry plays a vital role in developing students’ competence in practicing
fieldwork [41]. Previous study also revealed that IC to being involved in the learning process could provide
real experiences, build career networks, and develop student skills not [40]. Industry involvement in
vocational education is necessary to ensure the sustainability of vocational high schools. In addition, building
partnerships with industry is one of the characteristics of the concept of work-based learning (WBL) [59].
Another finding is that SS does not significantly positively affect the mastery of the CKC for
culinary school students. These results show different findings from previous studies. Theoretically, SS is
believed to influence mastery of key chef competencies for vocational high school students. SS from
teachers, peers, and parents can encourage positive academic outcomes and prevent negative psychological
emergence during adolescence [60], [61]. Other studies also state that SS can affect their physical, mental,
and social behavior [62]. This SS is a social resource that students feel for mastering their key chef
competencies. Student SS sources include teachers, friends, and family. In addition, this SS includes tangible
support, appraisal support, and belonging support. Several possibilities cause this to happen; namely, one of

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the achievements of student’s perceptions of their SS varies, and the teacher’s source of support for student’s
mastery of key chef competencies is the highest. They are next, followed by the support of family and
friends. This means that SS from teachers, friends, and family has not been able to significantly impact the
mastery of key competency chefs for vocational high school students.
The study results show that the quality of vocational teaching significantly has a direct positive
effect on the mastery of CKC for culinary school students. This finding reinforces the results of previous
studies, which state that adequate TQ in vocational education is beneficial in achieving the expected learning
outcomes [56], [63]. In this study, the quality of vocational teaching includes the extent to which teaching
models, teaching skills, teaching relationships, teaching contexts, and teaching reflections are carried out by
teachers in the teaching and learning process in class. Suppose you look at the loading factor gain for each
indicator on the variable quality of vocational teaching. In that case, it is obtained that the teaching
relationship indicator has the most significant contribution. The teacher’s awareness to build attention,
appreciation, interaction, and positive responses to students is essential. In principle, the main goal of
building a teaching relationship between teachers and students is to obtain information on students’ learning
needs. Thus, teaching strategies must be developed based on student’s learning needs.
We also found that chef OSE significantly positively affected the mastery of the CKC for culinary
school students. This finding reinforces the results of previous studies, which stated that OSE has a
significant role in performance [49]. In addition, OSE has been positively associated with professional
performance, skills development, job involvement, positive attitudes toward the organization, and job
satisfaction [64], [65]. In this study, OSE describes the extent to which students’ confidence in mastering the
chef’s occupation. Students reported their chef OSE by self-reporting about reactive mastery experiences,
modeling experiences, social persuasion, and emotional states related to chef occupations.
In addition, we prove that chef OSE significantly mediates the effect of IC on the mastery of CKC
for culinary school students. This mediation role is partial mediation. The influence of industrial commitment
to mastering the CKC by involving the chef’s OSE as a mediator gives a more significant influence than
without mediation. One form of IC to learning in vocational high schools is involvement in apprenticeship
programs or on-the-job training. The students’ work experience while apprenticing in the industry boosts
their confidence to become skilled in the occupational chef. The routine of students doing chef’s occupational
tasks during the apprenticeship has encouraged them to be more confident in being able to work as chefs.
And in the end, it will simultaneously influence the mastery of CKC for culinary school students.
Also, this study examines the mediating role of chef OSE on the effect of SS on the mastery of CKC
for culinary school students. Our findings show that chef OSE significantly mediates the effect of SS on the
mastery of CKC for culinary school students. Referring to previous findings in this study, SS from teachers,
friends, and family did not directly affect the mastery of the CKC. However, this SS can shape students’
confidence or self-efficacy toward work abilities in chef occupations. In the end, they can simultaneously
encourage the mastery of key chef competencies for culinary school students. SS from teachers, peers, and
parents can encourage the formation of positive psychology during adolescence [60], [61]. In addition,
students will develop self-confidence and competence when they feel accepted by their peers [66]. These
results also reinforce the findings of previous studies, which revealed that SS from teachers, friends, and
school institutions influences students’ ability expectations and simultaneously influences their behavior and
performance [67]. Thus, it can be concluded that chef OSE can strengthen the effect of SS on the mastery of
CKC for culinary school students.
Lastly, our study proves that chef OSE significantly mediates the effect of vocational TQ on the
mastery of CKC for culinary school students. These results corroborate previous studies which state that
teachers’ teaching skills indirectly influence student learning outcomes through their psychological control
[46]. Therefore, teachers must pay attention to the psychological aspects of students in the teaching process
in class to support the achievement of planned student learning outcomes, namely in the form of mastering
the CKC. Although the quality of vocational teaching influences the mastery of the CKC, the magnitude of
the effect is not greater when involving OSE as a mediator. In other words, OSE plays a vital role in
maximizing student learning outcomes by mastering the CKC. Good TQ will encourage the creation of
positive student learning experiences that impact the formation of OSE and simultaneously on the
development of key chef competencies for vocational high school students.
Thus, integrating student situational and personal aspects, including TQ factors, SS, IC, and chef
OSE, is essential to optimize the mastery of CKC for culinary school students. Schools must strengthen these
factors by involving various parties such as teachers, students, parents, and industry. Because, in principle,
stakeholder synergy is an essential aspect of the success of learning objectives in vocational high schools. In
particular, the role of vocational high schools in the culinary field is to realize skilled and superior human
resources in the chef profession.

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Int J Eval & Res Educ ISSN: 2252-8822  4015

5. CONCLUSION
An understanding of the mastery of the CKC and how the forming factors are significant for
vocational high school stakeholders, especially teachers and students. The results of this study answer the
problems of previous studies that have not examined how to form a CKC. Mastery of a CKC is directly and
significantly influenced by IC, quality of vocational teaching, and OSE of chefs. In addition, chef OSE is a
mediator on the influence of IC, SS, and the quality of vocational teaching on the mastery of key chef
competencies for culinary school students. The role of partial mediation is shown by the mediation of the
chef’s OSE on the influence of industrial commitment and the quality of vocational teaching on the mastery
of the CKC for culinary school students. Meanwhile, the role of full mediation was shown by the mediation
of chef OSE on the effect of SS on mastering key chef competencies for culinary school students.
The results of this study have implications for the importance of building integrated engagement
between teachers, industry, family, friends, and students in vocational learning to achieve learning outcomes
by mastering the CKC. The CKC in this study need to be internalized in curriculum development and
implementation of learning in culinary schools. The development of the vocational high school curriculum
does not only consider the needs of the industrial world as demand-driven but also needs to consider the
needs of students for self-capacity development. Therefore, OSE becomes an essential personal aspect of
supporting the mastery of CKC for culinary school students.
This research has several limitations. One of the limitations of this study is that this research uses
self-report techniques to collect data, so there is a potential for bias. This is because students self-assess their
mastery of key chef competencies, so this assessment has the potential to be biased and subjective. Therefore,
further research needs to involve other respondents to confirm student answers. Other respondents, such as
teachers, industry, or colleagues, can be involved to get more objective results. In addition, further research
needs to involve respondents from the chef workforce as individuals directly involved in the chef’s
occupational tasks. Their involvement as respondents will enhance the context of research on occupational
chefs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research would not have been possible without the support and collaboration of many
individuals and institutions. First and foremost, we would like to express my sincere gratitude to the
principals, teachers, and students of the Vocational High Schools (SMK Negeri) in Yogyakarta, particularly
those in the culinary arts program, for their willingness to participate in this study. Their insights, enthusiasm,
and cooperation greatly enriched the quality of the research. We would also like to extend my appreciation to
the Department of Education in Yogyakarta for facilitating access to the schools and supporting the data
collection process. Special thanks are due to the culinary students who generously shared their time,
expertise, and experiences during the interviews and discussions.

FUNDING INFORMATION
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-
for-profit sectors.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS STATEMENT

This journal uses the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) to recognize individual author
contributions, reduce authorship disputes, and facilitate collaboration.

Name of Author C M So Va Fo I R D O E Vi Su P Fu
Badraningsih ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Lastariwati
Tuatul Mahfud ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

C : Conceptualization I : Investigation Vi : Visualization

M : Methodology R : Resources Su : Supervision
So : Software D : Data Curation P : Project administration
Va : Validation O : Writing - Original Draft Fu : Funding acquisition
Fo : Formal analysis E : Writing - Review & Editing

Let’s be a chef! The antecedents of chef’s key competencies for vocational … (Badraningsih Lastariwati)
4016  ISSN: 2252-8822

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this research. All
data collection and analysis were conducted objectively.

DATA AVAILABILITY
Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author [BL],
on request.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Badraningsih Lastariwati is an associate professor on Family Resources and

Community Health, Yogyakarta State University. She has completed the vocational education
doctoral program at Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia. Currently a lecturer in vocational
education at Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia. She has a research interest in the topic of
vocational education and entrepreneurship. She has written several other articles published in
reputable international journals indexed by Scopus. She can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Tuatul Mahfud is an associate professor on vocational education and training of

Balikpapan State Polytechnic. He completed Ph.D. program in Technology and Vocational
Education at Yogyakarta State University. His research interest focuses on management in
vocational education and training, workplace learning, vocational behavior, and career
development. He has published the paper in Scopus indexed journal and Web of Science. He
is also the author of books on the strategy of writing and publication of the article in reputable
international journals. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Int J Eval & Res Educ, Vol. 14, No. 5, October 2025: 4006-4018