BASICS OF WORDS AND WORD FORMATION (MORPHOLOGY) 1.

INTRODUCTION Linguistic Creativity

Our ability to produce, understand and make judgments about an infinite range of sentences including novel sentences. For the first time in California history a sitting governor has been recalled. A sentence that we never heard before October 7, 2003, but whose meaning is perfectly clear to us. How do we know what this sentences means if we've never encountered it before?

Principle of Compositionality
The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meanings of its words and their syntactic configuration (structure). (1) (2) Arnold beat Gray. Gray beat Arnold.

Internal structure of words

The decriminalization of marijuana decriminalization decriminalize criminalize criminal crime recriminalize recriminalization *recriminal, *recrime Knowledge about the internal structure of word is contained in the Lexicon= THE MENTAL DICTIONARY What we really know is not just words: Root words man, wife, dog, cat, true, false, walk, run woman, fiction, hippopotamus, procrastinate

37

38

Linguistics 1, Schuh Names Martin Luther Martin Luther King, Julius Caesar Csar Chavez, UCLA ACLU George Burns vs. Nathan Birnbaum, Leonard Slye vs. Roy Rogers Compounds boxboy box score box car box office box seat Idioms You two are dumber than a bag of hammers! Ill crack the whip. He missed the boat. Im sick and tired of it. I ran into her.

2. WHERE DO ALL THOSE WORDS COME FROM?

Morphology: The study of the internal structure of words, rules for combining parts of words to make complex words. Our knowledge of morphological rules allows us: to understand words we have never encountered before. to judge that words are impossible. to create new words (one of the means of language change).

Types of Morphemes
Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning, an arbitrary pairing of sound and meaning. Every word is composed of one or more morphemes.

Free and bound morphemes

free root (e.g. dog, happy, love) Morpheme root (e.g. nonchalant, squeamish, overwhelm) bound affix suffix (e.g. lovable, pinkish, slowly) prefix (e.g. unhappy, reconfirm) infix (e.g. Massa-friggin-chussets)

Morphology

39

Types of affixes
Prefixes: Suffixes: Infixes: non-conformist, unclear, anticatholic, rebook, co-sponsor, dis-en-tangle cats, falsehood, catholicism, pinkish, confirming, nation-al-ist-ic-al-ly
1 2 3 4 5

Tagolog: sulat bili

write buy

+ infix -um- sumulat to write + infix -um- bumili to buy

Does English have any infixes?

-Massa-friggin-chussets Infixes go inside the root The underlined elements in the following words are not infixes dis-em-power nation-al-ist-ic-al-ly But the one below would be an infix un-be-stinking-lieve-able Circumfixes: ahkmunahsyac (Kosraean)

Derivational and Inflectional processes

Derivational affixes (1) Form new words (the base meaning of the derived form differs from that of the stem from which it was derived). falsehood false pink pinkish true untrue confirm reconfirm nation national Inflectional affixes (1) Do not form new words (base meaning of the inflected form is the meaning of the stem). English has only 9 inflectional affixes: -s plural cat cats -s 3rd pres. sing. sit he sits -s possessive John Johns -ed past walk walked -en past participle break broken

40

Linguistics 1, Schuh -ing present part. walk walking -er comparative pink pinker -est superlative pink pinkest -m accusative who whom (2) Do not change part of speech and are usually required by rules of grammar. two cats not *two cat he sits not *he sit Johns cat not *John cat
we walked yesterday not *we walk yesterday

national nationalist nationalist nationalistic catholic anticatholic anticatholic anticatholicism (2) May change part of speech N V slave enslave V N dismiss dismissal N A friend friendly A N tall tallness A V black blacken V A read readable BUT N N friend friendship undo V V do A A pink pinkish What happens if an affix is used wrongly?

the vase has broken he is walking he is taller than me he is the tallest

not not not not

* has broke *he is walk *he is tall than me *he is the tall

Derivational *smarthood instead of smartness *chlorinify instead of chlorinate ill-formed WORDS Inflectional *he is walks instead of he is walking *I have two cat instead of I have two cats ill-formed (= ungrammatical) SENTENCES

A model for combining elements to create words

Morphological rules specify: the affix to be attached (e.g. -able) the category of the free morpheme it attaches to (e.g. verb) the category of the resulting morpheme (e.g. adjective) Word formation is a labeled hierarchical structure, for example Nstem Nroot/stem Nsuffix Vroot/stem Nsuffix Aroot/stem Nsuffix Nstem Nstem

Astem

Nstem

Aroot/stem Asuffix Vroot/stem Asuffix Nroot/stem Asuffix Astem Astem

Astem

Nroot Nsuffix Vroot Nsuffix Aroot Nsuffix | | | | | | friend ship dismiss al tall ness

Aroot Asuffix Nroot Asuffix Vroot Asuffix | | | | | | pink ish friend ly read able

Morphology

41
Nstem Nstem Nsuffix

Advstem Astem Astem Nstem Astem Nroot Asuffix | | nation al Nsuffix Asuffix Asuffix Advsuffix

Nprefix Nroot | | anti catholic

ism

ist

ic

al

ly

Structural Ambiguity

unlockable:

cannot be locked 1. lock 2. lock-able 3. un-lock-able can be unlocked 1. lock 2. un-lock 3. un-lock-able
SUMMARY OF OUR INSTINCTS ABOUT MORPHEME MEANING AND USE

We know that words are composed of smaller partsROOTS AND AFFIXES We know that some morphemes make new words and others are required by grammarDERIVATION AND INFLECTION We know which morphemes can and cannot be combined to form wordswhat kinds of concepts can we -ize? We know how to be creative with morphemes and morphologywhere did jogathons come from?

MOREOVER..

Interpreting derived words and creating new derived forms

Our tacit knowledge of the internal structure of words allows us to Interpret the meanings of words we have not heard before:
nominalize, solemnize, dieselize

42

Linguistics 1, Schuh

Create words not heard before but interpretable by and acceptable to hearers:
linguisticize, Macintoshize, Las Vegatize Schuhism, Macintoshism

Know combinations which would be impossible: *scatterize, *arrivize, ?*bitterize, ?*electricize *absentism (but absenteeism), *racialism (but racism), *arguism (WHAT WE KNOW: -ize is a Vsuffix which can be make verb stems only from adjectives or nouns which do not already have another verb stem form (hence *bitterize); -ism is a Nsuffix which can be added only to noun roots or stems to form nouns)

Morphological creativity
Because we know general principles of word formation, we can Extend morphological processes to new environments (in effect, create new rules)
Prefix unRegular uses common friendly natural New uses cola Mothers Day Wedding

uncommon unfriendly unnatural

uncola un-Mothers Day un-wedding

Create new affixes, which can be combined with other stems to form new words:
-athon

marathon
(originally the name of a place in Greece, then the name of a 26.2 mile race, then extended to mean an event of exhausting proportion, e.g. a marathon fund drive)

gives

telethon dancethon bowlathon jogathon etc.

Compounding and idioms: making words from words

Compounds
COMPOUND: a combination of two or more words to make a single word whose

meaning cannot necessarily be predicted from the meanings of the component words. Productivity of compounding: Compounding is the most productive word formation process in English. Essentially any two words can be combined to form a compound. Moreover, there is no limit in principle on how many words may enter into a compound, making it an infinitely productive process. Meaning of compounds: The meaning of a compound cannot be predicted from the meaning of the words from which it is formed. Compounds are thus listemes, i.e. they must be learned as if they were individual words. The combinations of words in compounds would often permit several interpretations, making jokes like the one below possible (powder made of babies instead of powder for babies).

Morphology

43

Writing compounds in English: Frequently used compounds are often written as one word, but English spelling is inconsistent, sometimes writing a compound as one word, sometimes linking the words with hyphens, sometimes separating the words:
leapfrog, wallpaper, blacklist drive-in, wall-to-wall, black-hearted leap year, wall plug, black belt (Karate expert)

Forming compounds: the structure of compounds can be described similarly to that for derived words, the difference being that the compound is formed by combining stems, whereas derivational morphology combines an affix and a stem. For example,

44

Linguistics 1, Schuh

Nstem

Nroot/stem Nroot/stem Aroot/stem Nroot/stem Vroot/stem Nroot/stem

Nstem

Nstem

Nstem

Nstem Nroot | joy

N stem Nstem

Nstem

Nroot

Nroot Nroot Aroot Nroot Vroot | | | | | honor student black board kill
Nstem Nstem Nstem | feminist Nroot a critic of feminist writers

Nroot Nroot | | pea nut butter a critic of writers who is a feminist

Nstem Nstem Nroot | | writer critic

Nstem | writer critic

feminist

Note that the head (the thing the compound is about) is always to the right.

Idioms
The meaning of an idiom cannot be predicted from the constituent parts (a feature shared with compounds)idioms are therefore listemes. Idioms are phrases, not words (a feature not shared by compounds); there is therefore nothing about the pronunciation of an idiom which signals that it differs from a normal phrase, and most idioms can undergo all the same syntactic processes that a phrase of the same structure would undergo.

He lets/let/is letting his mind wander. He thinks he's all that and a bag of chips. It's gonna rain/it's raining cats and dogs. to the world dead ones horses hold rain cats and dogs be a pain in the neck etc.

Some idioms:

Morphology

45

Summary
Morphemes: two types of functions Derivation: form new words Inflection: show grammatical functions Speakers knowledge of morpheme use Ways we can and cannot combine morphemes Creating new morphemes Complex words as labeled trees Compounds and idioms: listemes created from full words