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 Cambridge Monographs on
Mechanics and Applied Mathematics

Theory of
Laminar Flames

J.D.BUCKMASTER &
G.S.S.LUDFORD

Cambridge University Press

CAMBRIDGE MONOGRAPHS ON
MECHANICS AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS
General Editors
G.K. BATCHELOR, F.R.S.
Professor of Fluid Dynamics at the University of Cambridge
J.W. MILES
Professor of Applied Mechanics and Geophysics, University of California, La Jolla

THEORY OF LAMINAR FLAMES

Theory of Laminar Flames

J.D. BUCKMASTER
Professor of Mathematics and
Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
University of Illinois

G.S.S. L UDFORD
Professor of Applied Mathematics, Cornell University

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge
London New York New Rochelle
Melbourne Sydney
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge C132 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521239295

© Cambridge University Press 1982

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1982

This digitally printed version 2008

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 81-215 73

ISBN 978-0-521-23929-5 hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-09192-3 paperback
Visit https://ebookgate.com to uncover helpful test banks
and detailed solutions.
 CONTENTS

Preface ix

1 Governing equations of combustion

1 Approach 1

2 Continuum theory of a mixture of reacting species 2

5
3 The Arrhenius factor
4 Differential mass diffusion; equality of cp, and of m; 7

5 The combustion and constant-density approximations 11

6 Constant properties : nondimensionalization 13

7 Equidiffusion: Shvab-Zeldovich variables 15

8 Activation-energy asymptotics 17

2 The premixed plane flame

1 Models of mixtures 20
2 Cold-boundary difficulty 21
3 Anchored flames 23
4 Asymptotic analysis 25
5 Flat burners 28
6 Near-surface, surface, and remote flames 31

7 Reactions of arbitrary order 33

8 The two-reactant model 34

3 Perturbations: SVFs and NEFs

1 Prologue 38
2 Modifications of the plane premixed flame for 2 1 39
3 Theory of perturbations 41
4 Steady heat loss: the excess-enthalpy flame 43
5 SVFs 47
6 Nonuniform ducts 50
7 An elementary flame holder 51
8 NEFs 53
vi Contents

4 Steady burning of a linear condensate

1 Responses 58
2 Experimental results; extinction 60
3 Solid pyrolysis under adiabatic conditions 61
4 Radiation from the surface 64
5 Background radiation 67
6 True nature of effective extinction 71
7 Liquid evaporation under adiabatic conditions 73
8 Radiative exchange at the surface; distributed heat exchange 76

5 Unsteady burning of a linear condensate

1 The problem 79
2 Solid pyrolysis 80
3 Liquid evaporation 86
4 Response to an impinging acoustic wave 87
5 Amplification 90
6 Stability of anchored flames 92

6 Spherical diffusion flames

1 Diffusion flames 95
2 Steady combustion for i(= 2 = 1; D-asymptotics 98
3 The nearly adiabatic flame for jr, Y# 1 and its stability 103
4 General ignition and extinction analyses for V"= 2' =1 108
5 Remarks on the middle branch of the S-response 112
6 Other responses 113
7 The burning fuel drop 115
8 Further results on stability 117

7 Cylindrical and spherical premixed flames

1 Cylindrical flames 120
2 Planar character 120
3 Near-surface, surface, and remote flames 123
4 Spherical flames; D-asymptotics 124
5 Ignition and extinction 127
6 Other aspects of responses 130

8 Multidimensional theory of premixed flames

1 The flame as a hydrodynamic discontinuity 136
2 Slow variation and near-equidiffusion 139
3 The basic equation for SVFs 142
4 Flame stretch 146
5 The basic equations for NEFs 149
6 Reduction to Stefan problems 151

9 Burners
1 Features of a tube flame 154
2 Hydrodynamic considerations 156
 Contents Vii

3 SVF tips 159

4 NEF tips 163

5 Quenching by a cold surface 168
6 Further hydrodynamic considerations 170

10 Effects of shear and strain

1 Nonuniformities 175

2 Response of NEFs to simple shear 176

3 Response of NEFs to simple strain 179
4 More general nonuniformity 185

5 Effect of slowly varying shear 187

6 Effect of slowly varying strain 189

11 Stability
I Scope 193
2 Slowly varying perturbations of the plane wave 196
3 Buoyancy and curvature 199
4 Stability of plane NEFs 202
5 Cellular flames 206
6 Hydrodynamic effects 209
7 Curved cellular flames 214
8 Delta-function models and the right stability boundary 218

12 Ignition and explosion

1 Synopsis 221
2 Spontaneous combustion (auto-ignition) 222
3 Adiabatic explosion 227
4 Explosion with heat loss 232
5 Ignition by heat flux 238
6 Auto-ignition and explosion of separated reactants 241

Text references 248

Further references 256

Citation Index 261

Subject Index 263

 PREFACE

Existing combustion books are primarily phenomenological in the sense

that explanation, where provided, is usually set in an intuitive framework;
when mathematical modeling is employed it is often obscured by ad hoc
irrational approximation, the emphasis being on the explanation of
existing experimental results. It is hardly necessary to add that the philos-
ophy underlying such texts is scientifically legitimate and that they will
undoubtedly stay in the mainstream of combustion science for many
years to come. Nevertheless, we are of the opinion that there is need for
texts that treat combustion as a mathematical science and the present
work is an attempt to meet that need in part.
In this monograph we describe, within a mathematical framework,
certain basic areas of combustion science, including many topics rightly
covered by introductory graduate courses in the subject. Our treatment
eschews sterile rigor inappropriate for a subject in which the emphasis
has been physical, but we are deeply concerned with maintaining clear
links between the mathematical modeling and the analytical results;
irrational approximation is carefully avoided. All but the most fastidious
of readers will be satisfied that the mathematical conclusions are correct,
except for slips of the pen.
Although the material covered inevitably reflects our special interests
and personal perspectives, the entire discussion is connected by a singular
perturbation procedure known as activation-energy asymptotics. The
description of reacting systems characterized by Arrhenius kinetics can
be simplified when the activation energy is large, corresponding to an
extreme sensitivity to temperature. The notion is an old one; certainly the
Russian combustion school was aware of it by the'40s. But its full power
is only achieved within the formal framework of modern singular per-
ix
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x Preface

turbation theory. Developments of this nature are quite recent. Although

the earliest example is possibly a 1962 study of P. A. Blythe on the flow
of a reacting gas through a Laval nozzle, it was not until the'70s, following
a seminal paper by W. B. Bush and F. E. Fendell (on the laminar flame
speed) and the call by F. A. Williams in the 1971 Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics, that extensive applications to combustion theory were
undertaken.
Development has been increasingly rapid. A few years ago this mono-
graph would not have been possible; but now there are more than enough
results in a wide range of topics to justify the connected account attempted
here. Our hope is that, by collecting many of the results together in a single
volume with unified and self-contained presentation, other applied
mathematicians will be encouraged to enter the field; for, although
activation-energy asymptotics is no panacea, many exciting discoveries
undoubtedly lie ahead.
Our discussion is concerned only with these modern developments;
we have made no attempt to trace the history of the subject before the
advent of activation-energy asymptotics. No disparagement is intended.
On the contrary, this new tool has been used on problems that were
largely identified, formulated, and discussed by the giants of the past;
those who developed the material used in this monograph stood firmly on
broad shoulders. Our failure to trace the earlier work stems from the
conviction'that it is better left to someone more scholarly than we are,
someone who has been immersed in the subject longer than we have.
(Similar remarks apply to our neglect of parallel problems in other areas,
such as chemical reactor theory.)
Our treatment of the physical aspects of the subject requires some
comment. The neophyte is well advised to read a traditional text in
conjunction with ours, since phenomenology plays only a minor role in
our presentation. The description of a physical phenomenon by clear-cut
mathematical analysis is applied mathematics at its best and this ultimate
justification of our efforts is not neglected in the discussion. But we
are never in danger of letting the existing physical world be both judge and
jury for the mathematical results. Where the results do not presently
appear to have convincing physical counterpart, we say so; but no topic
has been omitted for lack of such a counterpart. The value of rational
deductions from physically plausible models is not always immediately
apparent and applied mathematics is ultimately most fruitful when per-
mitted a great deal of independence.
Reaction-diffusion equations arise copiously elsewhere, but activation-
energy asymptotics has been largely restricted to combustion. In bio-
 Preface xi

chemical contexts, temperature effects (when present) are of a different

character. For chemical reactors, problems involving large activation
energy are far less common than for combustion. While significant
results for chemical reactors have been obtained by activation-energy
asymptotics, and more will be, it seems unlikely that the coverage will
ever be as extensive as for combustion.
This monograph is not a review of laminar flames for large activation
energy but an essay on the subject. The text only mentions works that
helped us in writing a connected account of the topics chosen. To recognize
other contributions and to give an idea of the wealth of results that has
been obtained, we have compiled a list of further references. Substantial
use of activation-energy asymptotics was a necessary qualification; in
particular, treatments of thermal ignition in the style of Frank-Kamenet-
skii were excluded. Such a list is bound to be incomplete, especially since
no serious attempt was made to search the literature. Any omissions are
due to carelessness or ignorance, but not to malice. Only published work
available to us by the end of 1981 is included; in particular, theses do not
appear.
The notation has been kept as simple as possible. Rather than conscript-
ing exotic symbols, we have made latin and greek letters do multiple duty;
the meaning of a symbol should be clear from context. We have also been
economical in the designation of and reference to chapters, sections,
figures, and displays (so as not to litter the page with numbers): a decimal
is used only for reference to another chapter. When part of a multiple
display is intended, the letters a, b.... are added to indicate the first,
second,... part. Finally, the notation used uniformly throughout the
text for coefficients in asymptotic expansions is explained on page 19.
The task of writing this book has been lightened and made more
pleasant by the enthusiastic encouragement we have received from so
many friends and colleagues. We particularly want to thank and identify
those who provided direct technical help, all of which was invaluable; they
are
T. S. Chang H. V. McConnaughey
P. Clavin D. M. Michelson
J. George D. Mikolaitis
R. D. Janssen I. Miiller
J. T. Jenkins A. Nachman
A. K. Kapila A. K. Sen
D. R. Kassoy G. I. Sivashinsky
C. K. Law D. S. Stewart
A. Linan F. A. Williams
xii Preface

For bringing the material into the form of a final typescript we are in-
debted to Julia Dethier; her editorial touch is evident everywhere.
The constant support of our research by the US Army Research Office
provided the climate in which such an endeavour could be undertaken.
We salute Dr. Jagdish Chandra of ARO-Mathematics, whose confidence
seldom seemed to waver over the years.
The monograph was started six years ago during a sabbatical at the
University of Queensland, arranged by A. F. Pillow. Solid progress was
made during a joint leave at the Mathematics Research Center-Wisconsin
in the Fall of 1977, arranged by B. Noble. The work was finished early
this year, but we have tried to up-date the material as the printing process
slowly ran its course.

J. D. Buckmaster G. S. S. Ludford
Vancouver B.C., Canada Cambridge, England

December, 1981
 1
GOVERNING EQUATIONS OF
COMBUSTION

1 Approach
The development of the equations governing combustion involves
derivation of the equations of motion of a chemically reacting gaseous
mixture and judicious simplification to render them tractable while retain-
ing their essential characteristics. A rigorous derivation requires a long
apprenticeship in either kinetic theory or continuum mechanics. (Indeed,
the general continuum theory of reacting mixtures is only now being per-
fected.) We choose instead a plausible, but potentially rigorous, derivation
based on the continuum theory of a mixture of fluids, guided by experience
with a single fluid. Ad hoc arguments, in particular the inconsistent
assumption that the mixture itself is a fluid for the purpose of introducing
certain constitutive relations, will not be used.
Treating the flow of a reacting mixture as an essentially isobaric process,
the so-called combustion approximation, is a safe simplification under a
wide range of circumstances if detonations are excluded. But the remaining
simplifications, designed as they are solely to make the equations tractable,
should be accepted tentatively. They are always revocable should faulty
predictions result; for that reason they are explained carefully. Neverthe-
less, whosoever is primarily interested in solving nontrivial combustion
problems, as we are, can have the same confidence in the final equations as
is normally placed in the equations of a non-Newtonian fluid, for example.
These final equations retain most of the complexity of a compressible,
heat-conducting, viscous fluid; but diffusion of the species, and source
terms representing the chemical reaction, have been added. This complex-
ity has usually been fought with irrational approximation and computers.
Combustion processes, however, tend by their very nature to have
large activation energies. It is, therefore, more appropriate to analyze the
1
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